1.
William Hole (artist)
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William Brassey Hole RSA was an English artist, illustrator, etcher and engraver, known for his industrial, historical and biblical scenes. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy, then served an apprenticeship as an engineer for 5 years. In 1869, he sailed from Swansea to Genoa, and spent the next 6 months travelling and sketching around Italy, in Rome he made the acquaintance of Keeley Halswelle who gave him practical advice on art. It was Halwelle whose criticism encouraged Hole to endeavour to become a professional painter, around this time he took up etching and was accepted into the Royal Society of Painters and Etchers in 1885, he was already a member of the Royal Scottish Watercolour Society from 1884. He eventually became a member of the Academy. Hole went on to specialise in painting industrial and historical material, although an Englishman by birth, he devoted much of his energies to Scottish national subjects and purposes. Principal paintings include End of the 45, A Straggler of the Chevaliers Army, Culloden, Prince Charlies Parliament, If thou hadst known and The Canterbury Pilgrims. Other paintings included Medea in the Island of Circe, several based on Arthurian legend, of the latter, The Nights Catch and The fill of the two Boats were praised by critics. Around 1900, he travelled to Palestine in order to study the background for biblical painting, there he began working on the 80 watercolours that would eventually appear as illustrations in his book The Life of Jesus of Nazareth. In April to May 1906 these pictures were shown at an exhibition at the Fine Art Society in London and he also painted scenes from the Old Testament. In 1898 Hole painted a Processional Frieze for the hall of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery. A critic described this work as one of the most notable essays in mural decoration ever accomplished in this country and he also provided historical paintings for Edinburgh City Chambers and ecclesiastical decorations for other buildings. Hole drew the black and white illustrations for books including works by Robert Louis Stevenson, J M Barrie. In later life he lived at 13 Inverleith Terrace in north Edinburgh, Hole died in Edinburgh in 1917. He is buried in the Grange Cemetery in the ground of James Lindsay in the centre of the north wall and his name is listed at the base of the monument along with other members of the Hole family. Barrie, J. M. Auld Licht Idylls, the life of Jesus of Nazareth, eighty pictures. Containing The Old And New Testaments, the modern school of art, Volume 4. Caw, James L. Scottish painting past and present, ackerman, Gerald M. Les orientalistes de lEcole Britannique p.323
2.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
3.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
4.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
5.
Roman province
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In Ancient Rome, a province was the basic, and, until the Tetrarchy, largest territorial and administrative unit of the empires territorial possessions outside of Italy. The word province in modern English has its origins in the used by the Romans. Provinces were generally governed by politicians of senatorial rank, usually former consuls or former praetors and this exception was unique, but not contrary to Roman law, as Egypt was considered Augustus personal property, following the tradition of earlier, Hellenistic kings. The territory of a people who were defeated in war might be brought under various forms of treaty, the formal annexation of a territory created a province in the modern sense of an administrative unit geographically defined. Republican provinces were administered in one-year terms by the consuls and praetors who had held office the previous year, Rome started expanding beyond Italy during the First Punic War. The first permanent provinces to be annexed were Sicily in 241 BC, militarized expansionism kept increasing the number of these administrative provinces, until there were no longer enough qualified individuals to fill the posts. The terms of provincial governors often had to be extended for multiple years,241 BC – Sicilia taken over from the Carthaginians and annexed at the end of the First Punic War. 237 BC – Corsica et Sardinia, these two islands were taken over from the Carthaginians and annexed soon after the Mercenary War, in 238 BC and 237 BC respectively. 197 BC – Hispania Citerior, along the east coast of the,197 BC - Hispania Ulterior, along the southern coast of the, part of the territories taken over from the Carthaginians in the Second Punic War. 147 BC – Macedonia, mainland Greece and it was annexed after a rebellion by the Achaean League. 146 BC – Africa, modern day Tunisia and western Libya, home territory of Carthage and it was annexed following attacks on the allied Greek city of Massalia. 67 BC – Creta et Cyrenae, Cyrenaica was bequeathed to Rome in 78 BC, however, it was not organised as a province. 58 BC – Cilicia et Cyprus, Cilicia was created as a province in the sense of area of command in 102 BC in a campaign against piracy. The Romans controlled only a small area, in 74 BC Lycia and Pamphylia were added to the smal Roman possessions in Cilicia. Cilicia came fully under Roman control towards the end of the Third Mithridatic War - 73-63 BC, the province was reorganised by Pompey in 63 BC. Gallia Cisalpina was a province in the sense of an area of military command, during Romes expansion in Italy the Romans assigned some areas as provinces in the sense of areas of military command assigned to consuls or praetors due to risks of rebellions or invasions. This was applied to Liguria because there was a series of rebellions, Bruttium, in the early days of Roman presence in Gallia Cisalpina the issue was rebellion. Later the issue was risk of invasions by warlike peoples east of Italy, the city of Aquileia was founded to protect northern Italy form invasions
6.
Roman Britain
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Roman Britain was the area of the island of Great Britain that was governed by the Roman Empire, from AD43 to 410. Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by other Celtic tribes during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesars enemies. He received tribute, installed a king over the Trinovantes. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34,27, in AD40, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel, only to have them gather seashells. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain, the Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the Province of Britain. By the year 47, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way, control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudicas uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward. Around 197, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces, Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior, during the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century, for much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410, the kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that. Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, after the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor, over the centuries Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire, such as Italy, Spain, Syria and Algeria. Britain was known to the Classical world, the Greeks, Phoenicians and Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC, the Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or tin islands, and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 5th century BC, however, it was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed at all. The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The second invasion involved a larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul. Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind but he established clients, Augustus planned invasions in 34,27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustuss reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in annual revenue than any conquest could
7.
Borders of the Roman Empire
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A limes was a border fortification system of the Roman Empire. Hence it was utilized by Latin writers to denote marked or fortified frontiers, the name given to proper Walls was vallum, which might have represented a border. In Britannia the Empire built two walls one behind the other, for Mauretania there was a wall with forts on both sides of it. In other places, such as Syria and Arabia Petraea, there wasnt a continuous wall, so far the traditional use of the term. It is now common to accept that this is an anachronistic terminology. Limes was in not used to indicate the imperial frontier or a fortified border. After the third century it was a term, indicating a military district. In continental Europe, the borders were generally defined, usually following the courses of major rivers such as the Rhine. In Great Britain both Hadrian and Antoninus Pius built defences to protect the province of Britannia from the Caledonians. Hadrians Wall, constructed in 122 held a garrison of 10,000 soldiers, while the Antonine Wall, the Parthians were a group of Iranian peoples that ruled most of Greater Iran that is in modern-day Iran, western Iraq, Armenia and the Caucasus. In 118 Hadrian decided that it was in Romes interest to re-establish the Euphrates as the limit of its direct control. At the greatest extent of the Empire, the southern border lay along the deserts of Arabia in the Middle East and the Sahara in North Africa, the Empire controlled the Mediterranean shores and the mountain ranges further inland. The Romans attempted twice to occupy the Siwa Oasis and finally used Siwa as a place of banishment, however Romans controlled the Nile many miles into Africa up to the modern border between Egypt and Sudan. In Africa Romans controlled the north of the Sahara, from the Atlantic Ocean to Egypt. In the south of Mauritania Tingitana Romans made a limes in the century, just north of the area of actual Casablanca near Sala. Septimius Severus expanded the Limes Tripolitanus dramatically, even holding a military presence in the Garamantian capital Garama in 203 AD. Much of the initial campaigning success was achieved by the legate of Legio III Augusta, Limes Roman Empire Antonine Wall Hadrians Wall Roman military frontiers and fortifications Hanibal De Agostini. Corso di storia antica e medievale 1, the Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome
8.
Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
9.
Hibernia
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Hibernia is the Classical Latin name for the island of Ireland. The name Hibernia was taken from Greek geographical accounts, during his exploration of northwest Europe, Pytheas of Massilia called the island Iérnē. In his book Geographia, Claudius Ptolemaeus called the island Iouerníā, the Roman historian Tacitus, in his book Agricola, uses the name Hibernia. The Romans also sometimes used Scotia, land of the Scoti, as a term for Ireland in general. Ιουέρνια Iouerníā was a Greek rendering of the Q-Celtic name *Īweriū from which arose the Irish names Ériu. The name was altered in Latin as though it meant land of winter, the High King Brian Boru based his title on being emperor of the Irish people, which was in Latin, Imperator Scottorum, as distinct from claiming to be Emperor of the island of Ireland. From 1172 the Lordship of Ireland gave the King of England the additional title Dominus Hibernie, the Kingdom of Ireland created the title Rex Hiberniae, King of Ireland, for use in Latin texts. Gerard Mercator called Ireland Hybernia on his map of 1541. In 1642 the motto of the Irish Confederates, a Catholic-landlord administration that ruled much of Ireland until 1650 was, Pro Deo, Rege et Patria, Hibernia Unanimis. However, unlike many Roman geographical names, the Latin Hibernia did not become the basis for the name for Ireland in any modern languages, apart from the Celtic languages all modern languages use a local variant of the English Ireland. This contrasts with Wales, which is still Pays de Galles in French, by the classicising 18th century the use of Hibernia had revived in some contexts, just as had the use of Caledonia, one of the Latin terms for Scotland, and Britannia for Britain. Hibernia was used on Irish coins and companies such as the Hibernian Insurance Company were established, the name took on popularity with the success of the Irish Patriot Party. Hibernian was used as a term for people, and a general adjective, the Royal Exchange in Dublin was built in 1769–79 with the carved inscription SPQH for Senatus PopulusQue Hibernicus – The senate and people of Ireland. The Royal Hibernian Academy dates from 1823, Hibernia is a word that is rarely used today with regard to Ireland, except in long-established names. In Canada, Hibernia lends its name to the Hibernia oil field off Newfoundland, and to a large sea oil platform there, the Hibernia. Another occurrence is in familial Hibernian fever or TRAPS, a periodic fever first described in 1982 in a family of Irish and Scottish descent, the compound form Hiberno- remains more common, as in Hiberno-Norse, Hiberno-English, Hiberno-Scottish, Hibernophile, etc. Edinburgh soccer club Hibernian FC has adopted the name
10.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
11.
Tacitus
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Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and an historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors. These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus, in AD14, to the years of the First Jewish–Roman War, There are substantial lacunae in the surviving texts, including a gap in the Annals that is four books long. Tacitus is considered to be one of the greatest Roman historians, details about his personal life are scarce. What little is known comes from scattered hints throughout his work, the letters of his friend and admirer Pliny the Younger, and an inscription found at Mylasa in Caria. Tacitus was born in 56 or 57 to an equestrian family, one scholars suggestion of Sextus has gained no approval. Most of the aristocratic families failed to survive the proscriptions which took place at the end of the Republic. The claim that he was descended from a freedman is derived from a speech in his writings which asserts that many senators and knights were descended from freedmen, but this is generally disputed. His father may have been the Cornelius Tacitus who served as procurator of Belgica and Germania, Pliny the Elder mentions that Cornelius had a son who aged rapidly, which implies an early death. There is no mention of Tacitus suffering such a condition, the friendship between the younger Pliny and Tacitus leads some scholars to conclude that they were both the offspring of wealthy provincial families. The province of his birth remains unknown, though various conjectures suggest Gallia Belgica, Gallia Narbonensis and his marriage to the daughter of Narbonensian senator Gnaeus Julius Agricola implies that he came from Gallia Narbonensis. Tacitus dedication to Fabius Iustus in the Dialogus may indicate a connection with Spain, no evidence exists, however, that Plinys friends from northern Italy knew Tacitus, nor do Plinys letters hint that the two men had a common background. Pliny Book 9, Letter 23 reports that, when he was asked if he was Italian or provincial, he gave an unclear answer, since Pliny was from Italy, some infer that Tacitus was from the provinces, probably Gallia Narbonensis. His ancestry, his skill in oratory, and his depiction of barbarians who resisted Roman rule have led some to suggest that he was a Celt. This belief stems from the fact that the Celts who had occupied Gaul prior to the Roman invasion were famous for their skill in oratory, and had been subjugated by Rome. As a young man, Tacitus studied rhetoric in Rome to prepare for a career in law and politics, like Pliny, in 77 or 78, he married Julia Agricola, daughter of the famous general Agricola. Little is known of their life, save that Tacitus loved hunting. He started his career under Vespasian, but entered political life as a quaestor in 81 or 82 under Titus
12.
Ptolemy
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Claudius Ptolemy was a Greek writer, known as a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote in Koine Greek, beyond that, few reliable details of his life are known. His birthplace has been given as Ptolemais Hermiou in the Thebaid in a statement by the 14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes. This is a very late attestation, however, and there is no reason to suppose that he ever lived elsewhere than Alexandria. Ptolemy wrote several treatises, three of which were of importance to later Byzantine, Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest, although it was entitled the Mathematical Treatise. The second is the Geography, which is a discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the treatise in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika but more known as the Tetrabiblos from the Greek meaning Four Books or by the Latin Quadripartitum. The name Claudius is a Roman nomen, the fact that Ptolemy bore it indicates he lived under the Roman rule of Egypt with the privileges and political rights of Roman citizenship. It would have suited custom if the first of Ptolemys family to become a citizen took the nomen from a Roman called Claudius who was responsible for granting citizenship, if, as was common, this was the emperor, citizenship would have been granted between AD41 and 68. The astronomer would also have had a praenomen, which remains unknown and it occurs once in Greek mythology, and is of Homeric form. All the kings after him, until Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BC, were also Ptolemies, abu Mashar recorded a belief that a different member of this royal line composed the book on astrology and attributed it to Ptolemy. The correct answer is not known”, Ptolemy wrote in Greek and can be shown to have utilized Babylonian astronomical data. He was a Roman citizen, but most scholars conclude that Ptolemy was ethnically Greek and he was often known in later Arabic sources as the Upper Egyptian, suggesting he may have had origins in southern Egypt. Later Arabic astronomers, geographers and physicists referred to him by his name in Arabic, Ptolemys Almagest is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy. Ptolemy presented his models in convenient tables, which could be used to compute the future or past position of the planets. The Almagest also contains a catalogue, which is a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus
13.
Lucan
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Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman poet, born in Corduba, in the Hispania Baetica. Despite his short life, he is regarded as one of the figures of the Imperial Latin period. His youth and speed of composition set him apart from other poets, Lucan was the son of Marcus Annaeus Mela and grandson of Seneca the Elder, he grew up under the tutelage of his uncle Seneca the Younger. Born into a family, he studied rhetoric at Athens and was probably provided with a philosophical. He found success under Nero, became one of the close friends and was rewarded with a quaestorship in advance of the legal age. In 60 AD, he won a prize for extemporizing Orpheus and Laudes Neronis at the quinquennial Neronia, during this time he circulated the first three books of his epic poem, Pharsalia, which told the story of the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey. At some point, a feud began between Nero and Lucan, two very different accounts of the events have survived that both trivialize the feud. According to Tacitus, Nero became jealous of Lucan and forbade him to publish his poems, according to Suetonius, Nero lost interest in Lucan and Lucan responded by writing insulting poems about Nero that Nero continued to ignore. Other works, though, point to a serious basis to the feud. Works by the grammarian Vacca and the poet Statius may support the claim that Lucan wrote insulting poems about Nero, Vacca mentions that one of Lucans works was entitled De Incendio Urbis. Statiuss ode to Lucan mentions that Lucan described how the flames of the criminal tyrant roamed the heights of Remus. Additionally, the books of Pharsalia are anti-Imperial and pro-Republic. This criticism of Nero and office of the Emperor may have been the cause of the ban. Lucan later joined the 65 AD conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso against Nero. His treason discovered, he was obliged, at the age of 25, to suicide by opening a vein. According to Tacitus, as Lucan bled to death, recalled some poetry he had composed in which he had told the story of a soldier dying a similar kind of death. His father was involved in the proscription but his mother escaped, statiuss poem about Lucan was addressed to his widow, Polla Argentaria, upon the occasion of his birthday during the reign of Domitian. Cornell Studies in Classical Philology 39, ideology in Cold Blood, A Reading of Lucans Civil War
14.
Pliny the Elder
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In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions. Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncles now missing work on the History of the German Wars. The wind caused by the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the eruption would not allow his ship to leave the shore, and Pliny probably died during this event. Plinys dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD79 and a statement of his nephew that he died in his 56th year, Pliny was the son of an equestrian, Gaius Plinius Celer, and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names and their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio at Verona. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction, but in all cases the names come through, whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin presents a statement from a source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona. Hardouin also cites the conterraneity of Catullus, additional efforts to connect Celer and Marcella with other gentes are highly speculative. Hardouin is the scholar to use his unknown source. He kept statues of his ancestors there, a statue of Pliny on the facade of the Duomo of Como celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. In one of his letters to Tacitus, Pliny the Younger details how his uncles breakfasts would be light and simple following the customs of our forefathers. This shows that Pliny the Younger wanted it to be conveyed that Pliny the Elder was a good Roman and this statement would have pleased Tacitus. Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory, one commemorates the youngers career as imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another identifies his father Lucius village as Fecchio near Como and it is likely therefore that Plinia was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como. Gaius was a member of the Plinii gens and he did not take his fathers cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, no earlier instances of the Plinii are known. In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Plinys birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum as a colonia to secure the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to defeat
15.
Picts
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The Picts were a tribal confederation of peoples who lived in what is today eastern and northern Scotland during the Late Iron Age and Early Medieval periods. They are thought to have been ethnolinguistically Celtic, where they lived and what their culture was like can be inferred from the geographical distribution of brochs, Brittonic place name elements, and Pictish stones. Picts are attested to in records from before the Roman conquest of Britain to the 10th century. Picts are assumed to have been the descendants of the Caledonii, Pictland, also called Pictavia by some sources, gradually merged with the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata to form the Kingdom of Alba. Alba then expanded, absorbing the Brittonic kingdom of Strathclyde and Northumbrian Lothian, Pictish society was typical of many Iron Age societies in northern Europe, having wide connections and parallels with neighbouring groups. Archaeology gives some impression of the society of the Picts, what the Picts called themselves is unknown. The Latin word Picti first occurs in a written by Eumenius in AD297 and is taken to mean painted or tattooed people. Their Old English name gave the modern Scots form Pechts and the Welsh word Fichti and it is generally accepted that this is derived from *Qritani, which is the Goidelic/Q-Celtic version of the Britonnic/P-Celtic *Pritani. From this came Britanni, the Roman name for those now called the Britons and it has been suggested that Cruthin referred to all Britons not conquered by the Romans—those who lived outside Roman Britannia, north of Hadrians Wall. A Pictish confederation was formed in Late Antiquity from a number of tribes—how, some scholars have speculated that it was partly in response to the growth of the Roman Empire. Pictland had previously described by Roman writers and geographers as the home of the Caledonii. These Romans also used names to refer to tribes living in that area, including Verturiones, Taexali. But they may have heard these other names only second- or third-hand, from speakers of Brittonic or Gaulish languages, Pictish recorded history begins in the Dark Ages. It appears that Picts were not the dominant power in Northern Britain for that entire period, the Gaels of Dál Riata controlled what is present day Argyll for a time, although they suffered a series of defeats in the first third of the 7th century. The Angles of Bernicia overwhelmed the adjacent British kingdoms, one of which, the Picts were probably tributary to Northumbria until the reign of Bridei mac Beli, when, in 685, the Anglians suffered a defeat at the Battle of Dun Nechtain that halted their northward expansion. The Northumbrians continued to dominate southern Scotland for the remainder of the Pictish period, a later Pictish king, Caustantín mac Fergusa, placed his son Domnall on the throne of Dál Riata. Pictish attempts to achieve a dominance over the Britons of Alt Clut were not successful. The Viking Age brought great changes in Britain and Ireland, no less in Scotland than elsewhere, in a major battle in 839, the Vikings killed the king of Fortriu, Eógan mac Óengusa, the king of Dál Riata Áed mac Boanta, and many others
16.
Hadrian's Wall
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It had a stone base and a stone wall. There were milecastles with two turrets in between, there was a fort about every five Roman miles. From north to south, the wall comprised a ditch, wall, military way and vallum and it is thought the milecastles were staffed with static garrisons, whereas the forts had fighting garrisons of infantry and cavalry. In addition to the defensive military role, its gates may have been customs posts. A significant portion of the wall still stands and can be followed on foot along the adjoining Hadrians Wall Path, the largest Roman artefact anywhere, it runs a total of 73 miles in northern England. Regarded as a British cultural icon, Hadrians Wall is one of Britains major ancient tourist attractions and it was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. It is a misconception that Hadrians Wall marks the boundary between England and Scotland. In fact Hadrians Wall lies entirely within England and has never formed the Anglo-Scottish border, while it is less than 1 kilometre south of the border with Scotland in the west at Bowness-on-Solway, in the east it is as much as 110 kilometres away. Hadrians Wall was 80 Roman miles or 117.5 km long, its width and height varied according to the materials available nearby.5 metres high. These dimensions do not include the walls ditches, berms and forts, the central section measured eight Roman feet wide on a 3 m base. Some parts of section of the wall survive to a height of 3 m. Immediately south of the wall, a ditch was dug, with adjoining parallel mounds. This is known today as the Vallum, even though the word Vallum in Latin is the origin of the English word wall, in many places – for example Limestone Corner – the Vallum is better preserved than the wall, which has been robbed of much of its stone. The A69 and B6318 roads follow the course of the wall from Newcastle upon Tyne to Carlisle, although the curtain wall ends near Bowness-on-Solway, this does not mark the end of the line of defensive structures. The system of milecastles and turrets is known to have continued along the Cumbria coast as far as Risehow, for classification purposes, the milecastles west of Bowness-on-Solway are referred to as Milefortlets. Hadrians Wall was probably planned before Hadrians visit to Britain in AD122, according to restored sandstone fragments found in Jarrow which date from 118 or 119, it was Hadrians wish to keep intact the empire, which had been imposed on him via divine instruction. The fragments then announce the building of the wall and it is entirely possible that, on his arrival in Britain in 122, one of the stops on his itinerary was the northern frontier to inspect the progress of the building of the wall. Theories have been presented by historians, mostly of an expression of Roman power and these troubles may have influenced Hadrians plan to construct the wall as well as his construction of limites in other areas of the Empire, but to what extent is unknown
17.
Caledonians
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The Caledonians or the Caledonian Confederacy were a group of indigenous peoples of what is now Scotland during the Iron Age and Roman eras. The name is an exonym, the Ancient Greeks and Romans knew their territory as Caledonia, the Caledonians were initially considered to be a group of Britons, but were later distinguished as the Picts, a related people who nonetheless spoke a Brittonic language. The Caledonian Britons were enemies of the Roman Empire, which was the force then administering most of Great Britain as the Roman province of Britannia. The Caledonians, like many Celtic tribes in Britain, were builders and farmers who defeated and were defeated by the Romans on several occasions. The Romans never fully occupied Caledonia, though attempts were made. Nearly all of the information available about the Caledonians is based on predominately Roman sources, the Romans reached an accommodation with Brythonic tribes such as the Votadini as effective buffer states. According to Zimmer, Caledonia is derived from the tribal name Caledones, in AD83 or 84, led by Calgacus, the Caledonians defeat at the hands of Gnaeus Julius Agricola at Mons Graupius is recorded by Tacitus. Tacitus records the physical characteristics of the Caledonians as red hair and this suggests that they were capable of making formal agreements in unison despite supposedly having many different chieftains. He says the Caledonians broke the treaties they had made with Marcellus a few years earlier, the governor who arrived to oversee the regaining of control over Britannia after Albinus defeat, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from the Maeatae rather than fight them. Herodian and Dio wrote only in passing of the campaign but describe the Caledonians ceding territory to Rome as being the result, cassius Dio records that the Caledonians inflicted 50,000 Roman casualties due to attrition and unconventional tactics such as guerrilla warfare. By 210 however, the Caledonians had re-formed their alliance with the Maeatae, a punitive expedition led by Severus son, Caracalla, was sent out with the purpose of slaughtering everyone it encountered from any of the northern tribes. Severus meanwhile prepared for total conquest but was ill, he died at Eboracum in Britannia in 211. Malcolm Todd however considers there to be no evidence to support this, nonetheless the Caledonians did retake their territory and pushed the Romans back to Hadrians Wall. In any event, there is no historical mention of the Caledonians for a century save for a c. AD230 inscription from Colchester which records a dedication by a man calling himself the nephew of Uepogenus and this may be because Severus campaigns were so successful that the Caledonians were wiped out, however this is highly unlikely. The event is notable in that it includes the first recorded use of the term Pict to describe the tribes of the area, jordanes in his Getica wrote something similar. The inhabitants of Caledonia have reddish hair and large loose-jointed bodies. Eumenius, the panegyrist of Constantine Chlorus, wrote both the Picts and Caledonians were red haired. Scholars such as William Forbes Skene noted that this description matches Tacitus description of the Caledonians as red haired in his Agricola, there is little direct evidence of a Caledonian archaeological culture but it is possible to describe the settlements in their territory during their existence
18.
Schiehallion
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Schiehallion is a prominent mountain in Perth and Kinross, Scotland. Schiehallion has a rich life, interesting archaeology, and a unique place in scientific history for an 18th-century experiment in weighing the world. The mountains popularity amongst walkers led to erosion on its footpath, the name Schiehallion is an anglicised form of the Gaelic name Sìdh Chailleann, which translates as Fairy Hill of the Caledonians. It is also known to some as The Maidens Pap, or Constant Storm and it is pronounced she-hally-on Schiehallion lies between Loch Tay, Loch Rannoch and Loch Tummel, about 10 miles to the west-north-west of Aberfeldy in Perthshire. The mountain, with an elevation of 3,553 feet, is isolated from other peaks and has an almost perfectly conical shape from the west, the view of the broad eastern flank attracts many visitors to the shores of Loch Tummel. Schiehallion is sometimes described as the centre of Scotland, the folk group Gaberlunzie sung a song The Back of Shiehallion, meaning Scotland. The slopes of Schiehallion are rich in life, with heathers, mosses. Blanket bog and heather moorland change colour with the seasons, the limestone pavement provides nutrients, supporting plants including dogs mercury, lily of the valley and wood anemone. The slopes of Schiehallion have been inhabited and cultivated since the first millennium BC until approximately two hundred years ago, Schiehallion has been used for grazing sheep and stalking red deer. Since 1999 the eastern side of the mountain has been owned by the John Muir Trust, schiehallions isolated position and regular shape led it to be selected by Charles Mason for a ground-breaking experiment to estimate the mass of the Earth in 1774. The deflection of a pendulum by the mass of the mountain provided an estimate of the density of the Earth, from which its mass. Mason turned down a commission to carry out the work and it was coordinated by Astronomer Royal. He was assisted in the task by mathematician Charles Hutton, who devised a system to represent large volumes of surveyed heights. A Munro, Schiehallion is popular with walkers due to its accessibility, ease of ascent, an estimated 17,500 to 20,000 walkers made the ascent in 2000. Most walkers start from the Forestry Commission car park at Brae of Foss, the route, which initially heads southwest before turning west to follow the main ridgeline of the hill, is about 4.5 km in length. Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles, can be seen to the north from the summit of Schiehallion, by 1999, when the John Muir Trust bought the estate, the main path had become exceedingly eroded by the passage of many thousands of walkers. The scar was visible from quite a distance, the organisation therefore decided to construct a new path, following a different line, better able to handle the pressure of visitors. The Schiehallion oilfield is named after the mountain, one of the major oilfields on Great Britains continental shelf, it is operated by BP and situated in the North Atlantic approximately 180 mi west of Shetland
19.
Scottish Gaelic
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Scottish Gaelic or Scots Gaelic, sometimes also referred to as Gaelic, is a Celtic language native to Scotland. A member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages, Scottish Gaelic, like Modern Irish and Manx, developed out of Middle Irish. The 2011 census of Scotland showed that a total of 57,375 people in Scotland could speak Gaelic at that time, the census results indicate a decline of 1,275 Gaelic speakers from 2001. A total of 87,056 people in 2011 reported having some facility with Gaelic compared to 93,282 people in 2001, only about half of speakers were fully literate in the language. Nevertheless, revival efforts exist and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 has increased, Scottish Gaelic is neither an official language of the European Union nor the United Kingdom. Outside Scotland, a group of dialects collectively known as Canadian Gaelic are spoken in parts of Atlantic Canada, mainly Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. In the 2011 census, there were 7,195 total speakers of Gaelic languages in Canada, with 1,365 in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island where the responses mainly refer to Scottish Gaelic. About 2,320 Canadians in 2011 also claimed Gaelic languages as their mother tongue, with over 300 in Nova Scotia, aside from Scottish Gaelic, the language may also be referred to simply as Gaelic. In Scotland, the word Gaelic in reference to Scottish Gaelic specifically is pronounced, outside Ireland and Great Britain, Gaelic may refer to the Irish language. Scottish Gaelic should not be confused with Scots, the Middle English-derived language varieties which had come to be spoken in most of the Lowlands of Scotland by the modern era. Prior to the 15th century, these dialects were known as Inglis by its own speakers, from the late 15th century, however, it became increasingly common for such speakers to refer to Scottish Gaelic as Erse and the Lowland vernacular as Scottis. Today, Scottish Gaelic is recognised as a language from Irish. Gaelic in Scotland was mostly confined to Dál Riata until the 8th century, when it began expanding into Pictish areas north of the Firth of Forth, by 900, Pictish appears to have become extinct, completely replaced by Gaelic. An exception might be made for the Northern Isles, however, however, though the Pictish language did not disappear suddenly, a process of Gaelicisation was clearly underway during the reigns of Caustantín and his successors. By a certain point, probably during the 11th century, all the inhabitants of Alba had become fully Gaelicised Scots, by the 10th century, Gaelic had become the dominant language throughout northern and western Scotland, the Gaelo-Pictic Kingdom of Alba. Its spread to southern Scotland, was even and totalizing. Place name analysis suggests dense usage of Gaelic in Galloway and adjoining areas to the north and west as well as in West Lothian, less dense usage is suggested for north Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, the Clyde Valley and eastern Dumfriesshire. In south-eastern Scotland, there is no evidence that Gaelic was ever widely spoken, the area shifted from Cumbric to Old English during its long incorporation into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria
20.
Dunkeld and Birnam
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Birnam is a town in Perthshire, Scotland. The town originated from the Victorian era with the coming of the railway in 1856, although the place and name is well known because William Shakespeare mentioned Birnam Wood in Macbeth. Birnam lies on the bank of the River Tay, in Perthshire’s Big Tree Country and is located 12 miles north of Perth on the A9 road, Birnam is approximately one hour from Glasgow and Edinburgh airports, and two hours from Inverness by car. There is access by rail at Dunkeld and Birnam railway station, on the London to Inverness route, there are regular bus and coach services to Birnam and Dunkeld. In 1977 Birnam along with Dunkeld was bypassed by A9, there is an ancient tree, the Birnam Oak, standing a few hundred metres from the centre of Birnam on Murthly Estate. Traditionally, it was known as The Hangmans Tree, john Everett Millais, who painted many local landscapes, and Beatrix Potter, with her family, often visited Birnam. Birnam has The Beatrix Potter Exhibition and Garden, and The Birnam Arts and Conference Centre, the Birnam Highland Games is where the World Haggis Eating Championships are held. Dunkeld and Birnam Tourist Association Dunkeld & Birnam at VisitScotland Perthshire
21.
Munro
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A Munro is a mountain in Scotland with a height over 3,000 feet. Munros are named after Sir Hugh Munro, 4th Baronet, who produced the first list of hills, known as Munros Tables. A Munro top is a summit that is not regarded as a separate mountain, in the 2012 revision of the tables, published by the Scottish Mountaineering Club, there are 282 Munros and 227 further subsidiary tops. Of these 200 have a prominence of over 150 m and are regarded by Peakbaggers as Real Munros. There are 88 Metric Munros which are Scottish mountains over 1000m with a prominence of over 200 m. The best known Munro is Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles, the Munros of Scotland present challenging conditions to hikers, particularly in winter. A popular practice amongst hillwalkers is Munro bagging, the aim being to all of the listed Munros. As of 2013, more than 5,000 had reported completing their round, before the publication of Munros Tables in 1891, there was much uncertainty about the number of Scottish peaks over 3,000 feet. Estimates ranged from 31 to 236, when the Scottish Mountaineering Club was formed in 1889, one of its aims was to remedy this by accurately documenting all of Scotlands mountains over 3,000 feet. Munro researched and produced a set of tables that were published in the Scottish Mountaineering Club Journal in September 1891. The tables listed 538 summits over 3,000 feet,282 of which were regarded as separate mountains The term Munro applies to separate mountains, while the lesser summits are known as tops. In 1992, the publication of Alan Dawsons book Relative Hills of Britain, given this they would have qualified as Corbett summits had they been under 3,000 feet. In the 1997 tables these three tops, on Beinn Alligin, Beinn Eighe and Buachaille Etive Beag, gained full Munro summit status, Dawsons book also highlighted a number of significant tops with as much as 197 feet of prominence which were not listed as Munro subsidiary tops. The 1997 tables promoted five of these to full Munro status. Other classification schemes in Scotland, such as the Corbetts 2,500 to 3,000 ft and Grahams 2,000 to 2,500 ft, require a peak to have a prominence of at least 500 feet for inclusion. The Munros, however, lack a rigid set of criteria for inclusion, with summits of lesser prominence listed. The 1997 tables ironed out many anomalies, but despite it being the highest-profile hill list in UK, during May and July 2009 the Munro Society re-surveyed several mountains that are known to be close to the 3,000 ft figure to determine their height more accurately. On 10 September 2009 the society announced that the mountain Sgùrr nan Ceannaichean, therefore, the Scottish Mountaineering Club removed the Munro status of Sgùrr nan Ceannaichean and this mountain is now a Corbett
22.
King Arthur
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King Arthur is a legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries AD. The details of Arthurs story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, the sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas. Arthurs name also occurs in early sources such as Y Gododdin. Arthur is a figure in the legends making up the so-called Matter of Britain. The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouths fanciful, how much of Geoffreys Historia was adapted from such earlier sources, rather than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established an empire over Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Norway and Gaul. The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot, in these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table. Arthurian literature thrived during the Middle Ages but waned in the centuries that followed until it experienced a resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the lives on, not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics. The historical basis for the King Arthur legend has long debated by scholars. These culminate in the Battle of Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men, recent studies, however, question the reliability of the Historia Brittonum. The other text that seems to support the case for Arthurs historical existence is the 10th-century Annales Cambriae, the Annales date this battle to 516–518, and also mention the Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut were both killed, dated to 537–539. These details have often used to bolster confidence in the Historias account. Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support the Historia Brittonums account, the latest research shows that the Annales Cambriae was based on a chronicle begun in the late 8th century in Wales. Additionally, the textual history of the Annales Cambriae precludes any certainty that the Arthurian annals were added to it even that early. They were more likely added at point in the 10th century. The Badon entry probably derived from the Historia Brittonum and this lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of sub-Roman Britain. These modern admissions of ignorance are a recent trend, earlier generations of historians were less sceptical
23.
Welsh language
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Welsh is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, historically it has also been known in English as the British tongue, Cambrian, Cambric and Cymric. The United Kingdom Census 2011 counted 3.1 million residents of Wales, 27% of whom had been born outside Wales, and 73% of whom reported having no Welsh language skills. Of residents of Wales aged three and over, 19% reported being able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were able to speak, read and this can be compared with the 2001 Census, in which 20. 8% of the population reported being able to speak Welsh. 787,854 of residents in Wales aged three and over had one or more skills in Welsh, in surveys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in the written language. An estimated 110,000 to 150,000 people speak Welsh in England, Welsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish and the extinct language known as Cumbric. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, the name Welsh originated as an exonym given to its speakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning foreign speech. The native term for the language is Cymraeg, and for the name of the country of Wales it is Cymru, Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. An 8th century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns, the next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. Both the works of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin were in this era, Middle Welsh is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells, in his Descriptio Cambriae, during one of the Kings many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire whether the Welsh people could resist his army
24.
Antonine Wall
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Representing the northernmost frontier barrier of the Roman Empire, it spanned approximately 63 kilometres and was about 3 metres high and 5 metres wide. Security was bolstered by a ditch on the northern side. It is thought there was a wooden palisade on top of the turf. The barrier was the second of two great walls created by the Romans in Northern Britain and its ruins are less evident than the better-known Hadrians Wall to the south, primarily because the turf and wood wall has largely weathered away, unlike its stone-built southern predecessor. Construction began in AD142 at the order of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius, Antoninus Pius never visited Britain, whereas his predecessor Hadrian did. Pressure from the Caledonians may have led Antoninus to send the troops further north. The Antonine Wall was protected by 16 forts with small fortlets between them, troop movement was facilitated by a road linking all the known as the Military Way. The soldiers who built the wall commemorated the construction and their struggles with the Caledonians in decorative slabs, the wall was abandoned only eight years after completion, and the garrisons relocated back to Hadrians Wall. In 208 Emperor Septimius Severus re-established legions at the wall and ordered repairs, the occupation ended a few years later, and the wall was never fortified again. Most of the wall and its associated fortifications have been destroyed over time, many of these have come under the care of Historic Scotland and the UNESCO World Heritage Committee. Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius ordered the construction of the Antonine Wall around 142, quintus Lollius Urbicus, governor of Roman Britain at the time, initially supervised the effort, which took about twelve years to complete. The wall stretches 63 kilometres from Old Kilpatrick in West Dunbartonshire on the Firth of Clyde to Carriden near Boness on the Firth of Forth, the wall was intended to extend Roman territory and dominance by replacing Hadrians Wall 160 kilometres to the south, as the frontier of Britannia. The Romans called the north of the wall Caledonia, though in some contexts the term may refer to the whole area north of Hadrians Wall. The Antonine Wall was shorter than Hadrians Wall and built of turf on a stone rather than of stone. The stone foundations and wing walls of the original forts demonstrate that the plan was to build a stone wall similar to Hadrians Wall. As built, the wall was typically a bank, about four metres high, made of layered turves and occasionally earth with a ditch on the north side. The Romans initially planned to build forts every 10 kilometres, but this was revised to every 3.3 kilometres. The best preserved but also one of the smallest forts is Rough Castle Fort
25.
Romano-British culture
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Romano-British culture is the culture that arose in Britain under the Roman Empire following the Roman conquest in AD43 and the creation of the province of Britannia. It arose as a fusion of the imported Roman culture with that of the indigenous Britons and it survived the 5th century Roman departure from Britain. Roman troops, mainly from nearby Germanic provinces, invaded Brythonic-Celtic land in AD43, in what is now part of England, over the next few years the province of Britannia was formed, eventually including the whole of what later became England and Wales and parts of Scotland. Thousands of Roman businessmen and officials and their families settled in Britannia, Roman troops from across the Empire as far as Spain, Syria, and Egypt, but mainly from the Germanic provinces of Batavia and Frisia were garrisoned in Roman towns, and many married local Britons. This diversified Britannias cultures and religions, while the populace remained mainly Celtic, later, Britain was independent of the rest of the Roman Empire for a number of years, first as part of the Gallic Empire, then 20 years later under the usurpers Carausius and Allectus. Christianity came to Britain in the 3rd century, one early figure was Saint Alban, who was martyred near the Roman town of Verulamium, on the site of the modern St Albans, during the reign of Emperor Decius. One aspect of Roman influence seen in British life was the grant of Roman citizenship, some of the local Brittonic kings, such as Togidubnus, received citizenship in this manner. The number of citizens steadily increased, as people inherited citizenship, eventually in 212, everybody except slaves and freed slaves were granted citizenship by the Constitutio Antoniniana. The other inhabitants of Britain, who did not enjoy citizenship, the principal handicaps were that they could not own land with a Latin title, serve as a legionary in the army, or, in general, inherit from a Roman citizen. But for the majority of British inhabitants, who were tied to the soil. Britannia became one of the most loyal provinces of the Empire until its decline, eventually emperor Honorius ordered Roman troops back home to help fight the invading hordes. Constantine III initially rebelled against Honorius and took further troops to Gaul, after the Roman departure from Britain, the Romano-British were commanded by Honorius to look to their own defences. Two factions may have emerged, a faction and an independence faction. The one leader at this time known by name is Vortigern, the depredations of the Picts from the north and Scotti from Ireland forced the Britons to seek help from pagan Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who then decided to settle in Britain. Some of the Romano-British people migrated to Brittany, the Kingdom of the Suebi, the Anglo-Saxons obtained control of eastern England in the 5th century. In the mid-6th century they started expanding into the Midlands, then in the 7th century they expanded again into the south-west, the unconquered parts of southern Britain, notably Wales, retained their Romano-British culture, in particular retaining Christianity. Some Anglo-Saxon histories refer to the Romano-British people by the blanket term Welsh, the term Welsh is derived from an Old English word meaning foreigner, referring to the old inhabitants of southern Britain. Historically, Wales and the peninsula were known respectively as North Wales
26.
National Museum of Scotland
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The two connected buildings stand beside each other on Chambers Street, by the intersection with the George IV Bridge, in central Edinburgh. The museum is part of National Museums Scotland, the National Museum incorporates the collections of the former National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, and the Royal Museum. The 16 new galleries reopened in 2011 include 8,000 objects,80 per cent of which were not formerly on display, one of the more notable exhibits is the stuffed body of Dolly the sheep, the first successful clone of a mammal from an adult cell. Other highlights include Ancient Egyptian exhibitions, one of Elton Johns extravagant suits, a Scottish invention that is a perennial favourite with school parties is The Maiden, an early form of guillotine. In 2016, the museum had 1.81 million visitors over the year, the Victorian building, as reopened in 2011, contains four zones, covering natural history, world cultures, European art and design, and science & technology. Beyond the Grand Gallery at ground level is the Discoveries gallery, with objects connected to remarkable Scots. in the fields of invention, exploration, monymusk Reliquary St Ninians Isle Treasure 11 of the Lewis chessmen. The original extent of the building was completed in 1888 and it was designed by civil engineer Captain Francis Fowke of the Royal Engineers, who is also responsible for the Royal Albert Hall. The exterior, designed in a Venetian Renaissance style, contrasts sharply with the main hall or Grand Gallery. Numerous extensions at the rear of the building, particularly in the 1930s,1998 saw the opening of the Museum of Scotland, which is linked internally to the Royal Museum building. The major redevelopment completed in 2011 by Gareth Hoskins Architects uses former storage areas to form a vaulted Entrance Hall of 1400 sq M at street level with visitor facilities and this involved lowering the floor level by 1.2 metres. Despite being a Class A listed building, it was possible to add lifts, the buildings architecture was controversial from the start, and Prince Charles resigned as patron of the museum, in protest at the lack of consultation over its design. The building is made up of geometric, Corbusian forms, but also has references to Scotland, such as brochs and castellated. It is clad in golden Moray sandstone, which one of its architects, Gordon Benson, has called the oldest exhibit in the building, the building was a 1999 Stirling Prize nominee. In 1861 construction of the Industrial Museum of Scotland began, with Prince Albert laying the foundation stone, in 1866, renamed the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art, the eastern end and the Grand Gallery were opened by Prince Alfred. In 1888 the building was finished and in 1904 the institution was renamed the Royal Scottish Museum, in 1998 the new Museum of Scotland building opened, adjacent to the Royal Museum, and connected to it. The old Royal Museum building closed for redevelopment in 2008, before reopening in July 2011, initially, much of the Royal Museums collection came from the museum of Edinburgh University, and there is a bridge connecting the museum to the universitys Old College building. The students saw the collection as their own, and curators would often find the exhibits rearranged or even missing. The final straw came in the 1870s, when students who were holding a party found that the museum was also holding a reception for local dignitaries, when the museum found the refreshments missing, the bridge was bricked up the next day, and has remained so since
27.
Scots language
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Scots is the Germanic language variety spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster. It is sometimes called Lowland Scots to distinguish it from Scottish Gaelic, the Celtic language which was restricted to most of the Highlands. The language developed during the Middle English period as a distinct entity, although a number of paradigms for distinguishing between languages and dialects do exist, these often render contradictory results. Broad Scots is at one end of a linguistic continuum. Scots is often regarded as one of the ancient varieties of English, alternatively, Scots is sometimes treated as a distinct Germanic language, in the way Norwegian is closely linked to, yet distinct from, Danish. In the 2011 Scottish census, a question on Scots language ability was featured, native speakers sometimes refer to their vernacular as braid Scots or use a dialect name such as the Doric, or the Buchan Claik. The old-fashioned Scotch, an English loan, occurs occasionally, especially in Northern Ireland, the term Lallans, a variant of the Modern Scots word lawlands, is also used, though this is more often taken to mean the Lallans literary form. Scots in Ireland is known in circles as Ulster-Scots or Ullans. Scots is a contraction of Scottis, the Older Scots and northern version of late Old English Scottisc, before the end of the 15th century, English speech in Scotland was known as English, whereas Scottish referred to Gaelic. From 1495 the term Scottis was increasingly used to refer to the Lowland vernacular and Erse, meaning Irish, the Gaelic of Scotland is now usually called Scottish Gaelic. Northumbrian Old English had been established in what is now southeastern Scotland as far as the River Forth by the seventh century and it remained largely confined to this area until the thirteenth century, continuing in common use while Gaelic was the language of the Scottish court. Scots also includes loan words resulting from contact with Gaelic, Early medieval legal documents include a body of Gaelic legal and administrative loans. Contemporary Gaelic loans are mainly for geographical and cultural features, such as ceilidh, loch, from the thirteenth century Early Scots spread further into Scotland via the burghs, proto-urban institutions which were first established by King David I. The growth in prestige of Early Scots in the century. By the sixteenth century Middle Scots had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England, from 1610 to the 1690s during the Plantation of Ulster large numbers of Scots-speaking Lowlanders, some 200,000, settled there. In the core areas of Scots settlement, Scots outnumbered English settlers by five or six to one, Modern Scots is used to describe the language after 1700 when southern Modern English was generally adopted as the literary language though Scots remained the vernacular. In Scotland, Scots is spoken in the Scottish Lowlands, the Northern Isles, Caithness, Arran, in Ulster it is spoken in the Counties of Down, Antrim, Londonderry and Donegal. Dialects include Insular Scots, Northern Scots, Central Scots, Southern Scots, many speakers are either diglossic and/or able to code-switch along the continuum depending on the situation in which they find themselves
28.
Glasgow Caledonian University
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Glasgow Caledonian University is a public university in Glasgow, Scotland. It was formed in 1993 by the merger of The Queens College, as of 2015 it is one of Scotlands largest universities with nearly 20,000 students. It is regularly ranked among the UKs top 10 modern universities, Pamela Gillies is the Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University, appointed in 2006. The University traces its origin from The Queens College, Glasgow, the Queen’s College, which specialised in providing training in domestic science, received the Royal accolade of being named after Queen Elizabeth II in its centenary celebrations in 1975. Queen Elizabeth II was, herself, Patron of the College since 1944, on 1 April 1993, the two institutions amalgamated to form Glasgow Caledonian University. The new university took its name from Caledonia, the poetic Latin name for present-day Scotland, the main campus of the university is built on the site of the former Buchanan Street Station, built by the Caledonian Railway. The University’s coat of arms is the work of university academic and artist Malcolm Lochhead, the Caledonian Oak Tree and the Book of Knowledge were borrowed from the arms of Glasgow Polytechnic while the Saltire Ermine and the Crossed Keys were taken from the arms of The Queen’s College. A visual feature was added to the new arms with the capital letters in the Book’s paragraphs reading. The Coat of Arms was matriculated by the Lord Lyon King of Arms and is inscribed into university degree parchments, the University’s motto, for the common weal, which has been adopted since 1975, features in the full design of the arms. GCUs main campus is in Glasgow city-centre, a second campus in London is home to the British School of Fashion. In September 2013 the university launched a campus in New York, the Wooster Street campus in the citys SoHo district is modelled on its London campus. The School performs research into built environment and connections with leaders in growing markets such as games design. The School also has a Centre for Climate Justice, which is involved in relevant research for development, teaching and learning. GCU became a PRiME signatory in January 2012 and is a member of the UK. GCU is a member of Business in the Community Scotland and school students and staff manage the Work Ready Action Programme and it is designated a Centre of Excellence by the Chartered Institute for Securities and Investment and is the only business school to offer triple-accredited degrees in financial services. The school is home to the Moffat Centre, one of the world’s university research centres in tourism. GCU is ranked in the Top 20 in the UK for allied health research at world-leading, the School is, since 1993, Scotland’s only designated World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Nursing and Midwifery Education, Research, and Practice. The university’s Principal and Vice-Chancellor and the President of the Students’ Association are ex officio governors of the Court, the University Senate, on the other hand, is statutory tasked with the overall planning, co-ordination, development and supervision of the Universitys academic affairs
29.
Caledonian MacBrayne
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Since 2006 the companys official name has been CalMac Ferries Ltd although it still operates as Caledonian MacBrayne. In 2006 it also became a subsidiary of holding company David MacBrayne Ltd, MacBraynes, initially known as David Hutcheson & Co. began in 1851 as a private steamship operator when G. and J. Their main route went from Glasgow down the Firth of Clyde through the Crinan Canal to Oban and Fort William, David Hutcheson was married to Margaret Dawson who was born at her parents home Bonnytoun House in Linlithgow. She was the sister of Adam Dawson who owned the St. Magdalene Whisky Distillery in Linlithgow, in 2011 Glasgow historian Robert Pool added over 200 letters and documents to his collection relating to David Hutcheson and the Dawson family. With the retirement of the founders of David Hutcheson & Co in the 1870s, their partner David MacBrayne gained full ownership, and changed the companys name accordingly. It remained in the hands of the MacBrayne family until 1928 when, unable to carry on, it was acquired jointly by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway and its ships featured red funnels with a black top. It extended its line to bypass the G & SW Princes Pier at Greenock and continue on to the village of Gourock. Their funnels were painted yellow with a black top, at the same time the North British Railway fleet became part of the London and North Eastern Railway. With nationalisation in 1948 the LMS and LNER fleets were amalgamated under British Railways with the name Clyde Shipping Services, in 1957 a reorganisation restored the CSP name, and in 1965 a red lion was added to each side of the black-topped yellow funnels. The headquarters remained at Gourock pierhead, at the end of December 1968 management of the CSP passed to the Scottish Transport Group, which gained control of MacBraynes the following June. The MacBrayne service from Gourock to Ardrishaig ended on 30 September 1969, funnels were now painted red with a black top, and a yellow circle at the side of the funnel featuring the red Caledonian lion. In 1974 a new car ferry service from Gourock to Dunoon was introduced with the ferries MV Jupiter, in 1990 the ferry business was spun off as a separate company, keeping the Caledonian MacBrayne brand, and shares were issued in the company. All shares were owned by the state, first in the person of the Secretary of State for Scotland, the ambitious programme ran into financial difficulties, and the service was again put out to tender. Caledonian MacBrayne won this tender, and formed a company called NorthLink Ferries Limited which began operating the Northern Isles ferry service on 6 July 2006. On 29 May 2012, NorthLink Ferries Ltd lost the contract for provision of the Northern Isles ferry services to Serco, to meet the requirements of European Union Community guidelines on state aid to maritime transport, the companys routes were put out to open tender. To enable competitive bidding on a basis, Caledonian MacBrayne was split into two separate companies on 1 October 2006. Caledonian Maritime Assets Limited retained ownership of CalMac vessels and infrastructure, including harbours and their bid for the main bundle, Clyde and Hebrides Ferry Services, succeeded and on 1 October 2007 CalMac Ferries Ltd began operating these services on a six-year contract. The Gourock to Dunoon service was the subject of a separate tender, in an interim arrangement CalMac Ferries Ltd continued to provide a subsidised service on this route, until 29 June 2011, when Argyll Ferries took over the service
30.
British Caledonian
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British Caledonian was a private, British independent airline, operating out of Gatwick Airport in south-east England during the 1970s and 1980s. It was created as an alternative to the British government-controlled corporation airlines and was described as the Second Force in the 1969 Edwards report, the BUA takeover enabled Caledonian to realise its long-held ambition to transform itself into a scheduled airline. The merged entity became the UKs foremost independent, international scheduled airline. A series of financial setbacks during the mid-1980s combined with the airlines inability to grow sufficiently to reach a viable size put the airline at serious risk of collapse. BCal began looking for a partner to improve its competitive position. In December 1987, British Airways gained control of the airline, the Caledonian name and livery was then used to rebrand BAs Gatwick-based subsidiary British Airtours as Caledonian Airways. The Edwards Committee was formed in 1967 to look at the future of British aviation and its report published in May 1969 made a number of recommendations. One of them was that a second force airline should be formed from Britains independent operators to expand the UKs airline capacity on short- and this private airline would get preference to be the second licensed British operator on a given route. In exchange for routes from the state corporations the corporations were expected to gain presence on the second forces board, two British independents were specifically mentioned - Caledonian and BUA. At the governments instigation Caledonian - a 10-year-old profitable charter operator - took over the older, the resulting company was initially known as Caledonian/BUA before becoming British Caledonian Airways. The rapid expansion of British Caledonian suffered a setback during the 1973-75 recession which followed in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis. This undermined the financial stability during its formative years and threatened its survival at that stage. Following economic revival during that second half, it regained its financial stability, enabling it to expand again. There were many ups and downs for British Caledonian during the 1980s, BCal suffered a series of major setbacks as a result of several geopolitical events that occurred during that decade. Transatlantic bookings fell as a result of the American bombing of Libya, the routes accounted for 25% of revenue. Devaluation and currency export controls affecting Nigeria cut off revenue from West African routes, total revenue loss as £80 million. These events significantly weakened BCal operationally and financially and they were the main factors that contributed to the airlines demise during the second half of that decade. BCal disposed of assets and made redundancies but the benefit only lasted until mid-1987. a merger of BCal and newly privatized BA was announced but other bids for the business and referral to Monopolies Commission was followed by BCal turning back on the merger proposal
31.
Caledonian Railway
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The Caledonian Railway was a major Scottish railway company. It was formed in the early 19th century with the objective of forming a link between English railways and Glasgow and it progressively extended its network soon reaching Edinburgh and Aberdeen, with a dense network of branch lines in the area surrounding Glasgow. It was absorbed into the London, Midland and Scottish Railway in 1923, many of its principal routes continue active at the present day, and the original main line between Carlisle and Glasgow is in use as part of the West Coast Main Line railway. In the mid-1830s railways in England evolved from local concerns to longer routes that connected cities, in Scotland it was clear that this was the way forward, and there was a desire to connect the central belt to the incipient English network. Although the company was supported by Scottish investors, more than half of its shares were held in England, the company established primacy in some areas, but remained less than successful in others, considerable sums were expended in the process, not always finding the approval of shareholders. It extended from Aberdeen to Portpatrick, and from Oban to Carlisle, running passenger services. The industrial development led to the construction of other railways contiguous with the M&KR, in particular the Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway and these two lines worked in harmony, merging to form the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway in 1841, and competing with the M&KR and its allies. All these lines used the track gauge of 4 ft 6in. During this period, the first long-distance railways were opened in England, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and it was clearly desirable to connect central Scotland into the emerging network. At first it was assumed that one route from Scotland to England would be feasible. Many competing schemes were put forward, not all of them well thought out, the share capital was to be £1,800,000. The Glasgow and Edinburgh lines combined at Carstairs, and the route ran through Annandale, however if they hoped to operate the only Anglo-Scottish route, they were disappointed. The North British Railway opened between Edinburgh and Berwick-upon-Tweed on 22 June 1846, forming part of what has become the East Coast Main Line, the main line was opened from Carlisle to Beattock on 10 September 1847, and throughout between Glasgow and Carlisle on 15 February 1848. A continuous railway route between Glasgow and London existed for the first time, the Caledonian Railways Edinburgh line from Carstairs opened on 1 April 1848. The terminal at Edinburgh was Lothian Road, Glasgow was reached over the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway, and the Wishaw and Coltness Railway, which the Caledonian had leased from 1 January 1847 and 1 January 1846 respectively. The Glasgow station was the Townhead terminus of the Glasgow, Garnkirk, during the process of seeking Parliamentary authorisation, the Caledonian observed that the Clydesdale Junction Railway was being promoted. The Caledonian acquired that line during its construction, and it opened in 1849 and it gave an alternative, and shorter access to another Glasgow passenger terminal, named South Side, and to the Clyde Quays at General Terminus. The South Side station was already being used by the Glasgow, Barrhead and Neilston Direct Railway, one day, they hoped, they might extend that line into Ayrshire
32.
Caledonian Sleeper
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Caledonian Sleeper is the collective name for overnight sleeper train services between London and Scotland, in the United Kingdom. It is one of only two services on the railway in the United Kingdom. Two services depart London each night from Sunday to Friday and travel via the West Coast Main Line to Scotland, the earlier departure divides at Edinburgh into portions for Aberdeen, Fort William and Inverness. The later departure serves Edinburgh and Glasgow splitting at Carstairs, five London bound portions depart from these destinations each night, combining into two trains at Edinburgh and Carstairs. Since April 2015, the Caledonian Sleeper has been a franchise operated by Serco. Prior to this it was part of the ScotRail franchise, Sleeper trains had operated between London and Scotland since the completion of the line in the 1850s. Services operated from both London Euston via the West Coast Main Line including the Royal Highlander and London Kings Cross via the East Coast Main Line until the latter were withdrawn in May 1988. InterCity planned to remove all seating accommodation on the services from May 1992. After 12 months the Stagecoach carriages were withdrawn, on 5 March 1995, responsibility for operation of the Anglo-Scottish services passed within British Rail from InterCity West Coast to ScotRail. Eventually British Rail agreed to retain the Fort William portion, the motorail service was withdrawn in 1995. On 4 June 1996, the service was relaunched as the Caledonian Sleeper with the Night Caledonian, Night Scotsman, Night Aberdonian, Royal Highlander, on 31 March 1997, as part of the ScotRail franchise it was taken over by National Express. In March 1998, the West Coast Main Line portions which had been hauled by Virgin Trains Class 87s, were taken over by English Welsh & Scottish Class 90s. In January 2000, sitting carriages were introduced with 11 ex Virgin Trains Mark 2 carriages refurbished at Wolverton railway works with first class recliners, at the same time the Mark 3 sleeping carriages were refurbished with a purple and blue livery applied. From June 2001, Class 67s began to replace Class 47s on the Aberdeen, in June 2006, they replaced Class 37s on the Fort William portion. On 17 October 2004, the Caledonian Sleeper along with the rest of the ScotRail franchise was taken over by First ScotRail, the carriages were painted in FirstGroups corporate blue, pink and white livery as were three Class 90s. In 2012 the Scottish Government announced that as part of the reletting of the ScotRail franchise from April 2015 and it was stated that a total of £100 million would be invested in new and additional rolling stock. In June 2013, Transport Scotland announced Arriva, FirstGroup and Serco had been shortlisted to bid for the new franchise, in May 2014, the franchise was awarded to Serco with a commitment to replace the Mark 2 and Mark 3 coaching stock by 2018. Some terminus station have lounges and ticketing/customer service desks, two trains depart London Euston on six nights per week, Sunday to Friday, heading north on the West Coast Main Line
33.
Train
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A train is a form of rail transport consisting of a series of vehicles that usually runs along a rail track to transport cargo or passengers. Motive power is provided by a locomotive or individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Although historically steam propulsion dominated, the most common forms are diesel and electric locomotives. Other energy sources include horses, engine or water-driven rope or wire winch, gravity, pneumatics, batteries, the word train comes from the Old French trahiner, from the Latin trahere pull, draw. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train may consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. A passenger train is one which includes passenger-carrying vehicles which can often be very long, one notable and growing long-distance train category is high-speed rail. In order to much faster operation over 500 km/h, innovative Maglev technology has been researched for years. In most countries, such as the United Kingdom, the distinction between a tramway and a railway is precise and defined in law, a freight train uses freight cars to transport goods or materials. Freight and passengers may be carried in the train in a mixed consist. Rail cars and machinery used for maintenance and repair of tracks, etc. are termed maintenance of way equipment, similarly, dedicated trains may be used to provide support services to stations along a train line, such as garbage or revenue collection. There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes, a train can consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit. Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, special kinds of trains running on corresponding special railways are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives and coaches, alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a multiple unit. In many parts of the world, particularly the Far East and Europe, freight trains are composed of wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains are outwardly more like passenger trains. Trains can also be mixed, comprising both passenger accommodation and freight vehicles, special trains are also used for track maintenance, in some places, this is called maintenance of way. A train with a locomotive attached at each end is described as top and tailed, where a second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up steep banks or grades it is referred to as banking in the UK, or helper service in North America. Recently, many loaded trains in the United States have been made up one or more locomotives in the middle or at the rear of the train
34.
Inverness Caledonian Thistle F.C.
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Inverness Caledonian Thistle Football Club is a professional football club from Inverness, Scotland who compete in the Scottish Premiership. They are currently managed by Richie Foran, Caledonian Thistle F. C. were formed in August 1994 by the merger of Caledonian and Inverness Thistle, both members of the Highland Football League. The new club was formed with a view to applying for one of the two vacancies in the Scottish Football League, created when the league restructured in 1994 to four divisions of ten teams each. They were successful and were elected to the Scottish Third Division along with Highland derby rivals Ross County, the clubs name was amended to Inverness Caledonian Thistle F. C. in 1996 at the request of Inverness District Council. Inverness also knocked other SPL teams out of cup competitions, including Motherwell, over the first ten years of their existence the club had been responsible for a total of 12 shocks and as a result had gained themselves a reputation as being giant killers. On 25 February 2007, Invernesss run of cup victories over Celtic came to an end following two goals in the last two minutes of their fifth round tie at Caledonian Stadium. Having led 1–0 for the majority of the thanks to a Graham Bayne goal. A significant event in the history was the signing of Romanian international Marius Niculae. Niculae was involved in the clubs 2007–08 campaign and played at UEFA Euro 2008 and he later became involved in a dispute with the club over a share of the transfer fee that was not paid to him when he left. As a result, Inverness were ordered by FIFA to pay £133,000 to the player, the club appealed against the decision to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, and in November 2011, the club won their appeal. Having won the 2009–10 First Division title in their first year back in the division since 2003–04, Season 2014–15 saw the club finish in their best ever placing of third. After a promising start to their campaign in 1994–95, the club eventually finished sixth in the Third Division. The following season, Inverness CT showed improvement with a third-place finish, in Season 1996–97, they won the Third Division Championship following a 4–1 home win over Albion Rovers in front of nearly 3,000 fans. This was just 5 months after moving into the Caledonian Stadium, the club spent two seasons in the Second Division. After a closely fought campaign, they finished runners-up to Livingston in Season 1998–99, Season 2003–2004 could be regarded as the clubs most successful up to that point. This made the club eligible for promotion to the Scottish Premier League, however, SPL rules at that time stated that all member clubs must have a stadium with a minimum capacity of 10,000 seats. Caledonian Stadium did not meet this criterion, leaving the clubs Board with a dilemma, either to remain in the First Division or to groundshare with Aberdeen, over 100 miles away. After consulting with supporters, the Board decided the sacrifice of one season in Aberdeen would be a compromise to ensure Premier League participation for the club
35.
Association football
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Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal, players are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, unless they are goalkeepers. Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, the team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, the Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football, the first written reference to the inflated ball used in the game was in the mid-14th century, Þe heued fro þe body went, Als it were a foteballe. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the word soccer was split off in 1863, according to Partha Mazumdar, the term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford -er abbreviation of the word association. Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States. People in Australia, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand use either or both terms, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use football for the formal name. According to FIFA, the Chinese competitive game cuju is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence, cuju players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net. It was remarkably similar to football, though similarities to rugby occurred. During the Han Dynasty, cuju games were standardised and rules were established, phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup, athenaeus, writing in 228 AD, referenced the Roman ball game harpastum. Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence and they all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all football codes. Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan, chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia, Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England
36.
Caledonia (song)
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Caledonia is a modern Scottish folk ballad written by Dougie MacLean in 1977. The chorus of the features the lyric Caledonia, youre calling me, and now Im going home. The song became the most popular of all MacLeans recordings and something of an anthem for Scotland, Caledonia has been covered by a great number of artists. MacLean wrote the song in less than 10 minutes on a beach in Brittany, France and he said, “I was in my early 20s and had been busking around with some Irish guys. I played it to the guys when I got back to the hostel where we were staying. He adds, It took about 10 minutes but sometimes that’s how songs happen, Im still amazed at how much it has become part of common culture. There’s not a pub singer, busker or pipe band that doesn’t play it, the song is very similar in its sentiments to a much earlier song called Jean and Caledonia. Caledonia was first recorded by its writer Dougie MacLean and published in his 1979 joint album credited to Alan Roberts, MacLean plays the song in the key of E using Open C tuning with a capo on the 4th fret. Caledonia has been covered by a number of artists. The majority of these covers have been by artists from either Scotland or Ireland, there have also been some adaptations by non-Celtic performers. Dolores Keane recorded a popular cover of the song on her self-titled solo album Dolores Keane in 1988. The well-known version by Frankie Miller came first when used in the 1991 television advertisement for Tennents Lager, later released as a full single. In 1998, it was covered by Belgiums Micha Marah as Caledonia, two more covers followed in 2008, one by Celtic Thunder in their self-titled album Celtic Thunder and by Leon Jackson in his debut album Right Now. In 2009, Ronan Keating recorded his version on his album Winter Songs, nathan Carter recorded it in 2012 in his album Wagon Wheel accompanied by a new music video. Irish singer/songwriter Wallis Bird recorded a version for the edition of her 2014 album ARCHITECT. Initially a minor hit for Dougie MacLean himself, the fame had a new boost in 1991 when a cover interpretation sung by Frankie Miller was used in a Tennents Lager television advert. Miller had only recorded the first verse and the chorus for the advertisement, but the public response was immediate and so enormous that Frankie was forced to re-record the whole song and release it as an independent single. A music video was launched for the song, the song reached number 45 in March 1991 on the UK Singles Chart
37.
Folk music
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Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century, but is applied to music older than that. Some types of music are also called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways, as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers and it has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. Starting in the century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times and this type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, electric folk, and others. Even individual songs may be a blend of the two, a consistent definition of traditional folk music is elusive. The terms folk music, folk song, and folk dance are comparatively recent expressions and they are extensions of the term folklore, which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes. Traditional folk music also includes most indigenous music, however, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no certain definition of what folk music is. Some do not even agree that the term Folk Music should be used, Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics but it cannot clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms. One meaning often given is that of old songs, with no known composers, the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character. Such definitions depend upon processes rather than abstract musical types, one widely used definition is simply Folk music is what the people sing. For Scholes, as well as for Cecil Sharp and Béla Bartók, Folk music was already. seen as the authentic expression of a way of life now past or about to disappear, particularly in a community uninfluenced by art music and by commercial and printed song. In these terms folk music may be seen as part of a schema comprising four types, primitive or tribal, elite or art, folk. Music in this genre is often called traditional music. Although the term is only descriptive, in some cases people use it as the name of a genre
38.
Ballad
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A ballad /ˈbæləd/ is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music. Ballads derive from the medieval French chanson balladée or ballade, which were originally danced songs, Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and song of the British Isles from the later medieval period until the 19th century. They were widely used across Europe, and later in the Americas, Australia, Ballads are 13 lines with an ABABBCBC form, consisting of couplets of rhymed verse, each of 14 syllables. Many ballads were written and sold as single sheet broadsides, the form was often used by poets and composers from the 18th century onwards to produce lyrical ballads. In the later 19th century, the took on the meaning of a slow form of popular love song and is now often used for any love song. The ballad derives its name from medieval French dance songs or ballares, from which ballet is also derived, as a narrative song, their theme and function may originate from Scandinavian and Germanic traditions of storytelling that can be seen in poems such as Beowulf. Musically they were influenced by the Minnesinger, the earliest example of a recognizable ballad in form in England is Judas in a 13th-century manuscript. This means that the two words, ballad and ballet, are derived from the French language. Ballads were originally written to accompany dances, and so were composed in couplets with refrains in alternate lines and these refrains would have been sung by the dancers in time with the dance. Most northern and west European ballads are written in ballad stanzas or quatrains of alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter, known as ballad meter. Usually, only the second and fourth line of a quatrain are rhymed, there is considerable variation on this pattern in almost every respect, including length, number of lines and rhyming scheme, making the strict definition of a ballad extremely difficult. Ballads usually use the dialect of the people and are heavily influenced by the region in which they originate. Scottish ballads in particular are distinctively un-English, even showing some pre-Christian influences in the inclusion of elements such as the fairies in the Scottish ballad Tam Lin. The ballads do not have any known author or correct version, instead, having passed down mainly by oral tradition since the Middle Ages. The ballads remained a tradition until the increased interest in folk songs in the 18th century led collectors such as Bishop Thomas Percy to publish volumes of popular ballads. In all traditions most ballads are narrative in nature, with a story, often concise, and rely on imagery, rather than description. Themes concerning rural laborers and their sexuality are common, and there are many ballads based on the Robin Hood legend. Another common feature of ballads is repetition, sometimes of fourth lines in succeeding stanzas, as a refrain, sometimes of third and fourth lines of a stanza and sometimes of entire stanzas
39.
Dougie MacLean
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Dougie MacLean, OBE is a Scottish singer-songwriter, composer, multi-instrumentalist and record producer. The latter has been covered by popular singers and groups. To support himself in the 1970s, MacLean was a driver for Doc Watson and he maintained a friendship afterward and has appeared at Merlefest. His career started with a band, The Tannahill Weavers. In the early 1980s, he was part of Silly Wizard. His solo career started in 1981 and since then he has recorded numerous albums and he plays multiple instruments, including guitar, violin, mandola, viola, bouzouki, banjo and bass as well as being a singer and composer. MacLean has organised and performed in the Perthshire Amber festival, Birnam & Dunkeld, alongside multiple performances at Celtic Connections, in 2011, MacLean was invested as an Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. In 2013, MacLean was awarded the BBC Radio 2 Folk Award for Lifetime Achievement for Contribution to Songwriting, the award was presented by First Minister Alex Salmond at Glasgow Royal Concert Hall
40.
Amy Macdonald
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Amy Elizabeth Macdonald is a Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and recording artist. She has sold over 9 million records worldwide, Macdonald released her debut album This Is the Life in 2007. The singles Mr. Rock & Roll and This Is the Life from it were chart hits, the latter charted at number one in six countries, while reaching the top 10 in another 11 countries. The album reached number one in four European countries–the United Kingdom, Denmark, moderate success in the American music market followed in 2008. Macdonalds second album, A Curious Thing, was released on 8 March 2010, five singles have since been released from A Curious Thing. Macdonald is one of the artists who appeared with Ray Davies on his 2010 album See My Friends and her third album, Life in a Beautiful Light, was released on 11 June 2012. It supplied three singles, Slow It Down, which became a number 45 hit on the UK Singles Charts, Pride, which charted at number 87 on the Scottish Singles Charts, and 4th of July. After being inspired by Travis at the T in the Park Festival in 2000, she heard Travis song Turn and she bought a Travis chord book, and started playing on her fathers guitar, teaching herself how to play at only 12 years old. Soon afterward she began composing her own songs, the first being called The Wall and she started playing in pubs and coffee houses around Glasgow at the age of 15, including the Brunswick Cellars on Sauchiehall Street. Macdonald sent a demo CD in response to an advertisement placed in the NME by a new company set up by songwriters Pete Wilkinson. In an interview with HitQuarters, Wilkinson said he was literally aghast at her abilities when first he heard Macdonald play the songs This Is the Life. I said, Amy, who wrote those songs, I said, No, you didnt, giggling, hoping she really did. She said, I bloody well did, I told her she was extraordinarily talented, and the moment she sang those songs I remembered her voice and the hooks, which out of 500 was a very good sign. Wilkinson then spent around eight or nine months recording demos with Macdonald at his studio with a view to securing a record deal for his new client. In 2007 she signed a contract with Vertigo, Macdonald received her first major press coverage when she questioned whether the 2007 winner of The X Factor, Leon Jackson, was suffering from tonsillitis, referring to it as lazyitis. Macdonald had tonsillitis at the time but still performed at Glasgow. In 2007, Macdonald released her album, titled This Is the Life. The album sold 3 million copies, and reached No.1 in the UK and this Is the Life reached No.92 on the US Billboard 200
41.
Caledonian Forest
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The Caledonian Forest is the name given to the former temperate rainforest of Scotland. The name comes to us from Pliny the Elder who tells us that 30 years after the Roman invasion of Britain their knowledge of it did not extend beyond the neighbourhood of silva caledonia. He gives no information about where the silva caledonia was, but the extent of the Roman occupation suggest that it was north of the River Clyde. The Scots pines of the Caledonian Forest are directly descended from the first pines to arrive in Scotland following the Late Glacial, the forest reached its maximum extent about 5000 BCE, after which the Scottish climate became wetter and windier. This changed climate reduced the extent of the forest significantly by 2000 BCE, from that date, human actions reduced it to its current extent. Today, that forest exists as 35 remnants, as authenticated by Steven & Carlisle covering about 180 square kilometres or 44,000 acres, the Scots pines of these remnants are, by definition, directly descended from the first pines to arrive in Scotland following the ice age. To a great extent the remnants survived on land that was too steep, too rocky. The largest remnants are in Strathspey and Strath Dee on highly acidic, freely drained glacial deposits that are of value for cultivation. An examination of the earliest maps of Scotland suggests that the extent of the Caledonian Forest remnants has changed little since 1600, following the last glacial period, trees began to recolonise what is now the British Isles over a land bridge which is now beneath the Strait of Dover. On the west coast, oak and birch predominated in a temperate rainforest ecosystem rich in ferns, mosses and lichens. In the Matter of Britain, the forest is the site of one of King Arthurs Twelve Battles, according to the Historia Brittonum, in which the battle is called Cat Coit Celidon. Scholars Rachel Bromwich and Marged Haycock suggest that the army of trees animated by sorcerers in the Old Welsh poem Cad Goddeu are intended to be the Caledonian Forest. In related Merlin literature, the figure of Myrddin Wyllt retreated to these woods in his madness after the Battle of Arfderydd in the year 573 and he fled from the alleged wrath of the king of Strathclyde, Rhydderch Hael, after the slaying of Gwenddoleu ap Ceidio. This is written in the two Merlinic poems in Middle Welsh Yr Oinau and Yr Afallenau in the Black Book of Carmarthen. The forest is also the retreat of another character named Lailoken from the Vita Kentigerni, who fled into the woods in a fit of madness. In the Middle Welsh story Culhwch and Olwen, the main character Culhwch is the son of a king named Celyddon Wledig, who may or may not be related to the forest in name. Another figure from the story, Cyledyr Wyllt hints at a close relationship of the forest being a retreat for people who suffered from a special kind of madness or gwyllt. In line 994 to 996 of the story, it is explained, a Chyledyr Wyllt y uab, a llad Nwython a oruc a diot y gallon
42.
Scotia
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Scotia was originally a Roman name for Ireland, inhabited by the people they called Scoti or Scotii. Use of the name shifted in the Middle Ages to designate the part of the island of Great Britain lying north of the Firth of Forth, by the later Middle Ages it had become the fixed Latin term for what in English is called Scotland. The name of Scotland is derived from the Latin Scoti, the applied to Gaels. The origin of the word Scoti is uncertain and it is found in Latin texts from the 4th century describing a tribe which sailed from Ireland to raid Roman Britain. It came to be applied to all the Gaels and it is not believed that any Gaelic groups called themselves Scoti in ancient times, except when writing in Latin. Old Irish documents use the term Scot going back as far as the 9th century, for example in the glossary of Cormac úa Cuilennáin. Oman derives it from Scuit, a man cut off, suggesting that a Scuit was not a Gael as such, pope Leo X decreed that the use of the name Scotia be confined to referring to land that is now Scotland. Virtually all names for Scotland are based on the Scotia root, the only exceptions are the Celtic languages where the names are based on the Alba root, e. g. Manx Nalbin, Welsh Yr Alban, Irish Albain. Scotia was a way of saying Land of the Gaels, compare Angli, Anglia, Franci, Francia, Romani, Romania, etc. It originally was used as a name for Ireland, as when Isidore of Seville in 580 CE says Scotia and Hibernia are the same country, but the connotation is still ethnic. This is how it is used, for instance, by King Robert I of Scotland and Domhnall Ua Néill during the Scottish Wars of Independence, when Ireland was called Scotia Maior, and Scotland Scotia Minor. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the coasts on the Irish Sea were raided by pirates either from Eastern Ireland or Western Scotland. They did gain power in Western Scotland, originated new small kingdoms, and reinforced the idea of a common origin and that Scotland was somehow populated by Gaelic Irish. However, after the 11th century, Scotia, when Scotland was already stabilised as a nation-kingdom, was used mostly for northern Great Britain, and in this way became the fixed designation. As a translation of Alba, Scotia could mean both the whole Kingdom belonging to the rex Scottorum, or just Scotland north of the Forth. Pope Leo X of the Roman Catholic Church eventually granted Scotland exclusive right over the word, according to the Middle Irish language synthetic history Lebor Gabála Érenn she was the daughter of Pharaoh Necho II of Egypt. Other sources say that Scota was the daughter of Pharaoh Neferhotep I of Egypt and his wife Senebsen, and was the wife of Míl, that is Milesius, and the mother of Éber Donn and Érimón. Míl had given Neferhotep military aid against ancient Ethiopia and was given Scota in marriage as a reward for his services, writing in 1571, Edmund Campion named the pharaoh Amenophis, Keating named him Cincris
43.
Albion
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Albion is the oldest known name of the island of Great Britain. Today, it is sometimes used poetically to refer to the island. The name for Scotland in the Celtic languages is related to Albion, Alba in Scottish Gaelic, Albain in Irish, Nalbin in Manx and Alban in Welsh, Cornish and these names were later Latinised as Albania and Anglicised as Albany, which were once alternative names for Scotland. New Albion and Albionoria were briefly suggested as names of Canada during the period of the Canadian Confederation, arthur Phillip, first leader of the colonization of Australia, originally named Sydney Cove New Albion, but for uncertain reasons the colony acquired the name Sydney. The Common Brittonic name for the island, Hellenised as Albíōn and Latinised as Albiōn, derives from the Proto-Celtic nasal stem *Albi̯iū, the name originally referred to Britain as a whole, but was later restricted to Caledonia. The root *albiio- is also found in Gaulish and Galatian albio- and it may be related to other European and Mediterranean toponyms such as Alpes, Albania and Liban. It has two possible etymologies, either *albho-, a Proto-Indo-European root meaning white, or *alb-, Proto-Indo-European for hill, likewise, Pytheas, as directly or indirectly quoted in the surviving excerpts of his works in later writers, speaks of Albiōn and Iernē. Pytheass grasp of the νῆσος Πρεττανική is somewhat blurry, and appears to include anything he considers a western island, the name Albion was used by Isidore of Charax and subsequently by many classical writers. By the 1st century AD, the name refers unequivocally to Great Britain, but this enigmatic name for Britain, revived much later by Romantic poets like William Blake, did not remain popular among Greek writers. It was soon replaced by Πρεττανία and Βρεττανία, Βρεττανός, from these words the Romans derived the Latin forms Britannia, Britannus, and Britannicus respectively. Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History likewise has, It was itself named Albion, in his 2nd century Geography, Ptolemy uses the name Ἀλουΐων instead of the Roman name Britannia, possibly following the commentaries of Marinus of Tyre. He calls both Albion and Ierne νῆσοι Βρεττανικαὶ, in 930, the English king Æthelstan used the title Rex et primicerius totius Albionis regni. His nephew, Edgar the Peaceful, styled himself Totius Albionis imperator augustus Augustus Emperor of all Albion in 970, a legend exists in various forms that giants were either the original inhabitants, or the founders of the land named Albion. The island was then called Albion, and inhabited by none, Geoffrey goes on to recount how the last of the giants are defeated, the largest one called Goëmagot is flung over a cliff by Corineus. Later, in the 14th century, an elaborate tale was developed, claiming that Albina and her sisters founded Albion. The Albina story survives in several forms, including the octosyllabic Anglo-Norman poem Des grantz geanz dating to 1300—1334 A prose English translation is given in Richard Barbers anthology, the eldest daughter Albina was the first to set shore and lay claim to the land, naming it after herself. At first, the women gathered acorns and fruits, but once they learned to hunt and obtain meat, as no other humans inhabited the land, they mated with evil spirits called incubi, and subsequently with the sons they begot, engendering a race of giants. These giants are evidenced by huge bones which are unearthed, brutus arrived 260 years after Albina,1136 before the birth of Christ, but by then there were only 24 giants left, due to inner strife
Haverfield, Francis (1911). "Caledonia". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 987.
The dictionary definition of Caledonia at Wiktionary