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Western Association of Schools and Colleges
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The Western Association of Schools and Colleges has jurisdiction over the U. S. Western Association of Schools and Colleges is divided into three groups, the Accrediting Commission for Schools accredits all schools below the college level. Included are elementary, junior high, middle, high and adult schools, whether public, private, the Accrediting Commission for Senior Colleges and Universities accredits public and private senior colleges and universities. Council for Higher Education Accreditation List of recognized accreditation associations of higher learning United States Department of Education WASC home page
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San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
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California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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Urban area
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An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, in urbanism, the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment. The worlds urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has increased to 3.9 billion in the decades since, in 2009, the number of people living in urban areas surpassed the number living in rural areas and since then the world has become more urban than rural. This was the first time that the majority of the population lived in a city. In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet, Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Urban areas are measured for various purposes, including analyzing population density, historian John Gurda writes, I have tried to uncover Milwaukees civic bedrock - the shifting foundation on which individuals have built their lives and the community has constructed its identity. There is no doubt that the deepest layer of bedrock is economic. In every age, people have chosen to live in areas not because of their climates or landmarks or cultural attractions. It was economic opportunity that brought people to Milwaukee, and it is economic opportunity that keeps them there, I define cities as concentrations of people animated by concentrations of capital. More simply put, money is the root of all cities, official definitions vary somewhat between nations. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population, about 3 million people live in Buenos Aires City and the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world. The metropolitan areas of Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza and Tucumán have around 1.3 million inhabitants each and La Plata, seven other provinces have over one million people each, Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. According to IBGE urban areas already concentrate 84. 35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 20,12, and 5 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, there are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. According to Statistics Canada, an area in Canada is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square kilometre. If two or more areas are within 2 km of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area. Accordingly, the new definition set out three types of population centres, small, medium and large
6.
Sri Aurobindo
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Sri Aurobindo was an Indian nationalist, philosopher, yogi, guru and poet. Aurobindo studied for the Indian Civil Service at Kings College, Cambridge and he was arrested in the aftermath of a number of bomb outrages linked to his organisation, but was only convicted and imprisoned for writing articles against British rule in India. He was released when no evidence could be provided, following the murder of prosecution-witness during the trial, during his stay in the jail he had mystical and spiritual experiences, after which he moved to Pondicherry, leaving politics for spiritual work. During his stay in Pondicherry, Aurobindo developed a method of practice he called Integral Yoga. The central theme of his vision was the evolution of life into a life divine. He believed in a spiritual realisation that not only liberated man but transformed his nature, in 1926, with the help of his spiritual collaborator, Mirra Alfassa, he founded the Sri Aurobindo Ashram. He died on 5 December 1950 in Pondicherry and his works also include philosophy, poetry, translations and commentaries on the Vedas, Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1943, Aurobindo Ghose was born into a Kayastha family in Calcutta, Bengal Presidency, India on 15 August 1872. His mother was Swarnalata Devi, whose father was Shri Rajnarayan Bose and she had been sent to the more salubrious surroundings of Calcutta for Aurobindos birth. Aurobindo had two siblings, Benoybhusan and Manmohan, a younger sister, Sarojini, and a younger brother. Young Aurobindo was brought up speaking English but used Hindustani to communicate with servants, although his family were Bengali, his father believed British culture to be superior. Darjeeling was a centre of British life in India and the school was run by Irish nuns, through which the boys would have exposed to Christian religious teachings. Krishna Dhun Ghose wanted his sons to enter the Indian Civil Service, to achieve this it was necessary that they study in England and so it was there that the entire family moved in 1879. The three brothers were placed in the care of the Reverend W. H. Drewett in Manchester, Drewett was a minister of the Congregational Church whom Krishna Dhun Ghose knew through his British friends at Rangapur. The boys were taught Latin by Drewett and his wife and this was a prerequisite for admission to good English schools and, after two years, in 1881, the elder two siblings were enrolled at Manchester Grammar School. Aurobindo was considered too young for enrolment and he continued his studies with the Drewetts, learning history, Latin, French, geography and arithmetic. Although the Drewetts were told not to teach religion, the boys inevitably were exposed to Christian teachings and events, Drewett emigrated to Australia in 1884, causing the boys to be uprooted as they went to live with Drewetts mother in London. In September of that year, Aurobindo and Manmohan joined St Pauls School there and he learned Greek and spent the last three years reading literature and English poetry
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Rajnarayan Basu
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Rajnarayan Basu was an Indian writer and intellectual of the Bengal Renaissance. He was born in Boral in 24 Parganas and studied at the Hare School and Hindu College, a monotheist at heart, Rajnarayan Basu converted to Brahmoism at the age of twenty. After retiring, he was given the title of Rishi or sage. As a writer, he was one of the best known writers in Bengali in the nineteenth century, writing often for the Tattwabodhini Patrika. Due to his defence of Brahmoism, he was given the title Grandfather of Indian Nationalism Rajnarayan Basu was born on 7 September 1826 in the Borhal village of South 24 Parganas of West Bengal. His father Nanda Kishore Basu was a disciple of a Raja Ram Mohan Roy And later a Secretary of him, a bright student since childhood, Rajnarayan was brought to Calcutta and was admitted to Hare School Societys School. He studied there till the age of 14, and was notified by the teachers for his brilliance, Rajnarayan Basu was a enemy of Michael Madhusudan Dutt, a prominent poet of the time, and the introducer of free verse in Bengali. Both were responsible for introducing classical Western elements into Bengali literature and he briefly tutored Asias first Nobel Prizewinner, Rabindranath Tagore and spent three years translating the Upanishads into English on the earnest request and co-operation of Devendranath Tagore. As a member of Young Bengal, Rajnarayan Basu believed in nation-building at the grassroots level, to do his part, after teaching at Vidyasagars Sanskrit College as the second master of the English Department, he moved to Midnapore to teach in the mofussil district town. He served as the headmaster of Midnapore Zilla School which was also the forerunner of Midnapore College and he had joined the school on 21 February 1851 preceded by Mr. Sinclare, during whose time the school lost its glory and was in a deplorable condition. Rajnarayans first goal was to reestablish the school in the firmament of education and he had immense hatred against the well-practiced procedure of committing to memory and vomiting to paper. He always followed the rule of teaching through interaction of students and teachers. His eloquent speeches with humorous jokes gradually attracted even the heart of the most dull student in the class and he put stress on interrogative teaching, so that the fundamentals of the student becomes strong. He wanted students to be educated in Character Making Education, so he advised teachers to look after the development of the students. He observed that students sitting in benches without back-support, cannot keep there back straight, so he introduced sits with back-supports for the first time. Being an active leader of Young Bengal, he was moved by the Academic Association of Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, so he also introduced Debate Associations and Mutual Improvement Association in school level. He also established the first arch of women education in Midnapore, the first girls school and he established a public library that is still in use, although now it is known as the Rishi Rajnarayan Basu Smriti Pathagar which is the oldest public library in West Bengal. He was the first person to suggest using Bengali at meetings of the Vangiya Sahitya Parishad, the Parishad was established to promote Bengali language literature yet ironically conducted meetings in English until Basus request
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Barindra Kumar Ghosh
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Barindra Ghosh or Barindranath Ghose, or, popularly, Barin Ghosh was an Indian revolutionary and journalist. He was one of the members of Jugantar, a revolutionary outfit in Bengal. Barindra Ghosh was a brother of Sri Aurobindo. Barindra Ghosh was born at Croydon, near London on 5 January 1880 and his father, Dr. Krishnadhan Ghosh, was a physician and district surgeon. His mother Swarnalata was the daughter of the Brahmo religious and social reformer, revolutionary and a spiritualist in later life, Aurobindo Ghosh was Barindranaths third elder brother. His second elder brother, Manmohan Ghose, was a scholar of English literature, Barindranath attended school in Deoghar, and after passing the entrance examination in 1901, joined Patna College. He received military training in Baroda, during this time, Barin was influenced by Aurobindo and drawn towards the revolutionary movement. Barin came back to Kolkata in 1902 and started organizing several revolutionary groups in Bengal with the help of Jatindranath Mukherjee, in 1906, he started publishing Jugantar, a Bengali weekly and a revolutionary organization named Jugantar soon followed. Jugantar was formed from the circle of Anushilan Samiti and it started revolutionary activities. Barin and Bagha Jatin were instrumental in the recruitment of young revolutionaries from across Bengal. The revolutionaries formed the Maniktala group in Maniktala, Kolkata and it was a secret place where they started manufacturing bombs and collected arms and ammunition. The trial initially sentenced Barin Ghosh to death, however, the sentence was reduced to life imprisonment, and Barin was deported to the Cellular Jail in Andaman in 1909. Barin was released during an amnesty in 1920 and returned to Kolkata. Soon he left journalism and formed an ashram in Kolkata, in 1923, he left for Pondicherry where his elder brother Aurobindo Ghosh had formed the famous Sri Aurobindo Ashram. He was influenced by Aurobindo towards spirituality and sadhana, but Barin Ghosh was a disciple of Sree Sree Thakur Anukulchandra, Sree Sree Thakur had guided his followers to help secure release of Barin who was using the code name Golghar for his revolutionary activities. Barin returned to Kolkata in 1929 and again took up journalism, in 1933 he started an English weekly, The Dawn of India. He was associated with the newspaper The Statesman, and in 1950 and he died on 18 April 1959. Upendra Nath Bandyopadhyaya, Nirbasiter Atmakatha, Calcutta,1352, RC Majumdar, History of the Freedom Movement in India, II, Calcutta,1963
9.
Krishna Kumar Mitra
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Krishna Kumar Mitra was an Indian freedom fighter, journalist and leader of the Brahmo Samaj. He is remembered for his contributions to the Swadeshi movement through his journal Sanjibani, Krishna Kumar was born in the village of Baghil in the Mymensingh district of Bengal in what is today Bangladesh in 1852. He was a Hindu Kayastha by birth and his father Guruprasad Mitra was a landholder who led an agitation against oppression by British indigo planters, Krishna Kumar was educated at Mymensinghs Hardinge Vernacular School and the Zilla School and obtained a bachelors degree from the Scottish Church College in 1876. Subsequently, he studied law at the University of Calcutta for a while, deeply influenced by his father who was a local Brahmo leader and his schoolteacher Girishchandra Ghosh, Krishna Kumar was inducted into the Brahmo faith in 1869 at the age of 17. He became a member of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj and his journal Sanjibani became the Samajs principal mouthpiece and he was elected president of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in 1918. Mitra launched his Bengali journal Sanjibani in 1883, the second floor of Mitras 6, College Square residence served as the office and press for the journal. His nephew Aurobindo Ghosh stayed here during 1909-1910 before escaping to Pondicherry, Mitra joined Surendranath Banerjees Indian Association in 1876 and became its joint secretary and Banerjee and Mitra traveled across northern India to popularise their political ideas. Mitra was also associated with the Indian National Congress since its inception and was part of its faction in Bengal. In 1890 he joined the indigo cultivators agitation, opposed to the partition of Bengal and influenced by colleagues like Ananda Mohan Bose and Kalishankar Shukul, Mitra joined the anti-Partition Swadeshi movement. He used his journal Sanjibani to rouse public opinion against the partition and on 13 July 1905 he openly called for the boycott of goods through the journal. He attended the Bengal Provincial Conference at Barisal in 1906 where he condemned police atrocities against Swadeshi activists, the same year the Bengal government issued a circular banning the singing of Vande Mataram in any procession or public meeting. Mitra became president of the Anti-Circular Society that was formed to oppose the ban, for his involvement in the Swadeshi movement, Mitra had to resign from his job as a professor of history and in 1908 was deported from Calcutta for two years by the British authorities. Mitra married Lilabati Devi, the daughter of Rajnarayan Basu in 1881. At their wedding, conducted in accordance with Brahmo rites, Narendranath Dutta sang two songs that were composed by Rabindranath Tagore for the occasion. Mitra was the uncle of Aurobindo Ghosh and father in law of Sachindra Prasad Bose who unfurled the Calcutta Flag at the Parsi Bagan Square in Calcutta in 1906. Krishna Kumar Mitra was a social reformer opposed to idolatry, caste system. He formed a Nari Raksa Samiti to work for the protection of womens rights and he was also an advocate of temperance who strongly criticised the governments decision to establish public drinking houses. Besides his journalistic pieces in the Sanjibani, Mitra also authored books including Mahammad-Charita, Buddhadev-Charita
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Political history of Sri Aurobindo
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Aurobindos political career lasted only four years, from 1906 to 1910. Though he had been active behind the scene surveying, organizing and supporting the nationalist cause, ever since his return to India and this period of his activity from 1906-1910 saw a complete transformation of Indias political scene. Before Aurobindo began publishing his views, the Congress was a debating society whose rare victories had been instances of the empire taking a favourable view to its petitions. However none went as far as Aurobindo in articulating the legitimacy and he based his claim for freedom for India on the inherent right to freedom, not on any charge of misgovernment or oppression. He wrote, Political freedom is the life-breath of a nation, the primary requisite for national progress, national reform, is the habit of free and healthy national thought and action which is impossible in a state of servitude. Aurobindo had become contemptuous of the British rule in India since his days as a student in England, ghose started mailing Aurobindo newspaper clips of atrocities unleashed by the British on the Indian people. While at Kings college, Aurobindo was drawn to Irish nationalists such as Charles Stewart Parnell and he wrote, in praise of Parnell, Patriots, behold your guerdon. From his observations of the British Politics, Aurobindo became convinced that India had little hope from the British Parliament, while in London he joined up with a society of revolutionaries called Lotus and Dagger who were committed to overthrowing the British. His activities in England though, were inconsequential, after his return to India, he started working to bring about a revolutionary change in the political situation in India. He came to believe that the way to free India from the British yoke was that the common people and not just the elite that composed the erstwhile Congress. Aurobindo espoused a threefold approach to this end, To conduct secret revolutionary propaganda, to spread the idea of revolution and prepare the entire nation for independence. To organise the people for non-cooperation and passive resistance against foreign rule, Aurobindo became inspired by the story of Bankims novel Anandamath. This concept is rooted in Shakta philosophy, Anushilan Samiti was founded as an attempt to organize Bengali youth through a program of physical fitness and spiritual training for a nationalist program. By 1902, Calcutta had three societies working under the umbrella of Anushilan Samity, a society founded by a Calcutta barrister by the name of Pramatha Mitra. These included Mitras own group, another led by a Bengali lady by the name of Sarala Devi, the Anushilan Samiti had Aurobindo and Deshabandhu Chittaranjan Das as the vice-presidents, Suren Tagore the treasurer. Jatindra Nath Banerjee, Bagha Jatin, Bhupendra Nath Datta, Barindra Ghosh were among other initial leaders, by 1905, the work of Aurobindo and his brother Barin Ghosh allowed Anushilan Samity to spread through Bengal. When the first Partition of Bengal was announced in 1905, Aurobindo took a leave from the college in Baroda. Barin who was a revolutionary in his own right prodded Aurobindo to write about a plan for a Monks rebellion
11.
Anushilan Samiti
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Anushilan Samiti was a Bengali Indian organisation that existed in the first quarter of the twentieth century, and propounded revolutionary violence as the means for ending British rule in India. The organisation arose from a conglomeration of youth groups and gyms in Bengal in 1902. It had two prominent if somewhat independent arms in East and West Bengal identified as Dhaka Anushilan Samiti centred in Dhaka, during its existence, the Samiti collaborated with other revolutionary organisations in India and abroad. These were followed by the 1912 attempt on the life of the Viceroy of India, a number of Congress leaders from Bengal, especially Subhash Chandra Bose, were accused by the British Government of having links with, and allowing patronage to, the organisation during this time. Shortly after its inception, the became the focus of an extensive police and intelligence operation which led to the founding of the Special branch of the Calcutta Police. Notable officers who led the police and intelligence operations against the Samiti at various times included Sir Robert Nathan, Sir Harold Stuart, Sir Charles Stevenson-Moore and Sir Charles Tegart. The threat posed by the activities of the Samiti in Bengal during World War I, along with the threat of a Ghadarite uprising in Punjab, led to the passage of Defence of India Act 1915. These measures enabled the arrest, internment, transportation and execution of a number of revolutionaries linked to the organisation, which crushed the East Bengal Branch. In the aftermath of the war, the Rowlatt committee recommended extending the Defence of India Act to thwart any possible revival of the Samiti in Bengal, however, the Anushilan Samiti gradually disseminated into the Gandhian movement. Some of its members left for the Indian National Congress then led by Subhas Chandra Bose, the Jugantar branch formally dissolved in 1938. In independent India, the party in West Bengal evolved into the Revolutionary Socialist Party, the refinement of this perspective fed a rising tide of nationalism in India in the last decades of the 1800s. Its speed was abetted by the creation of the Indian National Congress in India in 1885 by A. O, the Congress developed into a major platform for the demands of political liberalisation, increased autonomy and social reform. However, the nationalist movement became particularly strong, radical and violent in Bengal and, later, notable, if smaller, movements also appeared in Maharashtra, Madras and other areas in the South. The movement in Maharshtra, especially Bombay and Poona preceded most revolutionary movements in the country and this movement, further, had the ideological, and by some suggestion covert but active, support of Bal Gangadhar Tilak. 1876 saw the foundation of The Indian Association in Calcutta under the leadership of Surendranath Banerjea and this organisation successfully drew into its folds students and the urban middle–class, for which it served as a mouthpiece. The Association became the mouthpiece of a constituency of students. It sponsored the Indian National Conference in 1883 and 1885, which merged with the Indian National Congress. By 1902, Calcutta had three societies working under the umbrella of Anushilan Samity, Ghosh was one of the strongest proponents of militant Indian nationalism at the time
12.
Jugantar
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Jugantar or Yugantar was one of the two main secret revolutionary trends operating in Bengal for Indian independence. This association, like Anushilan Samiti started in the guise of suburban fitness club, several Jugantar members were arrested, hanged, or deported for life to the Cellular Jail in Andaman. Roys Radical Democratic Party, or later Subhas Chandra Boses Forward Bloc in the 30s, Barin Ghosh and Bagha Jatin were the main leaders. Along with 21 revolutionaries, they started to collect arms, explosives, the headquarters of Jugantar was located at 27 Kanai Dhar Lane, then 41 Champatola 1st Lane, Kolkata. Some senior members of the group were sent abroad for political and these units were to compose the future Ghadar Party. In Paris Hemchandra Kanungo alias Hem Das, along with Pandurang M. Bapat, after returning to Kolkata, he joined the combined school of self-culture and bomb factory run by Barin Ghosh at a garden house in Maniktala, a suburb of Calcutta. The prisoners were tried in the famous Alipore bomb conspiracy case in which activists were deported for life to the Cellular Jail in Andaman. In 1908, as a step, Jugantar chose to censure persons connected with the arrest. On 10 February 1909, Ashutosh Biswas, who conducted the prosecution of Kanai, Samsul Alam, Deputy Superintendent of Police, who conducted the Alipore Case was shot and killed by Biren Dutta Gupta on the stairs of Calcutta High Court building on 24 January 1910. Charu Basu and Biren Dutta Gupta were later hanged, several including Jatindra Nath Mukherjee were arrested in connection with the Samsul Alam murder case and other charges. Nixons Report corroborates that Jugantar under Jatindra Nath Mukherjee counted a good deal on the ensuing World War to organise an uprising with the Indian soldiers in various regiments. During World War I the Jugantar Party arranged importation of German arms and ammunitions via Virendranath Chattopadhyay alias Chatto and they had contacted Indian revolutionaries active in the United States, as well as Jugantar leaders in Kolkata. Jatindra Nath Mukherjee informed Rash Behari Bose to take charge of Upper India, history refers to it as the German Plot. Similar dacoities were organized on different occasions and in parts of Calcutta. Dacoities were accompanied by political murders in which the victims were mostly zealous police officers investigating into the cases, on receiving instructions from Berlin, Jatindra Nath Mukherjee selected Naren Bhattacharya and Phani Chakravarti to meet the German legation at Batavia. The Berlin committee had decided that the German arms were to be delivered at two or three places like Hatia on Chittagong coast, Raimangal in the Sunderbans and Balasore in Orissa. The plan was to organize a force to start an uprising in the country. Unfortunately the whole plot leaked out locally owing to a traitor and, internationally
13.
Partition of Bengal (1905)
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The decision to effect the Partition of Bengal was announced in July 1905, by the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon. The partition took place on 16 October 1905 and separated the largely Muslim eastern areas from the largely Hindu western areas. The Hindus of West Bengal who dominated Bengals business and rural life complained that the division would make them a minority in a province that would incorporate the province of Bihar, the partition animated the Hindus and led the Muslims to form their own national organisation on communal lines. Bengal was reunited in 1911, in an effort to appease the Bengali sentiment and have easier administration. The provincial state of Bengal had an area of 189,000 mi2 and it included the Hindi-speaking regions of Bihar, the Odia-speaking regions of Odisha as well as the Assamese-speaking region of Assam, making it a huge administrative entity. Moreover, the capital, Calcutta, was also the capital of the entire British India and this he hoped would reduce the administrative pressures and divide the population on religious grounds, quelling the Indian Independence Movement. The government announced the idea for partition in January 1904, the idea was opposed by Henry John Stedman Cotton, Chief Commissioner of Assam 1896–1902. The partition was made on 16 October, by Viceroy Curzon, the former province of Bengal was divided into two new provinces Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam with Dacca as the capital of the latter. Partition was promoted for administrative reasons since Bengal was geographically as large as France and had a larger population. Curzon stated the eastern region was neglected and under-governed, by splitting the province, an improved administration could be established in the east, where subsequently, the population would benefit from new schools and employment opportunities. Most of the factories and mills in Bengal were established in and around Calcutta, furthermore, most of the educational institutions of the Province were in Calcutta, including the lone university in Bengal. As a result of the partition, Dacca, the capital of East Bengal and this included the construction of administrative buildings like the Curzon Hall and High court, as well as the foundation of educational institutions in East Bengal and Assam. The opposition to the partition was led by the middle class of western Bengal. Following the partition, a movement formed in opposition to the Partition. This involved non-violent and violent protests, boycotts and even an attempt against the Governor of the new province of West Bengal. The opening years of the century were stormy. The political scenario was undergoing a change, and the British were beginning to feel a bit uneasy, political discontent was growing from the inability of the government to organise effective relief during the period of plague and famine. To stem the discontent, the British played the political trump card with great aplomb, for the first time, they used their divide-and-rule political game with great force
14.
Alipore bomb case
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Among the famous accused were Aurobindo Ghosh, his brother Barin Ghosh as well as 37 other Bengali nationalists of the Anushilan Samiti. Most of the accused were arrested from Barin Ghoshs Garden house in 36 Murarirupukur Road, goswamis murder led to collapse of the case against Aurobindo allowing him to walk-free. However his brother Barin and a number of others were convicted of the charges, Political consciousness and opposition to British raj in Bengal had grown steadily over the last decades of the 1800s. By 1902, Calcutta had three societies working under the umbrella of a nationalist organisation called Anushilan Samity which arose from conglomerations of youth-organisations, Ghosh was propunder of militant nationalism. Having forsaken a potential career in the Indian Civil Service, Ghosh had returned to India and his younger brother Barin joined Aurobindo in Baroda. Baroda offered Barin to obtain training in military strategies and armed conflicts. In 1903, the works of Aurobindo and his brother Barin Ghosh allowed Anushilan Samity to spread through Bengal. Anushilan began a program of building a support base, preparing slowly and steadily for a nationalist uprising. After a slow start, the journal grew to acquire a mass appeal in Bengal through its radicalist approach. Nationalist writings and publications by Aurobindo and his brother Barin included Bande Mataram, by 1907 it was selling 7,000 copies which later rose to 20,000. Its message, aimed at elite politically conscious readers was essentially critique and defiance of British rule in India, the publication inspired a proportion of the young men who joined Anushilan Samiti cited the influence of Jugantar in their decisions. In 1907, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo faced prosecution for the message emanating from Bande Mataram, meanwhile, Jugantar was also subject to close scrutiny. By 1907, Barin Ghosh had begun gathering around groups of young men attracted to the Jugantar message and this was at a time that the Dhaka Anushilan Samiti under Pulin Das was becoming active in seeking to target British administrative officers and interests as targets. Police searches and surveillance of Jugantar became routine, and the younger Ghosh cut his ties with the paper. A close group of approximately a dozen young men gathered around Barin, some of who lived in his house in 36 Muraripukur lane. Barins group had been experimenting with production of explosives from 1906, in 1907, they were joined by Ullaskar Dutt, a self-taught chemist from the Howrah suburb of Calcutta who was attracted to the Jugantar message. The group had targeted the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal since 1906, in autumn 1906 Charu Chandra Dutt and Prafulla Chaki had made a failed attempt to assassinate the governor at Darjeeling. With Duttas expertise, the plans were revisited, by October that year, Dutta was in a position to manufacture a bomb powerful enough to blow up a train. With dynamite obtained by Barins group, Dutt produced a bomb with a detonator of his own manufacturing, intended target was the train carrying the lieutenant governor of Bengal, Andrew Fraser
15.
Jugantar Patrika
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Jugantar Patrika was a Bengali revolutionary newspaper founded in 1906 in Calcutta by Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Abhinash Bhattacharya and Bhupendranath Dutt. A political weekly, it was founded in March 1906 and served as the organ for the nascent revolutionary organisation Anushilan Samiti that was taking shape in Bengal at the time. The journal derived its name Jugantar from a novel of the same name by renowned Bengali author Shivnath Shastri. The journal went on to lend its name to the Western Bengal wing of the Anushilan Samiti, the journal expounded and justified revolutionary violence against the British Raj as a political tool for independence, and denounced the right and legitimacy of the British rule in India. It was also critical of the Indian National Congress and its moderate methods which was viewed as aiding the Raj and its target audience was the young, literate and politically motivated youth of Bengal, and was priced at one paisa. The paper rapidly acquired a broad popularity, at one time having a readership of 20,000 and it faced prosecution a number of times by the British Indian government for publishing seditious articles. Bhupendranath Dutt was arrested in 1907 for publication of articles inciting violence against the Government of India, for which he was sentenced to a years rigorous imprisonment. The paper was forced to shut down in 1908, amidst financial ruins following the prosecutions. Legitimising Violence, Seditious Propaganda and Revolutionary Pamphlets in Bengal, 1908-1918
16.
Bande Mataram (publication)
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The Bande Mataram was an English language newspaper founded in 1905 by Aurobindo Ghosh. It was first published on 6 August 1906, the Making of India, A Historical Survey, by Ranbir Vohra.2000. M. E. Sharpe. ISBN0765607115. p 111 A History of Indian Literature in English, ISBN 1-85065-680-0. p 118 The Essential Aurobindo, by Robert A. McDermott
17.
Matrimandir
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The Matrimandir is an edifice of spiritual significance for practitioners of Integral yoga, situated at the centre of Auroville initiated by The Mother of the Sri Aurobindo Ashram. It is called soul of the city and is situated in an open space called Peace. Matrimandir does not belong to any religion or sect. The Matrimandir took 37 years to build, from the laying of the stone at sunrise on 21 February 1971 - the Mother’s 93rd birthday - to its completion in May 2008. It is in the form of a huge sphere surrounded by twelve petals, the Geodesic dome is covered by golden discs and reflects sunlight, which gives the structure its characteristic radiance. Inside this central dome is a hall known as the inner chamber - this contains the largest optically-perfect glass globe in the world. The Matrimandir, and its gardens in the central Peace Area, is open to the public by appointment. The four main pillars that support the structure of Matrimandir, and these four pillars are symbolic of the four aspects of the mother as described by Sri Aurobindo, and are named after these four aspects. Patrizia Norelli-Bachelet, founder of Aeon Center for Cosmology, contends that the Matrimandir was not built according to the specifications of the Mothers original blueprints, visiting the Matrimandir Chronicles of the Inner Chamber - by the Matrimandir Action Committee Matrimandir travel guide from Wikivoyage
18.
Pondicherry (city)
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Pondicherry is the capital city and the largest city of the Indian union territory of Puducherry. The city of Pondicherry is situated in Puducherry district of the union territory and it is affectionately known as Pondy, and has been officially known by the alternative name Puducherry in Tamil since 2006. Pondicherry city consists of 42 wards, wards 1-10 are located in north of the city. Wards 11-19 are located in Boulevard Town and remaining wards are located in the southwest of the downtown, the history of the city of Pondicherry is recorded only after the arrival of Dutch, Portuguese, British and French colonialists. A marketplace named Poduke or Poduca is recorded as a Roman trading destination from the mid 1st century, the area was part of the Pallava Kingdom of Kanchipuram in the 4th century. The Cholas of Thanjavur held it from the 10th to 13th centuries, the Vijayanagar Empire took control of almost all of the South of India in the 14th century and maintained control until 1638 when they were supplanted by the Sultan of Bijapur. The French East India Company established this town as their headquarters in 1674, five trading posts were established along the south Indian coast between 1668 and 1674. The town was separated by a canal into the French Quarter, during the Anglo-French wars, Puducherry changed hands frequently. On January 16,1761, the British captured Puducherry from the French, the British took control of the area again in 1793 at the Siege of Pondicherry amid the Wars of the French Revolution, and returned it to France in 1814. When the British gained control of the whole of India in the late 1850s, Pondicherry, Mahe, Yanam, Karaikal and Chandernagar remained a part of French India until 1954 when it was incorporated into the Indian Union along with the rest of French India. On 18 October 1954 in an election involving 178 people in Pondicherry Municipal and Commune Panchayat,170 people were in favour of independence. The de facto transfer of the French India territories form French governance to the Indian union took place on 1 November 1954, however, the formal de jure transfer of territory agreement between France and India was signed on 16 August 1962. The topography of Pondicherry is the same as that of coastal Tamil Nadu, pondicherrys average elevation is at sea level, and a number of sea inlets, referred to as backwaters can be found. Pondicherry experiences extreme coastal erosion as a result of a constructed in 1989. Where there was once a broad, sandy beach, now the city is protected against the sea by a 2-km-long seawall.5 m above sea level, today, the seawall consists of rows of granite boulders which are reinforced every year in an attempt to stop erosion. As a consequence of the seawall, Pondicherry experiences severe seabed erosion and turbulence at the coastal margin, whenever gaps appear as the stones fall into the continually eroding seabed, the government of Puducherry adds more boulders. Pondicherrys seawall has also caused beach erosion to migrate further up the coast, to the villages in Puducherry. In 2012, the Ministry of Power inaugurated the Smart Grid project in Puducherry, farming around Pondicherry include crops such as rice, pulses, sugarcane, coconuts, and cotton
19.
Sri Aurobindo Ashram
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The Sri Aurobindo Ashram is a spiritual community located in Pondicherry, in the Indian territory of Puducherry. The ashram grew out of a community of disciples who had gathered around Sri Aurobindo after he retired from politics. On 24 November 1926, after a major spiritual realization, Sri Aurobindo withdrew from view in order to continue his spiritual work. At this time he handed over the responsibility for the inner and outer lives of the sadhaks and the ashram to his spiritual collaborator. This date is generally known as the founding-day of the ashram, though, as Sri Aurobindo himself wrote. It does not have any branches, many other organisations in Pondicherry and elsewhere include “Sri Aurobindo” in their name, but they are not part of Sri Aurobindo Ashram. The most important organisation also inspired by the vision of Sri Aurobindo is Auroville, life in the community that preceded the ashram was informal. Sri Aurobindo spent most of his time in writing and meditation, the three or four young men who had followed him to Pondicherry in 1910 lived with him and looked after the household. Otherwise they were free to do as they wished. ”After the ashram was given shape in 1926, it experienced a period of rapid growth. The membership leveled off in 1934 owing to a lack of suitable housing, during these years there was a regular routine. At 6,00 every morning the Mother appeared on the balcony to initiate the day with her blessings. Sadhaks would have very early and completed a good portion of the day’s work including meditation. The heads of the departments met the Mother in the morning and took her blessings and she would meet the sadhaks individually again at 10 am and, in the evening at 5,30 pm, she would conduct meditation and meet the sadhaks. In addition, four times a year Sri Aurobindo and the Mother used to give public Darshans to thousands of devotees gathered to receive grace, once confined to a few buildings in one corner of Pondicherry, the Ashram’s growth has caused it to expand physically in all directions. Today Ashramites live and work in more than 400 buildings spread throughout the town, the central focus of the community is one group of houses including those in which Sri Aurobindo and the Mother dwelt for most of their lives in Pondicherry. This white marble shrine holds, in two chambers, the physical remains of Sri Aurobindo and the Mother. Today, Pondicherry has become an important destination for spiritual seekers as well as tourists, thousands of visitors from all over the world come to the ashram. The visiting hours for the visitors are from 8 am to 12 noon, in Sri Aurobindos yoga, the highest aim is the state of being one with the Divine, without the renunciation of life in the world
20.
Auroville
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Auroville is an experimental township in Viluppuram district mostly in the state of Tamil Nadu, India with some parts in the Union Territory of Puducherry in South India. It was founded in 1968 by Mirra Alfassa and designed by architect Roger Anger, the purpose of Auroville is to realize human unity. Auroville has its origins in the French language, aurore meaning dawn, additionally, it is named after Sri Aurobindo. Alfassa was spiritual collaborator of Sri Aurobindo, who believed that man is a transitional being, Alfassa also believed that such a universal township will contribute decisively to the Indian renaissance. A site, approximately 20 square kilometres of barren wasteland, some 10 km north of Pondicherry and 5 km from the coast was chosen for the city, the inauguration ceremony attended by delegates of 124 nations, was held on Wednesday 28 February 1968. Handwritten in French by the Mother, its 4-point Charter set forth her vision of Integral living, Auroville belongs to humanity as a whole. But to live in Auroville, one must be the willing servitor of the Divine Consciousness, Auroville will be the place of an unending education, of constant progress, and a youth that never ages. Auroville wants to be the bridge between the past and the future, taking advantage of all discoveries from without and from within, Auroville will boldly spring towards future realisations. Auroville will be a site of material and spiritual researches for a living embodiment of an actual Human Unity, in the middle of the town is the Matrimandir, which was conceived by Alfassa as a symbol of the Divines answer to mans aspiration for perfection. Silence is maintained inside the Matrimandir to ensure the tranquility of the space, inside the Matrimandir, a spiraling ramp leads upwards to an air-conditioned chamber of polished white marble referred to as a place to find ones consciousness. Matrimandir is equipped with a power plant and is surrounded by manicured gardens. When there is no sun or after the sunset, the sunray on the globe is replaced by a beam from a powered light. Radiating from this center are four zones of the City Area, prior to 1980, the Sri Aurobindo Society, Pondicherry, legally owned all of the citys assets. In 1980, the Government of India passed the Auroville Emergency Provision Act 1980, the change was initiated when after Mirra Alfassas death in 1973, serious fissures in the day-to-day management developed between the Society and the citys residents. The residents appealed to Indira Gandhi, then Prime Minister of India for an intervention, the Society challenged the Governments action in the Supreme Court of India. The final verdict upheld the validity of the government’s action and intervention. In 1988, after the verdict, a need was felt to make an arrangement for the long term management of Auroville. The citys representatives along with Sh, kireet Joshi, then Educational Advisor to the Union government met for consultations with the then Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi
21.
Mirra Alfassa
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Mirra Alfassa, known to her followers as The Mother, was the spiritual collaborator of Sri Aurobindo. Her full name at birth was Blanche Rachel Mirra Alfassa and she came to Sri Aurobindo’s spiritual retreat on 29 March 1914 in Pondicherry, India. Having to leave Pondicherry during World War I, she spent most of her time in Japan where she met poet Rabindranath Tagore, finally she returned to Pondicherry and settled there in 1920. After 24 November 1926, when Sri Aurobindo retired into seclusion, she founded her ashram and she became the spiritual guide of the community. The experiences of the last thirty years of Alfassa’s life were captured in the 13-volume work The Agenda, Sri Aurobindo considered her an incarnation of the Mother Divine and called her by that name, “The Mother”. Mirra Alfassa was born on 1878 in Paris to Moïse Maurice Alfassa a Turkish Jew father, and Mathilde Ismalun an Egyptian Jewish mother and she had an elder brother named Mattéo Mathieu Maurice Alfassa, who is later known to have held numerous French governmental posts in Africa. The family had just migrated to France, a year before she was born, Mirra was close to her grandmother Mira Ismalum, who was one of the first women to travel outside Egypt alone and was also a neighbour. Mirra had learnt to read at the age of seven and joined school very late at the age of nine. She is believed to have held interest in fields of art, tennis. By the age of 14 she had become a reader and had read most of the books in her fathers collection. Her biographer Vrekhem notes that Mirra had various occult experiences in her childhood but knew nothing of the subject and their relevance. Mirra especially recalls at the age of thirteen or fourteen having a dream of a figure which she used to call Krishna whom she had never seen before in real life. In 1893 after graduating school, Alfassa joined Académie Julianto study art. Her grandmother Mira introduced her to Henri Morisset who was an ex-student of the Académie, both were well off and worked as artists for the next ten years, during an era known for having many impressionist artists. Her son André was born on 23 August 1898, Some of Alfassaso paintings were accepted by the jury of Salon dAutomne and were exhibited in 1903,1904 and 1905. Alfassa had developed an urge to know about such experiences and through finding the book Raja yoga by Swami Vivekananda, was able to explain something about her memories and she also received a copy of the Bhagavad Gita in French which helped her considerably in learning more about these experiences. During this time Mirra made the acquaintance of Louis Thémanlys who was the head of the Cosmic Movement, through reading a copy of Cosmic Review, she attended the speeches given by Louis and became active in the group. For the first time on 14 July 1906 she journeyed alone to the Algerian city of Tlemcen to meet with Max Théon and she consequently travelled twice in 1906 and 1907 to their home at Tlemcen and in their house practised and experimented with teachings of Max Théon & Alma Théon
22.
Dilipkumar Roy
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Dilipkumar Roy was a Bengali Indian musician, musicologist, novelist, poet and essayist. He was the son of Dwijendralal Ray, in 1965, the Sangeet Natak Akademi, Indias National Academy for Music, Dance and Drama, awarded him its highest honour for lifetime achievement, the Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship. Son of Dwijendralal Ray, the Bengali poet, playwright, and composer, Roy, on his father’s side, the family descended from one of the apostles of the medieval Bengali saint Shri Chaitanya. His mother Surabala Devi was the daughter of distinguished homeopath physician Pratap Chandra Majumdar, since his childhood, Roy had a fascination for Sanskrit, English, chemistry and mathematics. His passion for music stopped him from securing the highest marks in the Matriculation examination, he stood the twenty-first and, with a scholarship, here he came close to Subhas Chandra Bose. With a first class honours in mathematics, he went to Cambridge in 1919 for a tripos, shortly before this three-year trip to Europe, in his teens he had come under the personal spell of the musicologist Bhatkhande. Ray had taken advantage of his background and learnt scores of popular. This forged his determination to music as a vocation. Therefore, in 1920, in addition to the first part of his tripos, he passed also, along with his lessons in piano, he grew fluent in French, German and Italian, before leaving for Germany and Italy to pursue his studies in music. At this juncture, Roy met personalities like Bertrand Russell, Hermann Hesse, from Vienna, invited by president Masaryk, Roy visited Prague, on his way to Budapest, Rome, Florence and Naples, to discover the heart of the tradition of European music. The ancient modes like Ionian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Dorian, Aeolian, and Phrygian, reminded him, respectively, of the Indian that or melakarta like Bilâval, Iman, Khamâj, Kâfi, Asâvari, in his diary, Inde, Romain Rolland speaks of Roy frequently. He records Roys first visit on 23 August 1920. His is no ordinary intelligence, a young man, tall and well-built, in his complexion the orange-brown of a Créole features, except for the lips. Talking about his songs, Rolland mentions, Especially a religious song by Tansen, and about Dilips voice, He sings with nasal intonations and his voice reaches quite high, with a singular suppleness in the ceaseless blossoming of vocal improvisations and ornaments. On 24 October 1927, Romain Rolland describes another visit from Roy, while in Europe, Roy realised the greatness and the deficiency of Indian classical music as practised by his contemporaries. He took lessons from musicians like Abdul Karim, Faiyaz Khan, Chandan Chaube, Gaurishankar Mishra, Surendranath Majumdar, in his works, bhramyaman, sangitiki, gitashri etc. he recorded in detail his experiences, illustrated by notations. As an outspoken critic, he attained considerable fame, especially in his analysis of the sacrosanct Gurus. His first-hand experience, enhanced by his investigation and reflections. An expert of the tana and phrase-variations, Roy had argued and obtained Tagores permission to interpret the songs as he wished
23.
Indra Sen
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PhD was a devotee of Sri Aurobindo and The Mother, psychologist, author, and educator, and the founder of Integral psychology as an academic discipline. Sen was born in the Jhelum District of Punjab in a Bengali Hindu family from Calcutta, from a young age he was interested in the spiritual quest. He completed a degree in both Philosophy and Psychology at the University of Delhi. On 5 December 1928 he married Lilawati, and they had two children, to further his studies, he enrolled at the University of Freiburg, in Germany, and obtained a PhD in Psychology. He also attended the lectures of Martin Heidegger and taught Indian Philosophy, at this time, his main interests were Hegels philosophy, and Jungs psychology. He later returned to the University of Delhi, in December 1933 he met Jung when the latter visited Calcutta for the Indian Science Congress. After a number of visits, his became an devotee of The Mother. In 1945, Sen resigned from the University and moved to the Sri Aurobindo Ashram, in following years, through lectures, published writings, and personal contacts, he presented Sri Aurobindos work to academia and universities, where it became well known for the first time. He also was concerned with the formulation of integral education as presented in the teachings of Sri Aurobindo and his papers, which were sent to Sri Aurobindo and later The Mother before publication, were presented at scientific congresses or published in Ashram journals. It was not until 1986 that these papers were published, by the Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education in book form, as Integral Psychology and this has since been issued in a second edition. Another of Sens tasks was to develop three centres for the ashram under The Mothers supervision, one was at Jwalapur, near Haridwar, and the other two in the Kumaon Hills – Mountain Paradise, an orchard, and Tapogiri, a place for sadhana. The last mentioned especially, he was committed to. In all of Sens work, themes of integral and wholeness were very important, Sen, Indra, The integration of the personality. – -- A Psychological Appreciation of Sri Aurobindos System of Integral Yoga, Sri Aurobindo Mandir 1944 – -- Education and Yoga. Sri Aurobindo Mandir 1945 – -- Sri Aurobindo on the Ideal of Work, the Advent August 1945 – -- The urge for wholeness. – -- Ideals of Indian Philosophy and Educational Life, vedanta Kesari 1949–50 – -- Personality and integral Yoga. 19519 88–93 – -- Sri Aurobindos Theory of the Mind, Philosophy East and West 1952 – and Das, A. C. – -- The Pursuit of Philosophy, Sri Aurobindo Mandir 1952 – -- East-West Synthesis in Sri Aurobindo
24.
Civic Center, San Francisco, California
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It has two large plazas and a number of buildings in classical architectural style. The Bill Graham Civic Auditorium, the United Nations Charter was signed in the War Memorial Veterans Buildings Herbst Theatre in 1945 and it is also where the 1951 Treaty of San Francisco was signed. The San Francisco Civic Center was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987, the Civic Center is bounded by Market Street on the south, Franklin Street on the west, Turk Street on the north, and Leavenworth and Seventh streets on the east. The Civic Center was built in the early 20th century after a city hall was destroyed in the 1906 earthquake. Although the noted architect and urban planner Daniel Burnham had provided the city plans for a neo-classical Civic Center shortly before the 1906 earthquake. A temporary city hall was put up on Market Street, but planning for a permanent structure. The current civic center was planned by a group of local architects, the current City Hall was completed in 1915, in time for the Panama-Pacific Exposition. The War Memorial Opera House and its twin, the War Memorial Veterans Building, the Main Library. During World War II, Army barracks and Victory gardens were constructed in the plaza in front of City Hall. The Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall and Harold L. Zellerbach Rehearsal Hall were added in 1980, the 1990s saw the construction of a new Main Library with the conversion of the old Main Library building into the Asian Art Museum, and the removal of all public benches. In 1998, the city officially renamed part of the plaza the Joseph L. Alioto Performing Arts Piazza after the former mayor. Its central location, vast open space, and the collection of government buildings have made and it has been the scene of massive anti-war protests and rallies since the Korean War. It was also the scene of major moments of the Gay Rights Movement, activist Harvey Milk held rallies and gave speeches there. After his assassination on November 27,1978, a candlelight vigil was held there. Later, it was the scene of the White Night Riots in response to the lenient sentencing of Dan White, recently, Civic Center was the center point of the Gay Marriage activism, as Mayor Gavin Newsom married couples there. The centerpiece of the Civic Center is the City Hall, which heads the complex, the section of the street in front of the building was renamed for Dr. Carlton B. Goodlett, a local African American activist, across the street on McAllister Street is the headquarters of the Supreme Court of California. Across from that building is the Asian Art Museum, opened in 2004 in the building of the San Francisco Library which is now in a newer building constructed in 1995
25.
South of Market, San Francisco
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SoMa is home to many of the citys museums, to the headquarters of several major software and Internet companies, and to the Moscone Conference Center. The areas boundaries are Market Street to the northwest, San Francisco Bay to the northeast, Mission Creek to the southeast and it is the part of the city in which the street grid runs parallel and perpendicular to Market Street. As with many neighborhoods, the boundaries of the South of Market area are fuzzy. From 1848 until the construction of the Central Freeway in the 1950s, since the 1950s, the boundary has been either 10th Street, 11th Street, or the Central Freeway. Similarly, the entire Mission Bay neighborhood may or may not be counted as part of SoMa, redevelopment agencies, social service agencies, and community activists frequently exclude the more prosperous areas between the waterfront and 3rd Street. Some social service agencies and nonprofits count the economically distressed area around 6th, 7th, the terms South of Market and SoMa refer to both a comparatively large district of the city as well as a much smaller neighborhood. Before being called South of Market this area was called South of the Slot, while the cable cars have long since disappeared from Market Street, some old timers still refer to this area as South of the Slot. Since 1847, the name of the South of Market area has been the 100 Vara Survey or simply 100 Vara for short. Since the mid-20th century, the name has been gradually forgotten, and today is found mainly in history books, legal documents, title deeds. At the time, the streets of San Francisco were aligned approximately with the points, running north to south. Each block was divided into six lots 50 varas on a side. e, northeast to southwest, and northwest to southeast. He also decided to make the new blocks twice as long and twice as wide, finally, OFarrell created a grand promenade linking the old pueblo with the new subdivision, Market Street. Since then, downtown San Francisco north of Lower Market Street has been known as 50 Vara. Rincon Hill became an enclave for the wealthy, while nearby South Park became an enclave for the middle class. The neighborhood became a largely working-class and lower-middle-class community of recent European immigrants, sweatshops, power stations, flophouses, the 1906 earthquake completely destroyed the area, and many of the quakes fatalities occurred there. Following the quake, the area was rebuilt with wider than usual streets, the construction of the Bay Bridge and U. S. Route 101 during the 1930s saw large swaths of the area demolished, including most of the original Rincon Hill. The waterfront redevelopment of the Embarcadero in the 1950s pushed a new population into this area in the 1960s, the incipient gay community, and the leather community in particular. From 1962 until 1982, the gay community grew and thrived throughout South of Market, most visibly along Folsom Street
26.
Mission District, San Francisco
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This mission, San Franciscos oldest standing building, is located in the northwest area of the neighborhood. The Mission District is located in east-central San Francisco and it is bordered to the east by U. S. Route 101, which forms the boundary between the eastern portion of the district, known as Inner Mission, and its eastern neighbor, Potrero Hill. Sanchez Street separates the neighborhood from Eureka Valley to the north west, the part of the neighborhood from Valencia Street to Sanchez Street, north of 20th Street, is known as the Mission Dolores neighborhood. South of 20th Street towards 22nd Street, and between Valencia and Dolores Streets is a neighborhood known as Liberty Hill. Cesar Chavez Street is the border, across Cesar Chavez Street is the Bernal Heights neighborhood. North of the Mission District is the South of Market neighborhood, bordered roughly by Duboce Avenue, the principal thoroughfare of the Mission District is Mission Street. South of the Mission District, along Mission Street, are the Excelsior and Crocker-Amazon neighborhoods, the Mission District is part of San Franciscos supervisorial districts 6,9 and 10. The Mission is often warmer and sunnier than other parts of San Francisco, the Missions geographical location insulates it from the fog and wind from the west. The Mission includes four recognized sub-districts, the northeastern quadrant, adjacent to Potrero Hill is known as a center for high tech startup businesses including some chic bars and restaurants. The northwest quadrant along Dolores Street is famous for Victorian mansions, prior to the arrival of Spanish missionaries, the area which now includes the Mission District was inhabited by the Ohlone people who populated much of the San Francisco bay area. The Yelamu Indians inhabited the region for over 2,000 years, Spanish missionaries arrived in the area during the late 18th century. They found these people living in two villages on Mission Creek and it was here that a Spanish priest named Father Francisco Palóu founded Mission San Francisco de Asis on June 29,1776. The Mission was moved from the shore of Laguna Dolores to its current location in 1783, franciscan friars are reported to have used Ohlone slave labor to complete the Mission in 1791. This period marked the beginning of the end of the Yelamu culture, the Indian population at Mission Dolores dropped from 400 to 50 between 1833 and 1841. The lands around the abandoned mission church became a focal point of raffish attractions including bull and bear fighting, horse racing, baseball. A famous beer parlor resort known as The Willows was located along Mission Creek just south of 18th Street between Mission Street and San Carlos Street. From 1865 to 1891, a conservatory and zoo known as Woodwards Gardens covered two city blocks bounded by Mission Street, Valencia Street, 13th Street, and 15th Street. During Californias early statehood period, in the 19th and 20th century, large numbers of Irish, development and settlement intensified after the 1906 earthquake, as many displaced businesses and residents moved into the area, making Mission Street a major commercial thoroughfare
27.
Potrero Hill
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Potrero Hill is a residential neighborhood in San Francisco, California. It is known for its views of the San Francisco Bay and city skyline, its proximity to many destination spots, its sunny weather. A working-class neighborhood until gentrification in the 1990s, it is now an upper-middle-class, Potrero Hill is located on the eastern side of the city, east of the Mission District and south of SOMA and the newly designated district Showplace Square. It is bordered by 16th Street to the north, Potrero Avenue and U. S. Route 101 to the west and Cesar Chavez Street to the south. The city of San Francisco considers the area below 20th Street between Potrero Ave and Route 101 to be part of Potrero Hill as well, as outlined in the Eastern Neighborhood Plan, the area east of Highway 280 is Dogpatch. Dogpatch was originally part of Potrero Nuevo and its history is tied to Potrero Hill. Some consider Dogpatch to be its own neighborhood while others disagree, Dogpatch has its own neighborhood association but shares merchant association, Democratic caucuses, and general neighborhood matters with Potrero Hill. Potrero Hill is one of the sunniest neighborhoods in San Francisco, located on the side of the peninsula. It is insulated from the fog and chill of the Pacific Ocean that is typical on the side of the city. It is a neighborhood and not considered a tourist destination. Despite being surrounded by busy neighborhoods, and featuring a commercial area on 18th St. Potrero Hill is generally quiet. Potrero Hill started as a Caucasian working-class neighborhood in the 1850s and its central location attracted many working professionals during the dot-com era in the 1990s. Today, it is mostly an upper-middle-class family-oriented neighborhood, in addition to the 101 and 280 Interstate freeways, Caltrain also runs through this area, making it popular with commuters. Many homes in Potrero Hill have views of the downtown skyline, Potrero Hill has a North and a South Slope, with the North Slope generally more coveted due to its proximity to downtown. There is no dividing line between North and South as the hill apexes in various places. The demographics of the two are similar with the exception of two public housing projects situated on the South Slope. The projects occupy over one third of the South Slope, the poorly designed, curvy and diagonal grids of the housing projects isolate their residents from the greater neighborhood. Industry first arrived at Dogpatch in the mid-1850s, the earliest residents were mostly European immigrants
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Humanities
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Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human culture. In the Middle Ages, the term contrasted with divinity and referred to what is now called classics, today, the humanities are more frequently contrasted with natural, and sometimes social, sciences as well as professional training. The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, religion, art, scholars in the humanities are humanity scholars or humanists. The term humanist also describes the position of humanism, which some antihumanist scholars in the humanities refuse. The Renaissance scholars and artists were also called humanists, some secondary schools offer humanities classes usually consisting of English literature, global studies and art. Human disciplines like history and cultural anthropology study subject matters that the method does not apply to—and instead mainly use the comparative method. Anthropology is the science of humans, a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the sciences, humanities. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been divided into three broad domains. The natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments, the humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields, archaeology, physical or biological anthropology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural anthropology. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions, the word anthropos is from the Greek for human being or person. Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, the goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological and it is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. Archaeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture, the archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a science and a branch of the humanities. It has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time
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Bengal
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Bengal is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in Asia, which is located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, in 2011, the population of Bengal was estimated to be 250 million, making it the most densely populated region in South Asia. An estimated 160 million people live in Bangladesh, while 91.3 million people live in West Bengal, the predominant ethno-linguistic group are the Bengali people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali language. Bengali Muslims are the majority in Bangladesh, Bengali Hindus are the majority in West Bengal. Dense woodlands, including rainforests, cover Bengals northern and eastern areas. In the littoral southwest are the Sunderbans, the worlds largest mangrove forest, in the coastal southeast lies Coxs Bazaar, the longest beach in the world at 125 km. The region has a climate, which the Bengali calendar divides into six seasons. Bengal has played a role in the history of Asia. In antiquity, its kingdoms were known as seafaring nations, at times an independent regional empire, or a bastion of larger empires, the historical region was a leading power of the Indian subcontinent and the Islamic East. Bengali culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature, music, art, architecture, sports, currency, commerce, politics and cuisine. The name of Bengal is derived from the ancient kingdom of Banga, theories on the origin of the term Banga point to the Proto-Dravidian Bong tribe that settled in the area circa 1000 BCE and the Austric word Bong. The term Bangaladesa is used to describe the region in 11th century South Indian records, the modern term Bangla is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the Shah of Bangala. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the Age of Discovery, most of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, the total area of Bengal is 232,752 km2—West Bengal is 88,752 km2 and Bangladesh 147,570 km2. The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet regions are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 metres above the sea level, because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres, a major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered, West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south
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Integral Yoga
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Integral yoga, sometimes also called supramental yoga, is the yoga-based philosophy and practice of Sri Aurobindo and The Mother. Central to Integral yoga is the idea that Spirit manifests itself in a process of involution, the reverse process of evolution is driven toward a complete manifestation of spirit. Yoga is a rapid and concentrated evolution of being, which can take effect in one life-time, Aurobindo suggests a grand program called sapta chatushtaya to aid this evolution. Spirit or satchitananda is the Absolute, the source of all that exists and it is the One, having three aspects, Sat, Citta, and ananda. Involution is the extension of Spirit, the Absolute, to create a universe of separate forms, being manifests itself as a multiplicity of forms, meanwhile becoming lost in the inconscience of matter. The first manifestation of Spirit in the process of involution is as Satchitananda, and then as Supermind, according to Aurobindo the world is a differentiated unity. It is a manifold oneness, that generates a variety of lifeforms. Vital- an emerging consciousness, a consciousness half delivered out of its original imprisonment which has become of vital craving, mental- an emerged consciousness reflecting fact of life in a mental sense, perceptive & ideative. It modifies the internal and attempts to modify conformably the external existence of the being, above Mind proper lie various higher levels of Mind, which ascend toward Spirit. Through evolution Spirit rediscoveres itself as Spirit, evolution follows a developmental trajectory from the original inconscience of matter into life, to mind, and then to spiritualized mind, culminating in The Supermind or Truth Consciousness. Evolution is teleological, since the developing entity contains within itself already the totality toward which it develops and it is not a mechanistic or deterministic teleology, but a manifestation of all the possibilities inherent in the total movement. The goal of Integral yoga is to aware of the Divine, to integrate the physical, mental and spiritual aspects of ourselves. According to Sri Aurobindo, all life is Yoga, while Yoga as a sadhana is an effort towards self-perfection. Success in this effort unifies the human individual with the universal and transcendental Existence, Integral yoga reunites the infinite in the finite, the timeless in the temporal and the transcendent with the immanent. Sri Aurobindo discerns three types of being, namely the Outer being, the Inner being, and the Psychic Being, the Outer Being includes the physical, vital and mental levels of Being, which characterises our everyday consciousness and experience. It includes several levels of the subconscient, a mental subconscient, a vital subconscient, Integral Yoga involves going beyond this surface consciousness to the larger life of the Inner Being, which is more open to spiritual realisation. The Inner Being, or Subliminal, includes the inner realms or aspects of the physical, vital and mental being and they have a larger, subtler, freer consciousness than that of the everyday consciousness. Its realisation is essential for any higher spiritual realisation, the Inner Being is also transitional between the surface or Outer Being and the Psychic or Inmost Being
