1.
Calabasas, California
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As of the 2010 census, the citys population was 23,058, up from 20,033 at the 2000 census. The city was incorporated in 1991. It is noted for its residents and gated neighborhoods. The Leonis Adobe, a structure in Old Town Calabasas. It is generally accepted that the name of Calabasas is derived from the Spanish calabaza meaning pumpkin, squash, some historians hold the theory that Calabasas is derived from the Chumash word calahoosa which is said to mean where the wild geese fly. Owing to vast presence of wild plants in the area. The following spring, hundreds of pumpkin seeds sprouted alongside the road, the area was named Las Calabasas - the place where the pumpkins fell. The festival has evolved from a fair to a significant annual event. The citys official logo, depicting a red-tailed hawk flying over the Santa Monica Mountains, symbolizes a commitment to preserving the natural beauty. This logo is featured on the Calabasas city flag which is flown in front of City Hall, the city is located in the southwest corner of the San Fernando Valley and comprises a portion of the Santa Monica Mountains. It is 22 miles away from downtown Los Angeles and it is bordered by the Woodland Hills area of Los Angeles to the northeast, Topanga to the east, Malibu to the south, Agoura Hills to the west, and Hidden Hills to the north. The historic El Camino Real runs east–west through Calabasas as the Ventura Freeway 101, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 13.0 square miles. 12.9 square miles of it is land and 0.1 square miles of it is covered by water, in a part of the city near Calabasas High School and A. C. Stelle Middle School, all of the public streets are named patriotically. These include Declaration Ave. America Way, Liberty Bell Rd. Paul Revere Dr. Founders Dr. Bon Homme Rd. one of the oldest neighborhoods in Calabasas is Park Moderne, or the Bird Streets. From Parkway Calabasas, Hidden Hills West, Calabasas Hills, Calabasas Park Estates, from Las Virgenes, Mountain View Estates, Monte Nido, Deer Springs, Stone Creek, El Encanto, Mont Calabasas, Malibu Canyon Park, The Colony at Calabasas, and Avalon Calabasas. Mont Calabasas, a community on Las Virgenes Road, was annexed into the city of Calabasas in 2011, prior to annexation, the neighborhood was located in an unincorporated area of Los Angeles County. From Lost Hills Road, Calabasas View, Saratoga Hills, Saratoga Ranch, Deer Springs, the 2010 United States Census reported Calabasas to have a population of 23,058. The population density was 1,780.4 people per square mile
2.
Vine
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A vine in the narrowest sense is the grapevine, but more generally it can refer to any plant with a growth habit of trailing or scandent stems, lianas or runners. The word also can refer to such stems or runners themselves, in the United Kingdom, the term vine applies almost exclusively to the grapevine. The term climber is used for all climbing plants, certain plants always grow as vines, while a few grow as vines only part of the time. For instance, poison ivy and bittersweet can grow as low shrubs when support is not available, a vine displays a growth form based on long stems. This has been a successful growth form for plants such as kudzu and Japanese honeysuckle. There are some tropical vines that develop skototropism, and grow away from the light, growth away from light allows the vine to reach a tree trunk, which it can then climb to brighter regions. The vine growth form may also enable plants to large areas quickly. This is the case with periwinkle and ground ivy and it is also an adaptation to life in areas where small patches of fertile soil are adjacent to exposed areas with more sunlight but little or no soil. A vine can root in the soil but have most of its leaves in the brighter, exposed area, the evolution of a climbing habit has been implicated as a key innovation associated with the evolutionary success and diversification of a number of taxonomic groups of plants. It has evolved independently in several plant families, using many different climbing methods such as and it directs its stem into a crevice in the bark of fibrous barked trees where the stem adopts a flattened profile and grows up the tree underneath the host trees outer bark. The fetterbush then sends out branches that emerge near the top of the tree and these may be divided into woody vines or lianas, such as wisteria, kiwifruit, and common ivy, and herbaceous vines, such as morning glory. One odd group of vining plants is the fern genus Lygodium, the stem does not climb, but rather the fronds do. The fronds unroll from the tip, and theoretically never stop growing, they can form thickets as they unroll over other plants, rockfaces, gardeners can use the tendency of climbing plants to grow quickly. If a plant display is wanted quickly, a climber can achieve this, climbers can be trained over walls, pergolas, fences, etc. Climbers can be grown over other plants to provide additional attraction, artificial support can also be provided. Some climbers climb by themselves, others need work, such as tying them in, vines widely differ in size, form and evolutionary origin. Darwin classified climbing groups based on their climbing method and he classified five classes of vines including twining plants, leaf climbers, tendril bearers, root climbers and hook climbers. Vines are unique in that they have multiple origins and a wide range of phenotypic plasticity
3.
Winter squash
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Winter squash is an annual fruit representing several squash species within the genus Cucurbita. It differs from summer squash in that it is harvested and eaten in the mature fruit stage when the seeds within have matured fully, at this stage, most varieties of this fruit can be stored for use during the winter. Winter squash is generally cooked before being eaten and the skin or rind is not usually eaten as it is with summer squash, because squash is a frost-tender plant, the seeds do not germinate in cold soil. Winter squash seeds germinate best when the temperature is 21 to 35 °C. Winter squash is harvested whenever the fruits have turned a deep, solid color, most winter squash is harvested in September or October in the Northern Hemisphere, before the danger of heavy frosts. Winter squash is low-calorie and a source of complex vegetable carbohydrates. It is also a source of iron and beta-carotene, usually, the darker the skin is, the higher the beta-carotene content
4.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
5.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
6.
Cucurbita moschata
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Cucurbita moschata is a species originating in either Central America or northern South America. It includes cultivars of squash and pumpkin, C. moschata cultivars are generally more tolerant of hot, humid weather than cultivars of C. maxima or C. pepo. They also generally display a greater resistance to disease and insects, commercially made pumpkin pie mix is most often made from varieties of C. moschata. The ancestral species of the genus Cucurbita were present in the Americas before the arrival of humans, evolutionarily speaking the genus is relatively recent in origin as no species within the genus is genetically isolated from all the other species. C. moschata acts as the bridge within the genus and is closest to the genus progenitor. Cultivars include, Butternut type, also Bell type, robinson and Decker-Walters p.80, Three horticultural groupings of C. moschata cultivars are recognized in the commercial trade of North America, Bell. The bell squash Butternut is an important winter squash with excellent quality and it was selected for better fruit shape from the heirloom cultivar Canada Crookneck and introduced by the Breck Seed Company in 1936. The elongated neck of the buff-coloured Butternut fruit is generally straight, the neck is entirely usable because the small seed cavity is confined to the bulbous base of the fruit. Waltham Butternut is similar, but produces a higher proportion of fruits with straight necks and it was obtained by crossing New Hampshire Butternut with an African plant introduction to the USA, and has been a very popular cultivar ever since its commercial introduction in 1970. Similar to Butternut with a neck that twists during cultivation. Cultivars belonging to group, in USA Neck pumpkin and Pennsylvania Dutch Crookneck, in Italy and France Tromba d Albenga. Neck pumpkin most popular in the Mid-Atlantic states of the United States, also within this group Canada Crookneck from which Butternut was originated. Tromboncino - a summer squash, also known as Zucchetta, long Island Cheese Pumpkin - exterior resembles a wheel of cheese in shape, color, and texture. Robinson and Decker-Walters p.80, Three horticultural groupings of Cucurbita moschata cultivars are recognized in the trade of North America. Fruit variable, but usually oblate with a buff-coloured rind, musquée de Provence or Moscata di Provenza. Giromon - A large, green cultivar, grown primarily in the Antilles, haitians use it to make the traditional soupe giromon, in celebration of Haitian Independence on New Years Day. Aehobak, also called Korean zucchini, is the edible, green to yellow-green summer squash of Cucurbita moschata, an aehobak has the shape of zucchini, but has thinner, smoother skin and more delicate flesh. It is usually sold in shrink-wrapped plastic, similar shape but a different species than the most common Cucurbita argyrosperma cushaw type
7.
Cucurbita
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Cucurbita is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, also known as cucurbits, native to the Andes and Mesoamerica. Five species are grown worldwide for their fruit, variously known as squash, pumpkin, or gourd depending on species, variety, and local parlance. Other kinds of gourd, also called bottle-gourds, are native to Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria and these other gourds are used as utensils or vessels, and their young fruits are eaten much like those of Cucurbita species. Most Cucurbita species are vines that grow several meters in length and have tendrils. The yellow or orange flowers on a Cucurbita plant are of two types, female and male, the female flowers produce the fruit and the male flowers produce pollen. Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist bee pollinators, the fruits of the genus Cucurbita are good sources of nutrients, such as vitamin A and vitamin C, among other nutrients according to species. The plants also contain phytochemicals, such as cucurbitin, cucurmosin. There is debate about the taxonomy of the genus, as the number of accepted species varies from 13 to 30, the five domesticated species are Cucurbita argyrosperma, C. ficifolia, C. maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo. All of these can be treated as winter squash because the fruits can be stored for months, however. Cucurbita fruits have played a role in culture for at least 2,000 years. They are often represented in Moche ceramics from Peru, after Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World, paintings of squashes started to appear in Europe early in the sixteenth century. The fruits have culinary uses including pumpkin pie, biscuits, bread, desserts, puddings, beverages. Pumpkins and other Cucurbita fruits are celebrated in festivals and in flower, Cucurbita species fall into two main groups. The first group are annual or short-lived perennial vines and are mesophytic, the second group are perennials growing in arid zones and so are xerophytic, tolerating dry conditions. Cultivated Cucurbita species were derived from the first group, growing 5 to 15 meters in height or length, the plant stem produces tendrils to help it climb adjacent plants and structures or extend along the ground. Most species do not readily root from the nodes, an exception is C. ficifolia. The vine of the perennial Cucurbita can become semiwoody if left to grow, there is wide variation in size, shape, and color among Cucurbita fruits, and even within a single species. C. ficifolia is an exception, being uniform in appearance
8.
Cucurbita maxima
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Cucurbita maxima, one of at least five species of cultivated squash, is one of the most diverse domesticated species. This species originated in South America from the wild Cucurbita andreana over 4000 years ago, the two species hybridize quite readily but have noticeably different calcium levels. Many cultivars of Cucurbita maxima have been developed, as in C. pepo, plants exist with a bush habit that is particularly evident in young plants, but older plants grow in the wild-type vining manner. Arikara squash is a variety of C. maxima. Fruits weigh from four to eleven pounds, the shape of the fruit can be tear-drop or round, and they are colored in a mottled orange and green pattern. It is desired both for its qualities and as a seasonal decoration. This variety traces its ancestry to the Arikara tribe of the Dakotas, banana squash has an elongated shape, with light blue, pink or orange skin and bright orange flesh. Boston marrow sweet tasting, narrow at one end and bulbous at the other. Buttercup squash is one of the most common varieties of winter squash, with a turban shape and dark green skin. The Candy Roaster landrace was originally developed by the Cherokee people in the southern Appalachians, another heirloom variety, it is quite variable in size, shape, and color, yet most have fine-textured orange flesh. This variety enjoys continued popularity, particularly in the southern Appalachians, Hubbard squash is another cultivar of this species that usually has a tear-drop shape. They are often used as a replacement for pumpkins in cooking, according to one source, the name comes from Bela Hubbard, settler of Randolph Township, Ohio in the Connecticut Western Reserve. Many other sources list an alternate history and these sources state the hubbard squash came to Marblehead, Massachusetts through Captain Knott Martin. A woman named Elizabeth Hubbard brought the fruit to the attention of her neighbor, mr. Gregory subsequently introduced it to the market using Mrs. Hubbards name as the eponym. Gregory later bred and released the blue hubbard, which has a bluish-gray skin, the other major variety, the golden hubbard squash, has a bright orange skin. Gregory advertisements for the date from at least 1859. The hubbard squash, including regarding the name, is even the subject of a childrens ditty. Jarrahdale pumpkin is a pumpkin with gray skin and it is nearly identical to Queensland Blue and Sweet Meat varieties
9.
Cucurbita foetidissima
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Cucurbita foetidissima is a tuberous xerophytic plant found in the central and southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The type specimen was collected from Mexico by Humboldt and Bonpland sometime before 1817, the feral perennial buffalo gourd has evolved in the semiarid regions and is well-adapted to desert environments. It contains high amounts of protein and carbohydrates and yields abundant oil, the carbohydrates that are formed in the tap root have led to the idea of growing the plant for biofuel. The fruit is consumed by humans and animals. When mature, a marked by increasing desiccation of vine, leaves, fruit-stem, and fruit. Geographic location and genetics make it likely that Cucurbita scabridifolia originated as a naturally occurring hybrid of C. foetidissima. Cucurbita foetidissima requires little water and grows best in semiarid and arid environments, warm weather is required during the five- to eight-month vegetation period. This perennial is well adapted to agricultural lands such as sandy loam soils which have to be well-drained. Germination temperature range is between 15 °C and 37 °C with an optimum at 25 °C, the maximum depth for a successful germination is 12 cm. The germination is possible in a pH range from 2.2 up to pH8, asexual propagation is possible from nodal roots. The leaves of the gourd are typically entire and heart-shaped with a base of 10–13 cm. The flowers are borne singly at the nodes of the vines after an amount of annual vegetative growth has taken place. The fruit has a diameter of 7–10 cm, the fruit weighs 120 g to 150 g, with 292 to 315 seeds per fruit. The seeds, which are 12 mm long and 7 mm wide, weigh about 4 g per 100 seeds, the seeds often remain viable for months or even years within an undamaged gourd. One hectare of plants can produce 2.5 tons of seed, the plant forms a fleshy tap root which is used as a storage and overwintering structure. The central tap root can weigh up to 72 kg, a four-year-old root grown under cultivation can reach a fresh weight of 45 kg and a length of 2.5 m. Cucurbita foetidissima is native to North America in the central and southwestern United States, the buffalo gourd has the potential of being a crop adapted to arid to semiarid lands. Fresh gourd, The fresh young gourd can be eaten like squash, the mature fruit is no longer edible, due to bitter compounds
10.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
11.
Eukaryote
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A eukaryote is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes belong to the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota, the presence of a nucleus gives eukaryotes their name, which comes from the Greek εὖ and κάρυον. Eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus, in addition, plants and algae contain chloroplasts. Eukaryotic organisms may be unicellular or multicellular, only eukaryotes form multicellular organisms consisting of many kinds of tissue made up of different cell types. Eukaryotes can reproduce asexually through mitosis and sexually through meiosis and gamete fusion. In mitosis, one cell divides to produce two identical cells. In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of division to produce four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. These act as sex cells resulting from genetic recombination during meiosis, the domain Eukaryota appears to be monophyletic, and so makes up one of the three domains of life. The two other domains, Bacteria and Archaea, are prokaryotes and have none of the above features, eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of all living things. However, due to their larger size, eukaryotes collective worldwide biomass is estimated at about equal to that of prokaryotes. Eukaryotes first developed approximately 1. 6–2.1 billion years ago, in 1905 and 1910, the Russian biologist Konstantin Mereschkowsky argued three things about the origin of nucleated cells. Firstly, plastids were reduced cyanobacteria in a symbiosis with a non-photosynthetic host, secondly, the host had earlier in evolution formed by symbiosis between an amoeba-like host and a bacteria-like cell that formed the nucleus. Thirdly, plants inherited photosynthesis from cyanobacteria, the split between the prokaryotes and eukaryotes was introduced in the 1960s. The concept of the eukaryote has been attributed to the French biologist Edouard Chatton, the terms prokaryote and eukaryote were more definitively reintroduced by the Canadian microbiologist Roger Stanier and the Dutch-American microbiologist C. B. van Niel in 1962. In his 1938 work Titres et Travaux Scientifiques, Chatton had proposed the two terms, calling the bacteria prokaryotes and organisms with nuclei in their cells eukaryotes. However he mentioned this in one paragraph, and the idea was effectively ignored until Chattons statement was rediscovered by Stanier. In 1967, Lynn Margulis provided microbiological evidence for endosymbiosis as the origin of chloroplasts and mitochondria in cells in her paper. In the 1970s, Carl Woese explored microbial phylogenetics, studying variations in 16S ribosomal RNA and this helped to uncover the origin of the eukaryotes and the symbiogenesis of two important eukaryote organelles, mitochondria and chloroplasts
12.
Plant
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Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
13.
Spermatophyte
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The spermatophytes, also known as phanerogams or phenogamae, comprise those plants that produce seeds, hence the alternative name seed plants. They are a subset of the embryophytes or land plants and these terms distinguished those plants with hidden sexual organs from those with visible sexual organs. In addition to the taxa listed above, the record contains evidence of many extinct taxa of seed plants. The so-called seed ferns were one of the earliest successful groups of land plants, glossopteris was the most prominent tree genus in the ancient southern supercontinent of Gondwana during the Permian period. A whole genome duplication event in the ancestor of seed plants occurred about 319 million years ago and this gave rise to a series of evolutionary changes that resulted in the origin of seed plants. A middle Devonian precursor to seed plants from Belgium has been identified predating the earliest seed plants by about 20 million years, runcaria, small and radially symmetrical, is an integumented megasporangium surrounded by a cupule. The megasporangium bears an unopened distal extension protruding above the mutlilobed integument and it is suspected that the extension was involved in anemophilous pollination. Runcaria sheds new light on the sequence of character acquisition leading to the seed, runcaria has all of the qualities of seed plants except for a solid seed coat and a system to guide the pollen to the seed. Seed-bearing plants were divided into angiosperms, or flowering plants, and gymnosperms, which includes the gnetophytes, cycads, ginkgo. Older morphological studies believed in a relationship between the gnetophytes and the angiosperms, in particular based on vessel elements. However, molecular studies have shown a clade of gymnosperms. For example, one common proposed set of relationships is known as the hypothesis and looks like, However
14.
Flowering plant
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The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
15.
Dicotyledon
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The dicotyledons, also known as dicots, were one of the two groups into which all the flowering plants or angiosperms were formerly divided. The name refers to one of the characteristics of the group. There are around 200,000 species within this group, the other group of flowering plants were called monocotyledons or monocots, typically having one cotyledon. Historically, these two formed the two divisions of the flowering plants. Rather, a number of lineages, such as the magnoliids and groups now known as the basal angiosperms. The traditional dicots are thus a paraphyletic group, the largest clade of the dicotyledons are known as the eudicots. They are distinguished from all other flowering plants by the structure of their pollen, aside from cotyledon number, other broad differences have been noted between monocots and dicots, although these have proven to be differences primarily between monocots and eudicots. Many early-diverging dicot groups have monocot characteristics such as scattered vascular bundles, trimerous flowers, in addition, some monocots have dicot characteristics such as reticulated leaf veins. Traditionally the dicots have been called the Dicotyledones, at any rank, if treated as a class, as in the Cronquist system, they could be called the Magnoliopsida after the type genus Magnolia. In some schemes, the eudicots were treated as a separate class, the remaining dicots may be kept in a single paraphyletic class, called Magnoliopsida, or further divided. Some botanists prefer to retain the dicotyledons as a class, arguing its practicality. The following lists show the orders in the APG III system traditionally called dicots, together with the older Cronquist system
16.
Oaxaca cheese
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Oaxaca cheese is a white, semihard cheese from Mexico, similar to unaged Monterey Jack, but with a mozzarella-like string cheese texture. Outside Mexico, Oaxaca cheese is often confused with asadero cheese and they are similar in texture and taste but they are produced with different methods, making Oaxaca cheese slightly dryer. It is named after the state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico, the string cheese process, originally from Italy, which is used to produce mozzarella, was brought to Mexico by the Dominican monks that settled in Oaxaca. However, as water buffallo milk was unavailable, they started using cow milk instead, the cheese is available in several different shapes. The production process is complicated and involves stretching the cheese into long ribbons, italian mozzarella is another cheese which is processed by stretching. Cheeses of Mexico Oaxacan cuisine Media related to Oaxaca cheese at Wikimedia Commons
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Dysphania ambrosioides
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D. ambrosioides is an annual or short-lived perennial plant, growing to 1.2 m tall, irregularly branched, with oblong-lanceolate leaves up to 12 cm long. The flowers are small and green, produced in a branched panicle at the apex of the stem, as well as in its native areas, it is grown in warm temperate to subtropical areas of Europe and the United States, sometimes becoming an invasive weed. The generic name Dysphania traditionally was applied in the 1930s to some endemic to Australia. Placement and rank of this taxon have ranged from a section in Chenopodium to the sole genus of a separate family Dysphaniaceae. The close affinity of Dysphania to glandular species of Chenopodium sensu lato is now evident, the common Spanish name, epazote, is derived from Nahuatl, epazōtl meaning skunk sweat. D. ambrosioides is used as a vegetable, herb. Raw, it has a resinous, medicinal pungency, similar to oregano, anise, fennel, or even tarragon, the fragrance of D. ambrosioides is strong but difficult to describe. A common analogy is to turpentine or creosote and it has also been compared to citrus, savory, and mint. It is often used as an herb in white fried rice, in the early 1900s, D. ambrosioides was used as an anthelmintic to treat ascarids and hookworms in humans, cats, dogs, horses, and pigs. Usually, oil of chenopodium was used and it was sometimes referred to as Baltimore Oil, because of the large production facility in Baltimore, Maryland that specialized in extracting the oil from the plant. Chenopodium was replaced with other, more effective and less toxic anthelmintics in the 1940s, Chenopodium is still used to treat worm infections in humans in many countries. In Honduras, as well as other Latin American countries, the plant or the leaves are ground. In a few areas in Latin America, the plant also is used to treat infections in livestock. D. ambrosioides is believed to prevent flatulence and it has also been used for amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, malaria, chorea, the now discredited diagnosis of hysteria, catarrh, and asthma. Overdoses of the oil have caused human deaths. The symptoms including severe gastroenteritis with pain, vomiting, and diarrhoea, the essential oils of D. ambrosioides contain terpene compounds, some of which have natural pesticide capabilities. The compound ascaridole in epazote inhibits the growth of nearby plants, even though this plant has an established place in recipes and in folklore, it is wise to use only the leaves, and those very sparingly, in cooking. D. ambrosioides not only contains terpene compounds, but it also delivers partial protection to nearby plants simply by masking their scent to some insects and its small flowers may also attract some predatory wasps and flies
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Filipino cuisine
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Philippine cuisine consists of the food, preparation methods, and eating customs found in the Philippines. Dishes range from the simple, like a meal of fried salted fish and rice, to the complex paellas. Popular dishes include, lechón, longganisa, tapa, torta, adobo, kaldereta, mechado, puchero, afritada, kare-kare, pinakbet, crispy pata, hamonado, sinigang, pancit, and lumpia. During the pre-Hispanic era in the Philippines, the preferred Austronesian methods for preparation were boiling, steaming and roasting. The ingredients for common dishes were obtained from locally raised livestock and these ranged from kalabaw, baka, manok and baboy to various kinds of fish and seafood. In 3200 BCE, Austronesians from the southern China and Taiwan settled in the region that is now called the Philippines and they brought with them knowledge of rice cultivation and other farming practices which increased the number and variety of edible dish ingredients available for cooking. Direct trade and cultural exchange with Hokkien China in the Philippines in the Song dynasty with porcelain, ceramics, many of these food items and dishes retained their original Hokkien names, such as pancit, and lumpia. The Chinese food introduced during this period were food of the workers and traders, which became a staple of the noodle shops, through the trade with the Malay-Indonesian kingdoms, cuisine from as far away as India and Arabia enriched the palettes of the local Austronesians. These foods include various dishes eaten in areas of the part of the archipelago today, such as puto derived from Indian cuisine puttu, kurmah, satti. Spanish colonizers and friars in the 16th century brought with them produce from the Americas like chili peppers, tomatoes, corn, potatoes, chili leaves are frequently used as a cooking green. Spanish dishes were eventually incorporated into Philippine cuisine with the more complex dishes usually being prepared for special occasions, some dishes such as arroz a la valenciana remain largely the same in the Philippine context. Some have been adapted or have come to take on a slightly or significantly different meaning, arroz a la cubana served in the Philippines usually includes ground beef picadillo. Philippine longganisa despite its name is akin to chorizo than Spanish longaniza. Morcon is likely to refer to a beef roulade dish not the bulbous specialty Spanish sausage, today, Philippine cuisine continues to evolve as new techniques, styles of cooking, and ingredients find their way into the country. Traditional dishes both simple and elaborate, indigenous and foreign-influenced, are seen as are more current popular international viands, however, the Filipino diet is higher in total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol than other Asian diets. Filipino cuisine centres around the combination of sweet, sour, and salty, although in Bicol, counterpoint is a feature in Philippine cuisine which normally comes in a pairing of something sweet with something salty, and results in surprisingly pleasing combinations. Adobo is popular not solely for its simplicity and ease of preparation, but also for its ability to be stored for days without spoiling, and even improve in flavor with a day or two of storage. Tinapa is a fish while tuyo, daing, and dangit are corned, sun-dried fish popular because they can last for weeks without spoiling
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Ginataan
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Ginataan, alternatively spelled guinataan, is a Filipino term which refers to food cooked with gatâ. Literally translated, ginataan means done with coconut milk, due to the general nature of the term, it can refer to a number of different dishes, each called ginataan, but distinct from one another. Ginataan usually refers to viands, which are eaten with rice during the meals of the day. It normally follows the form ginataan na/ginataang + or + sa gatâ, coconut milk can also be added to existing dishes, as in ginataang adobo. Various sweet desserts may simply be called ginataan, especially in the northern Philippines. For example, the Visayan binignit, a made with coconut milk, tubers, tapioca pearls. This soup is also called giná-tan in Bikolano, ginettaán in Ilokano, if gummy balls made of pounded glutinous rice are added, it becomes a dish called ginataang bilo-bilo or simply bilo-bilo. Ginataang mais is another example of a soup, a warm, sweet, thick gruel made with coconut milk, sweet corn. Soups Cuisine of the Philippines Batchoy List of soups
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Asparagus bean
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Sesquipedalis is a legume cultivated to be eaten as green pods. It is known as the bean, bora, bodi, long-podded cowpea, asparagus bean, pea bean, snake bean. Despite the common name, the pods are actually only half a yard long. This plant is of a different genus from the common bean and it is a vigorous climbing annual vine. The plant is subtropical/tropical and most widely grown in the parts of South Asia, Southeast Asia. A variety of the cowpea, it is primarily for its strikingly long immature pods and has uses very similar to that of the green bean. The many varieties of beans are usually distinguished by the different colors of their mature seeds. The plant attracts many pollinators, specifically various types of yellowjackets and ants, the pods, which can begin to form just 60 days after sowing, hang in groups of two or more. They are best for use if picked before they reach full maturity, however. When harvesting, it is important not to pick the buds which are above the beans, the plants take longer to reach maturity than bush beans, but once producing, the beans are quick-growing and daily checking/harvesting is often a necessity. The plants produce beans until frost, the crisp, tender pods are eaten both fresh and cooked. They are at their best when young and slender and they are sometimes cut into short sections for cooking uses. As a West Indian dish, they are often stir-fried with potatoes, in Odisha, India, they are called ଝୁଡ଼ୁଙ୍ଗ, used to make a variety of dishes. Especially a sour dish - ଝୁଡ଼ୁଙ୍ଗ ବେସର cooking along with mustard sauce and they are also used in stir-fries in Chinese cuisine and Kerala cuisine. Other Filipino dishes that have yardlong beans as ingredients are sinigang, yardlong beans are also separated from the pod and are cooked with the buds of the alukon tree and other vegetables in a dish called agaya in northeastern Luzon. In Malaysian cuisine, they are often stir-fried with chillies and shrimp paste or used in cooked salads, another popular option is to chop them into very short sections and fry them in an omelette. The plant is easy to grow in areas with hot and humid summers where other green bean varieties may succumb to heat damage in summer and this plant is particularly easy to grow in the Southeastern United States and southerly Midwestern United States, where it is not currently grown commonly. In Suriname cuisine, they are called kousenband and served with roti, similarly, in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana it is a Indo-Trinidadian/Indo-Guyanese dish that fried or curried and served with roti or rice
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Coconut milk
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Coconut milk is the liquid that comes from the grated meat of a mature coconut. The opacity and rich taste of milk are attributed to its high oil content. Coconut milk is a food ingredient used in Southeast Asia, the Caribbean. Coconut milk is distinguished from water by its thicker consistency. Unlike coconut water, which is the liquid found directly inside a coconut, coconut milk is the result of combining coconut water with coconut meat. The grating process can be carried out manually or by comminution, Coconut milk exists in two grades, thick and thin. Thick coconut milk contains 20-22% fat while thin coconut milk contains 5-7% fat, thick milk is prepared by directly squeezing grated coconut meat through cheesecloth. Thin milk is produced by soaking the squeezed coconut meat in water and further squeezing the meat until a thinner liquid forms, thick milk contains soluble, suspended solids, which makes it a good ingredient for desserts and rich and dry sauces. Because thin milk does not contain these soluble solids, it is used in general cooking. Coconut milk has a fat content of 24%, depending on the fat level of the coconut meat, when refrigerated and left to set, coconut cream will rise to the top and separate out from the milk. To avoid this in commercial coconut milk, an emulsifier and a stabiliser have to be used, manufacturers of canned coconut milk typically combine diluted and comminuted milk with the addition of water as a filler. Some brands sold in Western countries add thickening agents or emulsifiers to prevent the milk from separating inside the can, Coconut milk can be consumed on its own or as a milk substitute in tea, coffee, and baking. It is an ingredient in many tropical and Asian cuisines for curries or other seasonings, meats, vegetables. Coconut rice is a rice cooked in coconut milk consumed in Southeastern Asia, nasi lemak is a Malaysian version of coconut rice, while the same dish is called nasi uduk in Indonesia. Coconut milk is used throughout Asia for making traditional serabi. In Brazil, coconut milk is used in northeastern cuisine, generally with seafood stews. In Colombia and Panama, the flesh of coconut and coconut milk are used to make sweet titoté. In Venezuela, meat dishes are prepared with milk and shredded fish in a dish called mojito en coco
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Pumpkin
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A pumpkin is a cultivar of a squash plant, most commonly of Cucurbita pepo, that is round, with smooth, slightly ribbed skin, and deep yellow to orange coloration. The thick shell contains the seeds and pulp, some exceptionally large cultivars of squash with similar appearance have also been derived from Cucurbita maxima. Specific cultivars of winter squash derived from other species, including C. argyrosperma, in New Zealand and Australian English, the term pumpkin generally refers to the broader category called winter squash elsewhere. Native to North America, pumpkins are grown for commercial use and are used both in food and recreation. Pumpkins, like squash, are thought to have originated in North America. The oldest evidence, pumpkin-related seeds dating between 7000 and 5500 BC, was found in Mexico, since some squash share the same botanical classifications as pumpkins, the names are frequently used interchangeably. Pumpkin fruits are a type of botanical berry known as a pepo, traditional C. pepo pumpkins generally weigh between 6 and 18 pounds, though the largest cultivars regularly reach weights of over 75 pounds. The color of pumpkins derives from orange carotenoid pigments, including beta-cryptoxanthin, alpha and beta carotene, the word pumpkin originates from the word pepon, which is Greek for large melon, something round and large. The French adapted this word to pompon, which the British changed to pumpion and later American colonists changed that to the word that is used today, pumpkin. The term pumpkin has no agreed upon botanical or scientific meaning, all pumpkins are winter squash, mature fruit of certain species in the genus Cucurbita. Characteristics commonly used to define pumpkin include smooth and slightly ribbed skin, circa 2005, white pumpkins had become increasingly popular in the United States. Other colors, including green, also exist. Pumpkins are grown all around the world for a variety of reasons ranging from agricultural purposes to commercial and ornamental sales. Of the seven continents, only Antarctica is unable to produce pumpkins, the biggest international producers of pumpkins include the United States, Canada, Mexico, India, the traditional American pumpkin used for jack-o-lanterns is the Connecticut Field variety. As one of the most popular crops in the United States,1.5 billion pounds of pumpkins are produced each year, the top pumpkin-producing states include Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and California. According to the Illinois Department of Agriculture, 95% of the U. S. crop intended for processing is grown in Illinois, Nestlé, operating under the brand name Libbys, produces 85% of the processed pumpkin in the United States, at their plant in Morton, Illinois. In the fall of 2009, rain in Illinois devastated the Nestlé crop, Pumpkins are a warm-weather crop that is usually planted in early July. The specific conditions necessary for growing pumpkins require that soil temperatures three inches deep are at least 60 °F and soil that holds water well
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Vitamin A
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Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids. Vitamin A has multiple functions, it is important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of retinal, which combines with protein opsin to form rhodopsin, Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid, which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells. In foods of animal origin, the form of vitamin A is an ester, primarily retinyl palmitate. The retinol form functions as a form of the vitamin. All forms of vitamin A have a ring to which an isoprenoid chain is attached, called a retinyl group. Both structural features are essential for vitamin activity, the orange pigment of carrots can be represented as two connected retinyl groups, which are used in the body to contribute to vitamin A levels. Alpha-carotene and gamma-carotene also have a single group, which give them some vitamin activity. None of the other carotenes have vitamin activity, the carotenoid beta-cryptoxanthin possesses an ionone group and has vitamin activity in humans. Vitamin A can be found in two forms in foods, Retinol, the form of vitamin A absorbed when eating animal food sources, is a yellow. Since the pure form is unstable, the vitamin is found in tissues in a form of retinyl ester. It is also produced and administered as esters such as retinyl acetate or palmitate. Vitamin A deficiency is estimated to approximately one third of children under the age of five around the world. It is estimated to claim the lives of 670,000 children under five annually, approximately 250, 000–500,000 children in developing countries become blind each year owing to vitamin A deficiency, with the highest prevalence in Southeast Asia and Africa. Vitamin A deficiency is the cause of preventable childhood blindness. It also increases the risk of death from common childhood conditions such as diarrhea, UNICEF regards addressing vitamin A deficiency as critical to reducing child mortality, the fourth of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Vitamin A deficiency can occur as either a primary or a secondary deficiency, early weaning from breastmilk can also increase the risk of vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A is a vitamin and depends on micellar solubilization for dispersion into the small intestine
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Quesadilla
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A quesadilla is a tortilla, usually a corn tortilla but also sometimes made with a wheat tortilla, which is filled with cheese and then grilled. Other items, such as a mixture of spices or vegetables, are often added. A full quesadilla involves two tortillas filled with cheese and stacked on top of each other, halves are a single tortilla filled with cheese and folded into a half-moon shape. The origin of the quesadilla was colonial Mexico, the quesadilla as a food has changed and evolved over many years as people experimented with different variations of it. Quesadillas are commonly sold at Mexican restaurants, in the central and southern regions of Mexico, a quesadilla is a flat circle of cooked corn masa, called a tortilla, warmed to soften it enough to be folded in half, and then filled. They are typically filled with Oaxaca cheese, a stringy Mexican cheese made by the pasta filata method, the quesadilla is then cooked on a comal until the cheese has completely melted. They are usually cooked without the addition of any oil, often the quesadillas are served with green or red salsa, chopped onion, and guacamole. While Oaxaca cheese is the most common filling, other ingredients are used in addition to or even substituting the cheese. In some places, quesadillas are also topped with other ingredients, avocado or guacamole, chopped onion, tomato, serrano chiles, and cilantro are the most common. Salsas may also be added as a topping, Mexican quesadillas are traditionally cooked on a comal, which is also used to prepare tortillas. As a variation, the quesadillas can be fried in oil to make quesadillas fritas and it is then immersed into hot oil until the exterior looks golden and crispy. Other variations include the use of flour tortillas instead, especially in northeastern Mexico. Wheat dough is most commonly used in place of corn masa, in this case, the flour tortilla is prepared, folded and filled with cheese, exactly as the corn. Sometimes, cheese and ham are sandwiched between two flour tortillas, then cut into wedges to serve what is known as sincronizada in Mexico. Despite appearing almost the same as a quesadilla, it is considered a different dish. The sincronizada is frequently confused with quesadillas by tourists because it is called a quesadilla in most Mexican restaurants outside of México. The quesadilla is a favorite in the southwestern U. S. where it is analogous to a grilled cheese sandwich. It is prepared in a similar manner except for the inclusion of local ingredients, a flour tortilla is heated on a griddle, then flipped and sprinkled with a grated, melting cheese, such as Monterey Jack, Cheddar cheese, or Colby Jack
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Empanada
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An empanada is a stuffed bread or pastry baked or fried in many countries of Latin America and in Spain. The name comes from the Spanish verb empanar, meaning to wrap or coat in bread, empanadas are made by folding dough over a stuffing, which may consist of meat, cheese, huitlacoche, or other ingredients. Empanadas trace back their origins to the northwest region of Spain, a cookbook published in Catalan in 1520, Libre del Coch by Robert de Nola, mentions empanadas filled with seafood in the recipes for Catalan, Italian, French, and Arabian food. Some sources claim a connection with the Indian cuisine, a similar dish first appeared in Portugal around the time of the establishment of trade routes to India and the establishment of a colony at Goa. This is believed to have derived from or influenced by the Indian Gujia or Samosa. Argentine empanadas are often served during parties and festivals as a starter or main course, shops specialize in freshly made empanadas, with many flavors and fillings. The dough is made with flour and beef drippings for the fillings which differs from province to province. Some places use chicken, and some places beef spiced with cumin, some other fillings are onion, boiled egg, olives, or raisins. Empanadas can be baked or fried and it also can contain ham, fish, humita, or spinach, a fruit filling is used to create a dessert empanada. For the interior regions, they can be spiced with peppers, in those places where several types are served, a repulgue, or pattern, is added to the pastry fold to distinguish the varieties. In larger cities, empanadas are eaten more as take-away food and they usually carry dozens of different varieties, which is not the case in northern provinces, where empanadas are usually made at home, with more traditional recipes. During Lent and Easter, empanadas de Cuaresma fillings with fish are popular, also popular are the so-called Arabian empanadas, filled with beef, tomato, onion, and lemon juice, similar to the fatayer made in the Levant. In Belize, empanadas are known as panades and they are made with masa and typically stuffed with fish, chicken, or beans. They are usually fried and served with a cabbage or salsa topping. Panades are frequently sold as street food, cape Verde cuisine features the pastel, as well. Cape Verdean pastéis are often filled with spicy tuna fish, one particular variety, the pastel com o diabo dentro, is particularly spicy, and is made with a dough made from sweet potatoes and cornmeal. In Chile, the most traditional empanada filling is called pino, pino is a seasoned mixture of ground beef, onions, raisins, black olives, and hard boiled eggs. The empananda dough is quick and easy to make, and can be made ahead, the pino tastes best if made the day before and allowed to rest overnight before filling the empanandas
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Mexican cuisine
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Mexican cuisine is primarily a fusion of indigenous Mesoamerican cooking with European, especially Spanish, elements added after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century. The staples are native foods, such as corn, beans, avocados, tomatoes, and chili peppers, along with rice, which was brought by the Spanish. Europeans introduced a number of other foods, the most important of which were meats from domesticated animals, dairy products. African and Asian influences were introduced into the mixture during this era as a result of African slavery in New Spain. Over the centuries, this resulted in regional cuisines based on conditions, such as those in Oaxaca, Veracruz. Mexican cuisine is an important aspect of the culture, social structure, the most important example of this connection is the use of mole for special occasions and holidays, particularly in the South and Center regions of the country. For this reason and others, traditional Mexican cuisine was inscribed in 2010 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO, Mexican cuisine is as complex as any other world cuisine, such as those of China, France, Italy and Japan. It is created mostly with ingredients native to Mexico, as well as those brought over by the Spanish conquistadors, vegetables play an important role in Mexican cuisine. Common vegetables include zucchini, cauliflower, corn, potatoes, spinach, swiss chard, mushrooms, jitomate, green tomato, other traditional vegetable dishes include chile rellenos, huitlacoche, huauzontle, and nopalitos to name a few. European contributions include pork, chicken, beef, cheese, herbs and spices, tropical fruits such as guava, prickly pear, sapote, mangoes, bananas, pineapple and cherimoya are popular, especially in the center and south of the country. It has been debated how much Mexican food is still indigenous, however, the basis of the diet is still corn and beans, with chile pepper as a seasoning, as they are complementary foods. Despite the introduction of wheat and rice to Mexico, the basic starch remains corn in almost all areas of the country, while it is eaten fresh, most corn is dried, treated with lime and ground into a dough called masa. This dough is used fresh and fermented to make a wide variety of dishes from drinks to tamales, sopes. However, the most common way to eat corn in Mexico is in the form of a tortilla, tortillas are made of corn in most of the country, but other versions exist, such as wheat in the north or plantain, yuca and wild greens in Oaxaca. The other basic ingredient in all parts of Mexico is the chile pepper, Mexican food has a reputation for being very spicy, but its seasoning can be better described as strong. Many dishes also have subtle flavors, chiles are used for their flavors and not just their heat, with Mexico using the widest variety. If a savory dish or snack does not contain chile pepper, hot sauce is usually added, the importance of the chile goes back to the Mesoamerican period, where it was considered to be as much of a staple as corn and beans. In the 16th century, Bartolomé de las Casas wrote that without chiles, even today, most Mexicans believe that their national identity would be at a loss without chiles
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New Mexican cuisine
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New Mexican cuisine is the regional cuisine of the US state of New Mexico. Part of the broader Southwestern cuisine, New Mexico food culture is a fusion of Spanish and Mediterranean, Mexican, Pueblo Native American, New Mexican food is not the same as Mexican and Tex-Mex foods preferred in Texas and Arizona. New Mexico is the state with an official question—Red or green. —referring to the choice of red or green chile. Often dishes can be requested with both red and green chile and is referred to as Christmas, chile, beans, and corn have been described as the basic ingredients of New Mexico cooking, and all can be locally grown. One of its characteristics of New Mexican Cuisine is the dominance of the New Mexico chile. Other distinctive elements include blue corn, the stacked enchilada, Tex-Mex additions such as sour cream and Cal-Mex additions such as guacamole are also noticeably absent in traditional New Mexican cuisine. The New Mexico chile, especially when harvested as green chile, is perhaps the defining ingredient of New Mexican food compared to neighboring styles, chile is New Mexicos largest agricultural crop. Before the arrival of Europeans, New Mexicos current borders overlapped the areas of the Navajo, Mescalero, the Spaniards brought their cuisine which mingled with the indigenous. At the end of the Mexican–American War, New Mexico became part of the United States, many residents in the north and the capital, Santa Fe, are descended from Spanish noblemen and explorers who came in the 16th century. Anglos and African Americans traded and settled after the Civil War, New Mexicos population includes Native Americans who have been on the land thousands of years. Most recently, Asian and Indochinese immigrants have discovered New Mexico, when New Mexicans refer to chile they are talking about pungent pods, or sauce made from those pods, not the concoction of spices, meat or beans known as Texas chili con carne. While chile, the pod, is sometimes spelled chili, chilli, or chillie elsewhere, senator Pete Domenici of New Mexico made this states spelling official by entering it into the Congressional Record. One of the first authors to publish a cookbook describing traditional New Mexican cuisine was educator and writer and her work helped introduce cooking with chiles to the United States. The following foods and dishes are common in New Mexican cuisine, many are similar to Mexican or Spanish foods, often with modifications and sometimes with linguistic differences. Albóndigas, meatballs Atole, a thick, hot gruel made from corn Biscochito, anise-flavored cookie and it was developed by residents of New Mexico over the centuries from the first Spanish colonists of what was then known as Santa Fe de Nuevo México. The California-style variant is much larger, includes rice. Breakfast burrito, a smaller-sized breakfast version of the above, typically including scrambled eggs, potatoes, red or green chile, cheese, calabacitas, Green summer squash with onions, garlic, and other vegetables, fried. Carne asada, roasted or broiled meat, marinated, chalupa, a corn tortilla, fried into a bowl shape and filled with shredded chicken or other meat or beans, and usually topped with guacamole and salsa
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Pupusa
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A pupusa is a traditional Salvadoran dish made of a thick, handmade corn tortilla. Pupusas are cooked on a comal which is a smooth flat griddle, the average revuelta pupusa contains around 400 calories. The Mexican gordita is also similar to the Salvadoran pupusa, gorditas generally have more filling than pupusas and normally have an opening at the center of the tortilla. Pupusa is the Spanish rendering of popotlax, which is a combination of the Pipil or Nahuatl words popotl meaning large, stuffed, bulky, or it comes from the Pipil language, pupusawa. Pupusas were first created centuries ago by the Pipil tribes who inhabited the territory now known as El Salvador, the instruments for their preparation have also been found in other archaeological sites in El Salvador. The pre-Columbian pupusa were vegetarian and half-moon shaped and they were filled with squash flowers and buds, herbs such chipilin and mora, fungi and salt. By 1570 meat had been incorporated into the filling, as noted by Franciscan monk Bernardino De Sahagun, in the late 1940s, pupusas were still not widespread across El Salvador, and were mostly localized in the central towns, such as Quezaltepeque, and cities of the country. In Guatemala during the 1970s, pupusas had a half-moon shape, the half-moon shape would be considered a half-eaten pupusa in the Chalatenango area, fish pupusas were uncommon, and pupusas served east of the Lempa River usually had a much larger diameter. In the 1980s, the Salvadoran civil war forced a Salvadoran migration to other countries, therefore, pupusas became available outside the country wherever a Salvadoran community was found. Immigrants have brought the dish to most areas of the United States, pupuserías also may be found in many areas of Canada. In recent years, pupusas can even be found in some Latin American restaurants in Adelaide, Melbourne, on 1 April 2005, the Salvadoran Legislative Assembly declared pupusas as the national dish of El Salvador and every second Sunday of November would be National Pupusas Day. A fair is held on the day in the capitol. On 10 November 2007, in celebration of National Pupusa day, the pupusa was 3.15 meters in diameter and was made with 200 lb. of masa,40 lb. of cheese, and 40 lb. of chicharrón. Five years later, the record was again with a pupusa with 4.25 meters in diameter. On 25 September 2011 the pupusas were named that year’s Best Street Food in New York, both at home and abroad, pupusas are traditionally served with curtido and tomato sauce, and are traditionally eaten by hand. Many local folklore tales surround the dish, they tell of diverse origins or effects of pupusas on people. El Salvador and Honduras have disputed as to where the pupusa originated, while not as popular a dish in Honduras, pupusas can still be found spread throughout the nation. Honduran etymologists say that since the Pipil language is so close to the Nahuatl language, the topic of the pupusa’s origin also came up during the negotiation for the CAFTA-DR
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Salvadoran cuisine
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Salvadorian cuisine is a style of cooking derived from the nation of El Salvador. The traditional cuisine consists of food from Native American cuisine, indigenous Lenca, Maya, Pipil, many of the dishes are made with maize. El Salvadors most notable dish is the pupusa, a thick corn flour or rice flour tortilla stuffed with cheese, chicharrón. There are also options, often with ayote or garlic. Some adventurous restaurants even offer pupusas stuffed with shrimp or spinach which are served with salsa roja, pollo encebollado is another popular Salvadoran dish that contains chicken simmered with onions. Salvadoran cheeses, queso duro, queso fresco, and cuajada, are eaten with meals, two other typical Salvadoran dishes are yuca frita and panes rellenos. Yuca frita is deep fried cassava root served with curtido and chicharron with pepesca, the Yuca is sometimes served boiled instead of fried. Panes Rellenos are warm submarine sandwiches, the turkey or chicken is marinated and then roasted with Pipil spices and hand-pulled. This sandwich is served with turkey or chicken, tomato. El Salvador is known for different types of tamales, which are wrapped in plantain leaves. These tamales include, Tamales de elote Tamales pisques Tamales de pollo Ticucos Soups, Sopa de pata is a soup made from the tripe of a cow, plantain, corn, tomatoes, cabbage and spices, locally a delicacy. Sopa de res is a made from beef shank, beef bone with meat, carrots, plantain, corn, potatoes, zucchini. Gallo en chicha is a made with rooster, corn, dulce de tapa. Sopa de pescado is a made out of fish or seafood with corn flour, tomatoes, green peppers, cumin, achiote and other ingredients. Sopa de pollo is a stew with tomatoes, green peppers, guisquil, carrots, potatoes, consommé. Sopa de gallina india is a broth with vegetables. Some people add lorocos and cream, Sopa de frijoles is a red bean soup which is one of the main dishes not lacking in the diet of Salvadorans. Salpicón is a salad that is great as a topping for tostadas or wrapped in fresh corn tortillas
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Pumpkin seed
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Pepita is a Spanish culinary term for the pumpkin seed, the edible seed of a pumpkin or other cultivar of squash. The seeds are typically flat and asymmetrically oval, and light green in color. Some cultivars are hulless, and are only for their seed. The seeds are nutrient-rich, with high content of protein, dietary fiber. The word can refer either to the kernel or unhulled whole seed. Pumpkin seeds are an ingredient in Mexican cuisine and are also roasted and served as a snack. Marinated and roasted, they are an autumn seasonal snack in the United States, as well as a commercially produced and distributed packaged snack, like sunflower seeds, available year-round. Changes in fruit shape and color indicate intentional breeding of C. pepo occurred by no later than 8,000 years ago, the process to develop the agricultural knowledge of crop domestication took place over 5, 000–6,500 years in Mesoamerica. Squash was domesticated first, with second and then beans being domesticated. As an ingredient in dishes, they are known in Spanish as pipián. A Mexican snack using pepitas in a fashion is referred to as pepitoría. Lightly roasted, salted, unhulled pumpkin seeds are popular in Greece with the descriptive Italian name, the pressed oil of the roasted seeds of a Cucurbita pepo subsp. Pepo var. styriaca is also used in Central and Eastern Europe as cuisine, in a 100 gram serving, the seeds are calorie-dense and an excellent source of protein, dietary fiber, niacin, iron, zinc, manganese, magnesium and phosphorus. The seeds are a source of riboflavin, folate, pantothenic acid. The oil of seeds, a culinary specialty in and important export commodity of Central Europe, is used in cuisine as a salad. The following are ranges of fatty acid content in C. maxima pepitas, the total fat content ranged from 11% to 52%. Based on the quantity of alpha-tocopherol extracted in the oil, the vitamin E content of twelve C. maxima cultivar seeds ranged from 4 to 19 mg/100 g of pepita, list of edible seeds Cucurbitacin Cucurbitin Egusi
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
