1.
California Academy of Sciences
–
The California Academy of Sciences is a natural history museum in San Francisco, California, that is among the largest museums of natural history in the world, housing over 26 million specimens. Completely rebuilt in 2008, the building covers 400,000 square feet and is among the newest natural history museums in the United States, the primary building in Golden Gate Park reopened on September 27,2008. The Academy Fellows are, in turn, ominated by their colleagues, underlying these operations is a staff of hundreds of employees who operate the day-to-day functions without which the Academy could not offer its programs. The operations branch of the Academy is divided into three departments, Building Operations, Guest Operations, and IT Services, in fact, unbeknownst to most patrons, research and administrative facilities occupy nearly 50% of the Academys physical structure. Prior to being replaced, the old Academy building attracted approximately half a million each year. As has been the case from the start, the main thrust of the exhibits is natural history, Morrison Planetarium - features the worlds largest completely digital planetarium dome measuring in at 27. There also is an emphasis on environmental concerns, with all the various departments collaborating closely to focus on systematic biology. Academy researchers study life around the world, a 2011 expedition to the Philippines discovered an estimated 300 species new to science, the Academy publishes the peer-reviewed journal Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, as well as Occasional Papers, Memoirs, and Special Publications. The California Academy of Natural Sciences was founded in 1853, only three years after California joined the United States, becoming the first society of its kind in the Western US. Its stated aim was to undertake a systematic survey of every portion of the State. It was renamed as the more inclusive California Academy of Sciences in 1868, in 1892, Alice Eastwood, a botanist, was hired by the Academy and worked there until she retired in 1949. Fortunately, the 1905-1906 scientific collecting expedition to the Galápagos Islands already was underway, in 1916, the Academy moved to the North American Hall of Birds and Mammals in Golden Gate Park, the first building on the site that was to become its permanent home. In 1923, the Steinhart Aquarium was added, followed in 1934 by the Simson African Hall, the post-war years saw a flurry of new construction on the site, the Science Hall was added in 1951, followed by the Morrison Planetarium in 1952. The Morrison Planetarium was the seventh major planetarium to open in the United States and featured a one-of-a-kind star projector, the Academy Projector produced a remarkably natural-looking star field. It projected irregularly shaped stars, rather than the circular stars projected by many optical star projectors, the irregular shapes were created by placing variously sized grains of silicon carbide onto the glass star plates by hand, then aluminizing the plates, and brushing away the silicon carbide grains. In 1959, the Malliard Library, Eastwood Hall of Botany, in 1969, another new building, Cowell Hall, was added to the site. In 1976, several new galleries were opened, and the year, in 1977. Prior to the old building being torn down in 2005, there was a Life through Time gallery, housing a display on evolution
California Academy of Sciences
–
California Academy of Sciences
California Academy of Sciences
–
The 90-foot (27 m) diameter spherical glass dome enclosing the rainforest exhibit
California Academy of Sciences
–
View of the
Amazonian flooded forest in the rainforest exhibit.
Arapaima,
arowana, catfish,
piranha,
cichlids and other fish species can be seen from a submerged
acrylic tunnel.
California Academy of Sciences
–
An
albino reticulated python named Lemondrop
2.
Exposition Park (Los Angeles)
–
Exposition Park is situated in the south region of Los Angeles, California. In a rectangle bounded by Exposition Boulevard to the north, South Figueroa Street to the east, Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard to the south and it is directly south of the main campus of the University of Southern California. The park is open space, managed by the California Natural Resources Agency. Exposition Park houses, LA84 Foundation/John C. of St. Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena The 160-acre site served as an agricultural fairground from 1872 to 1910. In 1880, John Edward, Ozro W. Childs, farmers sold their harvest on the grounds, while horses, dogs, and even camels competed on a racetrack where a rose garden now blooms. Along the northern edge of the park, the Metro Expo Line light rail serves the park with its Expo Park/USC Station. On the northeast, the Metro Silver Line bus rapid transit serves Exposition Park & USC at its 37th Street/USC Station on the Harbor Transitway, the Silver Line station is located on the freeway level of the 1-110 freeway. Leimert Park Beat — a collaborative online community focused nearby Leimert Park, The Soul of Los Angeles, official Expo Center website — recreation center
Exposition Park (Los Angeles)
–
Exposition Park, Los Angeles
Exposition Park (Los Angeles)
–
Dana R. Weller and Paul Engstrom laying cornerstone in 1910 (Los Angeles Herald)
Exposition Park (Los Angeles)
–
A
Douglas DC-8 near the Air and Space Exhibits Gallery
Exposition Park (Los Angeles)
–
Districts and neighborhoods
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
American Alliance of Museums
–
AAM is dedicated to ensuring that museums remain a vital part of the American landscape, connecting people with the greatest achievements of the human experience, past, present and future. AAM is the organization representing the entire scope of museums and professionals and nonpaid staff who work for. AAM currently represents more than 25,000 individual museum professionals, at the 2014 American Alliance of Museums conference, the Institute of Museum and Library Services announced there are now at least 35,000 museums in the US. 1906, Foundation 1911, Directory of North and South American museums published 1923, Headquarters established in Washington, the M&T Network is the AAM link between museums and media technologies. As such, it identifies, examines, and advocates appropriate uses of technologies in helping museums meet the needs of their diverse publics. Membership is limited to institutions or individuals that are members of AAM, the mission of the M&T is to identify, access, and advocate a broad variety of program uses for media and technology in helping museum professionals meet the needs of their diverse publics. The Spark is the first comprehensive plan in AAM’s recent history. It articulates a vision for museums, the field and AAM, the mission highlights AAMs commitment to leadership, advocacy, collaboration and service. The Spark contains four goals, excellence, advocacy, sustainability and alignment
American Alliance of Museums
–
AAM logo
American Alliance of Museums
–
Headquarters of AAM, Washington, DC
5.
Association of Science-Technology Centers
–
The Association of Science-Technology Centers is a non-profit, global organization based in Washington, D. C. United States that provides a voice, professional support, and programming opportunities for science centers, museums. Through strategic alliances and global partnerships, ASTCs goal is to increase awareness of the valuable contributions its members make to their communities and the field of informal STEM learning. Science centers connect people with science, give science a presence in the community and offer people of all ages and backgrounds the opportunity to ask questions, discuss, Science centers provide firsthand experience and an opportunity to develop intuitions about the natural world. Many schools rely on science centers for field trips and auditorium programs, hands-on curriculum, science kits. In the words of Frank Oppenheimer, founder of San Franciscos Exploratorium, “No one flunks a museum. ”For some, the interests awakened by science center experiences have turned into a passion for science, and the beginning of a lifetime devoted to teaching or research. ASTC’s goal is to support efforts of science centers and museums, in addition to their staff, visitors. Some ASTC member institutions also participate in ASTC’s Passport Program, more than 300 institutions in over a dozen countries are currently participating in the Passport Program. ASTC provides professional development opportunities for those who work in science centers, ASTC provides CoPs with resources and support for connecting with colleagues, convening meetings, and organizing workshops, among other activities. They work with partners to support sharing of knowledge and experience, and assist with planning, marketing, ASTC Connect is a learning and resource-sharing area for the informal science education community. Discussion forums, online workshops, and self-paced tutorials are hosted in collaboration with partners throughout the field. The YOUmedia Network is a group of libraries, museums and community-based organizations that invite people to create, learn. There are currently 24 Learning Lab sites operating across the country with programs that are driven by youth interests and connect learning directly back to school, careers, and other realms. This program was inspired by President Obama and other world leaders’ commitment to strengthening the science, technology, engineering, to date, more than 100 science centers have joined the challenge. ExhibitFiles is a community of exhibit practitioners building a shared collection of exhibition records. Its a place to connect with colleagues, find out about exhibits, exhibitFiles was developed to preserve and share experiences and materials that are often unrecorded, temporary, and hard to locate. Visitors to the site can search for, and post exhibitions rentals. ASTC and the National Writing Project received a grant from the National Science Foundation to design a program that will integrate science, through this program, ten partnerships will be created between NWP sites and ASTC-member science centers and museums to develop innovative programs for educators and youth
Association of Science-Technology Centers
–
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the
talk page.
6.
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
–
The AZA is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland. In October 1924, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums was formed as an affiliate of the American Institute of Park Executives, in 1966, the AAZPA became a professional branch affiliate of the newly formed National Recreation and Park Association. In January 1994, the shorter name American Zoo and Aquarium Association was adopted, in 1998, there were 134 million visits to North American zoos and aquariums. Ten years later, in 2008, there were 175 million visits to AZA-accredited zoos, the organization is active in institution accreditation, animal care initiatives, education and conservation programs, collaborative research and advocacy in order to achieve this goal. It serves as a body for zoos and aquariums and ensures that accredited facilities meet higher standards of animal care than are required by law. Institutions are evaluated every five years in order to ensure standards are met, the association also facilitates both Species Survival Plans and Population Management Plans, which serve to sustainably manage genetically diverse captive populations of various animal species. In addition, the association sponsors the scientific journal Zoo Biology, the association has established a computerized database called the Annual Report on Conservation and Science. It provides a model for a database to help track research projects worldwide. The database can be searched by key word, name of researcher, topic, country or region, name of institution, conservation program title, name of cooperating institution, type of research, or date. In 2000-2001, member institutions reported that they participated in over 2,230 conservation projects in 94 countries and they published 1,450 books, book chapters, journal articles, conference proceeding papers, posters and theses or dissertations. The publications can be searched using keywords, name of author, type of publication, institution name, or date. Depending on the animals they exhibit, the activities of zoos are regulated by laws including the Endangered Species Act, the Animal Welfare Act, additionally, zoos in North America may choose to pursue accreditation by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. They shall further be defined as having as their business the exhibition, conservation and preservation of the earths fauna in an educational. Inspection is performed by three experts and then reviewed by a panel of experts before accreditation is awarded. This accreditation process is repeated every five years. The AZA estimates that there are approximately 2,400 animal exhibits operating under USDA license as of February 2007, list of AZA member zoos and aquariums Official website
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
7.
Expo Line (Los Angeles Metro)
–
The Expo Line is a light-rail line that runs between Downtown Los Angeles and Santa Monica. The line is named Expo after Exposition Boulevard, which it runs alongside for most of its route and it is one of the six lines in the Metro Rail system, and is operated by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority. The Expo Line largely follows the right-of-way of the Santa Monica Air Line, several Expo Line stations are built in the same location as Air Line stations, although no original station structures have been reused. An independent agency, the Exposition Metro Line Construction Authority, was given the authority to plan, design, after construction was completed, the line was handed over on January 15,2016, to the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority for testing and operation. The line was built in two phases, the first phase comprised the 8. 6-mile section between Downtown Los Angeles and Culver City, Construction began in early 2006 and most stations opened to the public on April 28,2012. The Culver City and Farmdale stations opened on June 20,2012, design and construction on the 6. 6-mile portion between Culver City and Santa Monica started in September 2011. Testing along the phase 2 segment began on April 6,2015, the Expo Line operates from approximately 4,30 a. m. to 2,00 a. m. on weekdays and until 2,30 a. m. on Fridays and Saturdays. As of December 2016, trains run approximately every 6 minutes during peak hours, every 12 minutes during middays, every 10 minutes during the evening, maximum speed on the route is 55 mph, though it generally runs much slower than this. When the Santa Monica harbor closed to shipping traffic in 1909 the line was leased to Pacific Electric who converted it to electric traction, by 1920 the line was called the Santa Monica Air Line providing electric-powered freight and passenger service between Los Angeles and Santa Monica. Electrically-powered passenger service stopped in 1953 but diesel-powered freight deliveries to warehouses along the route continued until March 11,1988, while Southern Pacific maintained ownership of the right-of-way after 1988, it no longer used or maintained the rails. Portions of the right-of-way were leased for use as storage facilities, parking lots, impound lots, and various businesses, but no permanent structures were built. Advocacy groups including Friends 4 Expo Transit supported the passage of Proposition C in 1990. Metro successfully lobbied the government to use the remainder of Red Line funding for a different project to the Mid-City district of Los Angeles in 1998. That same year Los Angeles County voters approved Proposition A, another sales tax increase for transit, Metro then released a Major Investment Study in 2000 which compared bus rapid transit and light rail transit options along what was now known as the Mid-City/Exposition Corridor. Initially, the Expo Line was planned to be called the Aqua Line, plans were shelved in favor of the Expo Line designation, though the line retains the aqua color. Metro conducted study on the Expo Phase 2 from 2007 to 2009 and approved the project in 2010, with planned opening to Santa Monica in early 2016. The Expo Construction Authority officially handed control of the Expo Phase II track to L. A. Metro for the county transit agency to begin pre-revenue train testing on January 15,2016. This phase was opened on May 20,2016, once the Regional Connector Transit Corridor is completed, the Eastside leg of the Gold Line will be connected to the Expo Line
Expo Line (Los Angeles Metro)
–
Expo Line train at
Culver City Station platform looking east.
Expo Line (Los Angeles Metro)
–
Train in downtown Santa Monica, 1894
Expo Line (Los Angeles Metro)
–
Metro Expo Line heading westbound to Jefferson/La Cienega Station leaves Expo/Crenshaw Station.
Expo Line (Los Angeles Metro)
–
Interior of a westbound train, first day of operation to Culver City
8.
Expo Park/USC (Los Angeles Metro station)
–
Expo Park/USC is an at-grade light rail station in the Los Angeles County Metro Rail system. It is located at Exposition Boulevard and Trousdale Parkway, directly between the USC campus and Exposition Park, in the University Park neighborhood of Los Angeles and it also serves the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and the under construction Banc of California Stadium. This station is served by the Expo Line, Expo Line service hours are approximately from 4 AM to 12,30 AM daily. Service resumed Saturday, April 28,2012, regular scheduled service resumed Monday, April 30,2012. Expo Park/USC Station is located in the median of Exposition Boulevard, on the east side of Trousdale/Exposition, the stations entrance is on the east side of Trousdale/Exposition. The stations platforms slope down slightly toward the east, in order to accommodate the lines descent into a tunnel passes under Figueroa Street. The stations art was created by artist Robbert Flick, the untitled installation includes sequences of photographs taken on the boulevards near the station, creating a document of the local people and places as they were when the station was built. The USC main campus occupies the area to the north of the station, to the south is Exposition Park, which includes several popular L. A. Many stakeholders cited the importance of the station, citing the convenient access it would provide the USC students/employees, the administration of USC opposed at-grade light-rail along Exposition Boulevard, claiming that light-rail would separate the campus from Exposition Park. USC President Steven Sample, in particular, was opposed to the project, dr. Sample said he feared the line would create physical and psychological barriers between USC, Exposition Park, and the local community, and would be dangerous for pedestrians. However, general sentiment of students and neighbors was in support of the line, the Coliseum Commission took a strong position in support of this station, and the USC Student Senate also passed a resolution. The report also recommended a tunnel segment under the impacted intersections of Exposition/Figueroa. Once the FEIR had been approved, Expo worked to secure the funds for this station, one other issue remaining to be resolved was USC’s request for special architecture for the three stations serving the campus. Ultimately, USC did not contribute toward the cost of the station, Expo also abandoned any considerations for special architecture requested by USC. On September 19,2007, the board of Metro approved funding for the cost of the station and this allowed the station to be built along with the rest of Phase 1. It was completely rebuilt for the opening of the Expo Line from little more than a stop marker. Regular scheduled service resumed Monday, April 30,2012 and it is the last former station stop of the Santa Monica Air Line to be re-opened. The Expo line travels north on a new right-of-way along Flower street from this stop, the original Air line right-of-way remains owned by Metro and continues east to the Blue line tracks, however no plans are in place for its use
Expo Park/USC (Los Angeles Metro station)
–
Expo Park/USC Expo Line Station, westbound platform.
9.
California executive branch
–
The California executive branch consists of elected officers and other offices and officers. The elected executive officers are, Total number of employees is 227,536 excluding California State Universities, in 2004, there were 4,462 job classifications, many of which had no employees occupying the position, as a workaround for certain hiring practices. As part of a civil service reform initiative beginning in 2013,700 job titles were eliminated, two agencies, the California Department of Human Resources and the California State Personnel Board, oversee the states civil service system. The duties which apply to one agency versus the other is not always entirely clear, in the 1980s, a recommendations to decentralize hiring to departments was implemented. In 2012, the California Government Operations Agency was created under Governor Jerry Brown and its director, Marybel Batjer, launched an initiative of civil service reform intended to make state employment more attractive to talented employees relative to the private sector. In 2015, the first engagement survey of employees was conducted using a sample of 5,000. In 2016, the state rolled out a new hiring website, unusually, it was programmed by state employees rather than an external contractor. Agencies under the direction of a secretary that report directly to the Governor are cabinet-level agencies, some agencies such as the California State Controller, Attorney General of California, and California Insurance Commissioner and are headed by independent elected officials. The state auditor is the California Bureau of State Audits which is appointed by the governor with confirmation by the legislature, one relatively new top-level agency, California Government Operations Agency, was created in 2012 to help modernize the government. Exceptions include the head of the Department of the California Highway Patrol, notable exceptions include the California Public Utilities Commission and the California Department of Industrial Relations, which are both headquartered in San Francisco. Other defunct statewide elected offices that no longer exist include the Comptroller, the Surveyor General, in June 2012, Governor Jerry Brown obtained approval from the Legislature to proceed with a reorganization plan. California Government of California Politics of California
California executive branch
–
Jerry Brown (D)
Governor
California executive branch
–
Gavin Newsom (D)
Lieutenant Governor
California executive branch
–
Kamala Harris (D)
Attorney General
California executive branch
–
Alex Padilla (D)
Secretary of State
10.
Los Angeles
–
Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
Los Angeles
Los Angeles
Los Angeles
Los Angeles
11.
Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
–
This large collection is comprised not only of specimens for exhibition, but also of vast research collections housed on and offsite. The three museums work together to achieve their mission, to inspire wonder, discovery. NHM opened in Exposition Park, Los Angeles, California, United States in 1913 as the Museum of History, Science, the moving force behind it was a museum association founded in 1910. Its distinctive main building, with fitted marble walls and domed and colonnaded rotunda, is on the National Register of Historic Places, additional wings opened in 1925,1930,1960, and 1976. The museum was divided in 1961 into the Los Angeles County Museum of History and Science, LACMA moved to new quarters on Wilshire Boulevard in 1965, and the Museum of History and Science was renamed the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History. Eventually, the museum renamed itself again, becoming the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, in 2003, the museum began a campaign to transform its exhibits and visitor experience. The museum reopened its seismically retrofitted renovated 1913 rotunda, along with the new Age of Mammals exhibition and its Dinosaur Hall opened in July 2011. A new Los Angeles history exhibition, Becoming Los Angeles, opened in 2013, the outdoor Nature Gardens and Nature Lab, which explore L. A. wildlife, also opened in 2013. The museum has almost 30 million specimens representing marine zoology, the museums collection of historical documents is held in the Seaver Center for Western History Research. The Museum hosts regular exhibitions which augment its collections and advance its mission. Recent special exhibits have included Mummies and Pterosaurs, the museum also hosts a butterfly pavilion outside every spring and summer and a spider pavilion on the same site in the fall. Over the years, the museum has built additions onto its original building, originally dedicated when the Natural History Museum opened its doors in 1913, the Rotunda is one of the Museums most elegant and popular spaces. This hall is among the most distinctive locales in Los Angeles and has often used as a filming location. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County official website William S. Hart Ranch, page Museum at the La Brea Tar Pits Review of the Museums new Dinosaur Hall at the New York Times, July 19,2011 Slide show of exhibit
Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
–
Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County (NHM)
Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
–
Triceratops mount in the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
–
Old east door of the Natural History Museum in 1956
Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
–
Hall of African Mammals
12.
University of Southern California
–
The University of Southern California is a private research university founded in 1880 with its main campus in Los Angeles, California. As Californias oldest private university, USC has historically educated a large number of the regions business leaders. In recent decades, the university has also leveraged its location in Los Angeles to establish relationships with research and cultural institutions throughout Asia, an engine for economic activity, USC contributes $8 billion annually to the economy of the Los Angeles metropolitan area and California. For the 2014–15 academic year, there were 18,740 students enrolled in undergraduate programs. USC also has 23,729 graduate and professional students in a number of different programs, including business, law, engineering, social work, and medicine. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the world, consistently ranking among the top 3 in external contributions, multiple academic rankings list the University of Southern California as being among the top 25 universities in the United States. With an acceptance rate of 16 percent, USC is also among the most selective academic institutions in the nation. USC maintains a tradition of innovation and entrepreneurship, with alumni having founded companies such as Lucasfilm, Myspace, Salesforce. com, Intuit, Qualcomm, Box, Tinder. As of 2014, the university has produced the fourth largest number of billionaire alumni out of all institutions in the world. USC is home to the world’s most powerful computer, which is presently housed in a super-cooled. The only other commercially available quantum computing system is operated jointly by NASA, USC was also one of the earliest nodes on ARPANET and is the birthplace of the Domain Name System. Other technologies invented at USC include DNA computing, dynamic programming, image compression, VoIP, USC sponsors a variety of intercollegiate sports and competes in the National Collegiate Athletic Association as a member of the Pac-12 Conference. Members of the teams, the Trojans, have won 102 NCAA team championships, ranking them third in the nation. Trojan athletes have won 288 medals at the Olympic games, more than any university in the United States. If USC were a country, its athletes would have received the 12th-most Olympic gold medals in history. In 1969, it joined the Association of American Universities, the University of Southern California was founded following the efforts of Judge Robert M. Hellman. The three donated 308 lots of land to establish the campus and provided the seed money for the construction of the first buildings. Originally operated in affiliation with the Methodist Church, the school mandated from the start that no student would be denied admission because of race, the university is no longer affiliated with any church, having severed formal ties in 1952
University of Southern California
–
The Widney Alumni House, the campus's first building
University of Southern California
–
University of Southern California
University of Southern California
–
"
Tommy Trojan " is a major symbol of the university, though he is not the mascot.
University of Southern California
–
Doheny Library
13.
California African American Museum
–
The California African American Museum is a museum located in Exposition Park, Los Angeles, California, United States. The Museum focuses on enrichment and education on the heritage and history of African Americans with a focus on California. Admission is free to all visitors, CAAM was chartered by the State of California in 1977 and first opened in 1981, in temporary quarters at the California Museum of Science and Industry. The current facility was built with state and private funds of around $5 million, the museum was designed by the African–American architects Jack Haywood and Vince Proby. The new museum building opened to the public during the Los Angeles Olympic Games in July 1984, a major renovation occurred between 2001 and 2003. The museum occupies a 44,000 square feet building and it includes three exhibition galleries, a theater gallery, a 14, 000-square-foot sculpture court, a conference center special events room, an archive and research library. Behind the scenes there are offices, exhibit design and artifact storage areas. A2011 preliminary planning by design firm Huff and Gooden Architects pegged the cost at $67.3 million for an expansion and renovation that would nearly triple the size of the museum. CAAM exists to research, collect, preserve and interpret for public enrichment, the permanent collection includes paintings, photographs, sculpture and artifacts representing the diverse contributions of African Americans. The collection ranges from African art to 19th-century landscape, along with its permanent collection, CAAM hosts specially mounted exhibitions curated out of its own collection, as well as traveling exhibitions from other museums. The Museums Education Department offers a range of programming and events designed to serve the needs of the greater Los Angeles community. The California African American Museum has a budget of about $3.5 million a year. The state provides $2.5 million, augmented by funds from a nonprofit museum foundation that in recent years has generated annual contributions. In July 2015, George Davis was named as a new director to mainly oversee strategic planning, budget management. CAAM also welcomed Naima Keith, a curator at the Studio Museum in Harlem, in February 2016 as its deputy director to manage exhibitions, the California Natural Resources Agency oversees the California African American Museum and the California Science Center. California African American Museum, The Brown decision, A California perspective, biggers, J. T. Hammons, D. Outterbridge, J. Cummings, M. Johnson-Calloway, M. Los Angeles, CA, J. Paul Getty Trust
California African American Museum
–
California African American Museum (CAM
14.
Space Shuttle Endeavour
–
Space Shuttle Endeavour is a retired orbiter from NASAs Space Shuttle program and the fifth and final operational shuttle built. It embarked on its first mission, STS-49, in May 1992 and its 25th and final mission, STS-134, STS-134 was expected to be the final mission of the Space Shuttle program, but with the authorization of STS-135, Atlantis became the last shuttle to fly. The United States Congress authorized the construction of Endeavour in 1987 to replace Challenger, structural spares built during the construction of Discovery and Atlantis were used in its assembly. NASA chose, on cost grounds, to build Endeavour from spares rather than refitting Enterprise or accepting a Rockwell International proposal to build two shuttles for the price of one. The orbiter is named after the British HMS Endeavour, the ship which took Captain James Cook on his first voyage of discovery and this is why the name is spelled in the British English manner, rather than the American English. This has caused confusion, including when NASA itself misspelled a sign on the pad in 2007. The Space Shuttle carried a piece of the wood from Cook’s ship inside the cockpit. The name also honored Endeavour, the Command Module of Apollo 15, Endeavour was named through a national competition involving students in elementary and secondary schools. Entries included an essay about the name, the story behind it and why it was appropriate for a NASA shuttle, Endeavour was the most popular entry, accounting for almost one-third of the state-level winners. The national winners were Senatobia Middle School in Senatobia, Mississippi, in the division and Tallulah Falls School in Tallulah Falls, Georgia. They were honored at ceremonies in Washington, D. C. including a White House ceremony where then-President George H. W. Bush presented awards to each school. Endeavour was delivered by Rockwell International Space Transportation Systems Division in May 1991 and first launched a year later, in May 1992, Rockwell International claimed that it had made no profit on Space Shuttle Endeavour, despite construction costing US$2.2 billion. On its first mission, it captured and redeployed the stranded INTELSAT VI communications satellite, the first African-American woman astronaut, Mae Jemison, was brought into space on the mission STS-47 on September 12,1992. Endeavour flew the first servicing mission STS-61 for the Hubble Space Telescope in 1993, in 1997 it was withdrawn from service for eight months for a retrofit, including installation of a new airlock. In December 1998, it delivered the Unity Module to the International Space Station, Endeavours last Orbiter Major Modification period began in December 2003 and ended on October 6,2005. Morgan was the backup for Christa McAuliffe who was on the ill-fated mission STS-51-L in 1986, as it was constructed later, Endeavour was built with new hardware designed to improve and expand orbiter capabilities. Most of this equipment was incorporated into the other three orbiters during out-of-service major inspection and modification programs. Endeavour’s upgrades include, A 40-foot diameter drag chute that reduced the orbiters rollout distance by 1,000 to 2,000 feet, the plumbing and electrical connections needed for Extended Duration Orbiter modifications to allow up to a 28-day mission
Space Shuttle Endeavour
–
Space Shuttle Endeavour on
launch pad 39A prior to mission
STS-127, May 31, 2009
Space Shuttle Endeavour
–
Endeavour rollout ceremony in May 1991
Space Shuttle Endeavour
–
Endeavour as photographed from the
International Space Station as it approached the station during
STS-118
Space Shuttle Endeavour
–
Endeavour appears to straddle the
stratosphere and
mesosphere in this photo taken from the
International Space Station
15.
IMAX
–
IMAX is a motion picture film format and a set of cinema projection standards developed in Canada by Graeme Ferguson, Roman Kroitor, Robert Kerr, and William C. IMAX has the capacity to record and display images of far greater size, since 2002, some feature films have been converted into IMAX format for displaying in IMAX theatres and some have also been partially shot in IMAX. IMAX is the most widely used system for special-venue film presentations, as of June 2016, there were 1,102 IMAX theatres in 69 countries. The desire to increase the impact of film has a long history. In 1929, Fox introduced Fox Grandeur, the first 70 mm film format, in the 1950s, the potential of 35 mm film to provide wider projected images was explored in the processes of CinemaScope and VistaVision, following multi-projector systems such as Cinerama. While impressive, Cinerama was difficult to install, during Expo 67 in Montreal, the National Film Board of Canadas In the Labyrinth and Fergusons Man and the Polar Regions both used multi-projector, multi-screen systems. Each encountered technical difficulties led them to found a company called Multiscreen. As it became clear that a single, large-screen image had more impact than multiple smaller ones and was a viable product direction. An IMAX 3D theatre also is in operation near the former Expo 67 site at the Montreal Science Centre in the Port of Old Montreal, tiger Child, the first IMAX film, was demonstrated at Expo 70 in Osaka, Japan. The first permanent IMAX installation was built at the Cinesphere theatre at Ontario Place in Toronto and it debuted in May 1971, showing the film North of Superior. The installation is still in place, however, Ontario Place is on hiatus for redevelopment, during Expo 74 in Spokane, Washington, an IMAX screen that measured 27 m ×20 m was featured in the US Pavilion. It became the first IMAX Theatre to not be partnered with any brand of movie theaters. About five million visitors viewed the screen, which covered the total visual field when looking directly forward. This created a sensation of motion in most viewers, and motion sickness in some, much to the dismay of the majority of Spokane and the disapproval of the IMAX Corporation itself, it will be demolished because of its inability to project films digitally. An IMAX 3D & Digital theater was built in Spokane. However, its screen-size is less than half that of the original, due to protests, the IMAX Corporation has been able to remodel the area with the city, and turn the U. S. Pavilion itself into the first permanent outdoor IMAX screen, the first permanent IMAX Dome installation, the Eugene Heikoff and Marilyn Jacobs Heikoff Dome Theatre at the Reuben H. Fleet Science Center, opened in San Diegos Balboa Park in 1973, the first permanent IMAX 3D theatre was built in Vancouver, British Columbia for Transitions at Expo 86, and was in use until September 30,2009
IMAX
–
Audiences view a film using 3D glasses.
IMAX
–
A comparison between 35 mm and 15/70 mm negative areas.
IMAX
–
An IMAX cinema camera, displayed at the National Media Museum, Bradford, U.K.
IMAX
–
The 15 kW
Xenon short-arc lamp used in IMAX projectors.
16.
Association of Science and Technology Centers
–
The Association of Science-Technology Centers is a non-profit, global organization based in Washington, D. C. United States that provides a voice, professional support, and programming opportunities for science centers, museums. Through strategic alliances and global partnerships, ASTCs goal is to increase awareness of the valuable contributions its members make to their communities and the field of informal STEM learning. Science centers connect people with science, give science a presence in the community and offer people of all ages and backgrounds the opportunity to ask questions, discuss, Science centers provide firsthand experience and an opportunity to develop intuitions about the natural world. Many schools rely on science centers for field trips and auditorium programs, hands-on curriculum, science kits. In the words of Frank Oppenheimer, founder of San Franciscos Exploratorium, “No one flunks a museum. ”For some, the interests awakened by science center experiences have turned into a passion for science, and the beginning of a lifetime devoted to teaching or research. ASTC’s goal is to support efforts of science centers and museums, in addition to their staff, visitors. Some ASTC member institutions also participate in ASTC’s Passport Program, more than 300 institutions in over a dozen countries are currently participating in the Passport Program. ASTC provides professional development opportunities for those who work in science centers, ASTC provides CoPs with resources and support for connecting with colleagues, convening meetings, and organizing workshops, among other activities. They work with partners to support sharing of knowledge and experience, and assist with planning, marketing, ASTC Connect is a learning and resource-sharing area for the informal science education community. Discussion forums, online workshops, and self-paced tutorials are hosted in collaboration with partners throughout the field. The YOUmedia Network is a group of libraries, museums and community-based organizations that invite people to create, learn. There are currently 24 Learning Lab sites operating across the country with programs that are driven by youth interests and connect learning directly back to school, careers, and other realms. This program was inspired by President Obama and other world leaders’ commitment to strengthening the science, technology, engineering, to date, more than 100 science centers have joined the challenge. ExhibitFiles is a community of exhibit practitioners building a shared collection of exhibition records. Its a place to connect with colleagues, find out about exhibits, exhibitFiles was developed to preserve and share experiences and materials that are often unrecorded, temporary, and hard to locate. Visitors to the site can search for, and post exhibitions rentals. ASTC and the National Writing Project received a grant from the National Science Foundation to design a program that will integrate science, through this program, ten partnerships will be created between NWP sites and ASTC-member science centers and museums to develop innovative programs for educators and youth
Association of Science and Technology Centers
–
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the
talk page.
17.
Smithsonian Affiliations
–
Any 5013 nonprofit or publicly operated educational entity can apply to become a Smithsonian Affiliate. The Smithsonian Affiliations program was established in 1996 by Smithsonian Secretary I. C, in 1993, the “Commission on the Future of the Smithsonian Institution” introduced the first proposal for initiatives promoting strategic, collections-based partnerships at the Institution. To Educate More of the Nation’s People, “Build collaborative partnerships with other museums, research centers, significant emphasis was placed on the benefits that partnerships with outside museums would create for the Institution. In 1996, during his year as Secretary, Heyman observed several challenges facing the Institution. In addition, the Institution began to see increased interest from outside museums for partnerships, Heyman responded to these challenges by creating the Smithsonian Affiliations program to oversee and manage collections-based partnerships with other museums. As stated by the minutes from the Smithsonian Board of Regents meeting housed in the Smithsonian Institution Archives, there is no value in being just the largest if we do not share the Smithsonian with as many people as possible. It means making sure those who travel to Washington can somehow experience and enjoy the Smithsonian. ”Michael Heyman “ challenge is extending the reach of our collections to communities, museums. The Board of Regents in September strengthened the policy to share our collections with others. ”Michael Heyman The program was received by museums across the country. The end of the fiscal year 1997 recognized 21 organizations as Affiliates, as of 2014 there are nearly 200 Affiliates. On October,21,2016, The National Civil Rights Museum in Memphis, Smithsonian Affiliations considers membership proposals from organizations that will advance the Smithsonian Institutions mission and strategic plan. Successful applicants are non-profit or publicly operated organizations whose missions are directed toward advancing research, knowledge, and education in science, history, and the arts. To qualify as an Affiliate, an organization must prove that it is able to care for, protect. Strong applicants are organizations that are fiscally sound and capable of developing, installing, Affiliates are also responsible for maintaining an annual membership fee. To become an Affiliate, organizations must submit an application package to Smithsonian Affiliations, applicants are required to provide documentation that confirms IRS status as a 5013 entity and a narrative detailing how the agreement will be mutually beneficial. Applications must also include a copy of the mission statement, an organizational chart, an annual report. Once approved, Affiliates are required to sign a Smithsonian Affiliations Agreement form and are assigned a National Outreach Manager to oversee loans, all loan agreements are set for defined period of time. Affiliate organizations participate in a number of training, outreach. Smithsonian Affiliations Visiting Professional Program, Professionals of Affiliate organizations receive training from Smithsonian officials while visiting and working in Washington, the Smithsonian Affiliations program supports, develops, and organizes a number of collaborative programs to promote education in science, art, history, and culture
Smithsonian Affiliations
–
Smithsonian Affiliations
18.
Aquarium
–
An aquarium is a vivarium of any size having at least one transparent side in which water-dwelling plants or animals are kept and displayed. Fishkeepers use aquaria to keep fish, invertebrates, amphibians, aquatic reptiles such as turtles, the term, coined by English naturalist Philip Henry Gosse, combines the Latin root aqua, meaning water, with the suffix -arium, meaning a place for relating to. An aquarist owns fish or maintains an aquarium, typically constructed of glass or high-strength acrylic, cuboid aquaria are also known as fish tanks or simply tanks, while bowl-shaped aquaria are also known as fish bowls. Size can range from a glass bowl to immense public aquaria. Specialized equipment maintains appropriate water quality and other characteristics suitable for the aquariums residents, in the Roman Empire, the first fish to be brought indoors was the sea barbel, which was kept under guest beds in small tanks made of marble. Introduction of glass panes around the year 50 AD allowed Romans to replace one wall of marble tanks, leonhard Baldner, who wrote Vogel-, Fisch- und Tierbuch in 1666, maintained weather loaches and newts. In 1832, Jeanne Villepreux-Power, a pioneering French marine biologist, in 1836, soon after his invention of the Wardian case, Dr. Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward proposed to use his tanks for tropical animals. In 1841 he did so, though only with aquatic plants, however, he soon housed real animals. In 1838, Félix Dujardin noted owning a saltwater aquarium, though he did not use the term, in 1846, Anne Thynne maintained stony corals and seaweed for almost three years, and was credited as the creator of the first balanced marine aquarium in London. English chemist Robert Warington experimented with a 13-gallon container, which contained goldfish, eelgrass and he published his findings in 1850 in the Chemical Societys journal. The keeping of fish in an aquarium became a popular hobby, in the United Kingdom, it became popular after ornate aquaria in cast-iron frames were featured at the Great Exhibition of 1851. In 1853, the craze was launched in England by Philip Henry Gosse who created and stocked the first public aquarium in the London Zoo which came to be known as the Fish House. Gosse coined the word aquarium, opting for this term in 1854 in his book The Aquarium, in this book, Gosse primarily discussed saltwater aquaria. In the 1850s, the became a fad in the United Kingdom. Tank designs and techniques for maintaining water quality were developed by Warington, edward Edwards developed these glass-fronted aquaria in his 1858 patent for a dark-water-chamber slope-back tank, with water slowly circulating to a reservoir beneath. Germans soon rivaled the British in their interest, in 1854, an anonymous author had two articles published about the saltwater aquaria of the United Kingdom, Die Gartenlaube entitled Der Ocean auf dem Tische. However, in 1856, Der See im Glase was published, discussing freshwater aquaria, during the 1870s, some of the first aquarist societies were appearing in Germany. Published in 1858, Henry D. Butlers The Family Aquarium was one of the first books written in the United States solely about the aquarium
Aquarium
–
A
freshwater aquarium with plants and
tropical fish
Aquarium
–
A 20,000-US-gallon tropical
reef aquarium stands along the wall behind the reception counters at
The Mirage in Las Vegas, Nevada.
Aquarium
–
Goldfish in a glass: portrait of
Therese Krones, 1824
Aquarium
–
The Jardin zoologique at the
Bois de Boulogne included an aquarium that housed both fresh and saltwater animals, 1860 in Paris.
19.
Ecosystem
–
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles, as ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces. Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun and it generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and they also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, other external factors include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—invariably, they are subject to disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can have different characteristics simply because they contain different species. The introduction of species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops. Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present, although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate. Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance, classifying ecosystems into ecologically homogeneous units is an important step towards effective ecosystem management, but there is no single, agreed-upon way to do this. The term ecosystem was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley, Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. He later refined the term, describing it as The whole system, including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment. Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as mental isolates, Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope. G. Raymond Lindeman took these ideas one step further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the driver of the ecosystem. Most mineral nutrients, on the hand, are recycled within ecosystems. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, external factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem
Ecosystem
–
Coral reefs are a highly
productive marine ecosystem.
Ecosystem
–
Global oceanic and terrestrial
phototroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000. As an estimate of
autotroph biomass, it is only a rough indicator of primary production potential, and not an actual estimate of it. Provided by the
SeaWiFS Project,
NASA /
Goddard Space Flight Center and
ORBIMAGE.
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
20.
Polar region
–
The polar regions of Earth, also known as Earths frigid zones, are the regions of Earth surrounding its geographical poles. These regions are dominated by Earths polar ice caps, the northern resting on the Arctic Ocean and the southern on the continent of Antarctica. The Arctic has various definitions, including the north of the Arctic Circle, or the region north of 60° north latitude. The Antarctic is usually defined as south of 60° south latitude, the 1959 Antarctic Treaty uses the former definition. The axial tilt of the Earth has an effect on climate of the polar regions. Since the polar regions are the farthest from the equator, they receive the least amount of sunlight and are therefore frigid, the large amount of ice and snow also reflects a large part of what little sunlight the Polar regions receive, contributing to the cold. There are many settlements in Earths north polar region, countries with claims to Arctic regions are, the United States, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, and Russia. Arctic circumpolar populations often share more in common with other than with other populations within their national boundaries. As such, the polar region is diverse in human settlements. The southern polar region has no permanent human habitation, mcMurdo Station is the largest research station in Antarctica, run by the United States. Other notable stations include Palmer Station and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, Esperanza Base and Marambio Base, Scott Base, while there are no indigenous human cultures, there is a complex ecosystem, especially along Antarcticas coastal zones. Coastal upwelling provides abundant nutrients which feeds krill, a type of marine crustacea, other planets and natural satellites in the solar system have interesting quirks about their polar regions. Earths Moon is thought to contain deposits of ice in deep craters in its polar regions. Mars, like Earth, has ice caps. Meanwhile, on Uranus, the tilt of the planets axis leads to the poles alternately pointing almost directly at the Sun. Man and the Conquest of the Poles, trans. by Scott Sullivan, new York, Simon & Schuster,1963
Polar region
–
North polar region polar bears
Polar region
–
Northern Hemisphere
permafrost (permanently frozen ground) in purple
Polar region
–
South polar region penguin
21.
Space Shuttle external tank
–
A Space Shuttle External Tank was the component of the Space Shuttle launch vehicle that contained the liquid hydrogen fuel and liquid oxygen oxidizer. During lift-off and ascent it supplied the fuel and oxidizer under pressure to the three Space Shuttle Main Engines in the orbiter, the ET was jettisoned just over 10 seconds after MECO, where the SSMEs were shut down, and re-entered the Earths atmosphere. Unlike the Solid Rocket Boosters, external tanks were not re-used and they broke up before impact in the Indian Ocean, away from shipping lanes and were not recovered. The ET was the largest element of the shuttle. The ET was the backbone of the shuttle during launch, providing support for attachment with the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters. The tank was connected to each SRB at one forward attachment point and one aft bracket, in the aft attachment area, there were also umbilicals that carried fluids, gases, electrical signals and electrical power between the tank and the orbiter. Electrical signals and controls between the orbiter and the two rocket boosters were also routed through those umbilicals. Although the external tanks were discarded, it could have been possible to re-use them in orbit. Plans for re-use ranged from incorporation into a station as extra living or research space, as rocket fuel tanks for interplanetary missions. Another concept was to use the ET as a carrier for bulky payloads. One proposal was for the mirror of a 7-meter aperture telescope to be carried with the tank. Another concept was the Aft Cargo Carrier, over the years, NASA worked to reduce the weight of the ET to increase overall efficiency. For each pound of weight reduction, the capability of the shuttle spacecraft was increased almost one pound. The original ET is informally known as the Standard Weight Tank and was fabricated from 2219, a high-strength aluminum–copper alloy used for many aerospace applications. The first two, used for STS-1 and STS-2, were painted white to protect the tanks from ultraviolet light during the time that the shuttle spends on the launch pad prior to launch. After STS-4, several hundred pounds were eliminated by deleting the anti-geyser line and this line paralleled the oxygen feed line, providing a circulation path for liquid oxygen. This reduces accumulation of oxygen in the feed line during prelaunch tanking. After propellant loading data from tests and the first few space shuttle missions were assessed
Space Shuttle external tank
–
The ET from
STS-115 after separation from the orbiter. The scorch mark near the front end of the tank is from the SRB separation motors.
Space Shuttle external tank
Space Shuttle external tank
–
STS-1 at liftoff. The External Tank was painted white for the first two Space Shuttle launches. From
STS-3 on, it was left unpainted.
Space Shuttle external tank
–
The Pegasus barge carrying ET-119 is towed to Port Canaveral.
22.
Solar system
–
The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly. Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest eight are the planets, with the remainder being significantly smaller objects, such as dwarf planets, of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly, the moons, two are larger than the smallest planet, Mercury. The Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud. The vast majority of the mass is in the Sun. The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are terrestrial planets, being composed of rock. The four outer planets are giant planets, being more massive than the terrestrials. All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a flat disc called the ecliptic. The Solar System also contains smaller objects, the asteroid belt, which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptunes orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc, which are populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices, within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity. Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets, identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris. In addition to two regions, various other small-body populations, including comets, centaurs and interplanetary dust clouds. Six of the planets, at least four of the dwarf planets, each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the Sun, the heliopause is the point at which pressure from the solar wind is equal to the opposing pressure of the interstellar medium, it extends out to the edge of the scattered disc. The Oort cloud, which is thought to be the source for long-period comets, the Solar System is located in the Orion Arm,26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way. For most of history, humanity did not recognize or understand the concept of the Solar System, the invention of the telescope led to the discovery of further planets and moons. The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a G2 main-sequence star that contains 99. 86% of the known mass. The Suns four largest orbiting bodies, the giant planets, account for 99% of the mass, with Jupiter. The remaining objects of the Solar System together comprise less than 0. 002% of the Solar Systems total mass, most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earths orbit, known as the ecliptic
Solar system
–
The
Sun and
planets of the Solar System (distances not to scale)
Solar system
–
Solar System
Solar system
–
Andreas Cellarius 's illustration of the Copernican system, from the Harmonia Macrocosmica (1660)
Solar system
–
The eight planets of the Solar System (by decreasing size) are
Jupiter,
Saturn,
Uranus,
Neptune,
Earth,
Venus,
Mars and
Mercury.
23.
DC-8
–
The Douglas DC-8 is a four-engine long-range narrow-body jet airliner built from 1958 to 1972 by the Douglas Aircraft Company. The DC-8s design allowed it a larger cargo capacity than the 707. After World War II Douglas had a position in the commercial aviation market. Boeing had pointed the way to the modern all-metal airliner in 1933 with its Model 247, Douglas produced a succession of piston-engined aircraft through the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. When de Havilland flew the first jet airliner, the Comet, in 1949, all three companies were working on a new generation of piston-engined designs, with an eye to turboprop conversion in the future. De Havillands pioneering Comet entered airline service in 1952, initially it was a success, but it was grounded after several fatal crashes in 1953 and 1954. The understanding of metal fatigue that the Comet investigation produced would play a part in the good safety record of later types like the DC-8. In 1952 Douglas remained the most successful of the aircraft manufacturers. They had almost 300 orders on hand for the piston-engined DC-6 and its successor, the DC-7, the Comet disasters, and the airlines subsequent lack of interest in jets, seemed to show the wisdom of their staying with propeller-driven aircraft. Boeing took the step of starting to plan a pure-jet airliner as early as 1949. Boeings military arm had gained experience with large, long-range jets through the B-47 Stratojet, with thousands of jet bombers on order or in service, Boeing had developed a close relationship with the US Air Forces Strategic Air Command. Boeing also supplied the SACs refueling aircraft, the piston-engined KC-97 Stratofreighters, the B-52, in particular, had to descend from its cruising altitude and then slow almost to stall speed to work with the KC-97. Believing that a requirement for a tanker was a certainty. As an airliner it would have seating capacity to the Comet. First presented in 1950 as the Model 473-60C, Boeing failed to any interest at the airlines. Boeing remained convinced that the project was worthwhile, and decided to press ahead with a prototype, after spending $16 million of their own money on construction, the Dash-80 rolled out on May 15,1954, and flew the next month. Boeings plans became obvious, despite the older model number. Douglas secretly began jet transport project studies in mid-1952
DC-8
–
DC-8
DC-8
–
The first DC-8 N8008D which first flew on 30 May 1958 as a Series 10 aircraft. Converted to Series 51 and operated by Trans International Airways at
London Gatwick Airport in 1966
DC-8
–
Air Canada DC-8-61
DC-8
–
Air Transport International DC-8-62F at
Thule AB, Greenland.
24.
F-104 Starfighter
–
The Lockheed F-104 Starfighter is a single-engine, supersonic interceptor aircraft which later became widely used as an attack aircraft. It was originally developed by Lockheed for the United States Air Force, but became used by US Allies around the world. One of the Century Series of fighter aircraft, it was operated by the air forces of more than a dozen nations from 1958 to 2004. Its design team was led by Kelly Johnson, who went on to lead or contribute to the development of the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, the F-104 set numerous world records, including both airspeed and altitude records. The poor safety record of the Starfighter also brought the aircraft into the public eye, Fighter ace Erich Hartmann was forced to retire from the Luftwaffe due to his outspoken opposition to selection of the F-104. The ultimate production version of the model was the F-104S, an all-weather interceptor designed by Aeritalia for the Italian Air Force. An advanced F-104 with a wing, known as the CL-1200 Lancer, was considered. In 2018 a privately owned Starfighter is scheduled to launch a group of small cubesat satellites into low orbit by carrying the rocket aloft. Clarence Kelly Johnson, the engineer at Lockheeds Skunk Works, visited Korea in December 1951. At the time, the U. S. pilots were confronting the MiG-15 with North American F-86 Sabres, the pilots requested a small and simple aircraft with excellent performance. Armed with this information, Johnson immediately started the design of such an aircraft on his return to the United States. In March, his team was assembled, they studied several designs, ranging from small designs at 8,000 lb. The engine chosen was the new General Electric J79, an engine of dramatically improved performance in comparison with contemporary designs, the small L-246 design powered by a single J79 remained essentially identical to the L-083 Starfighter as eventually delivered. The design was presented to the Air Force in November 1952, although all were interesting, Lockheed had an insurmountable lead, and was granted a development contract in March 1953 for two prototypes, these were given the designation XF-104. Work progressed quickly, with a ready for inspection at the end of April. Meanwhile, the J79 engine was not ready, both prototypes were designed to use the Wright J65 engine, a licensed-built version of the Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire. The first prototype was completed by early 1954 and first flew on 4 March at Edwards AFB, the total time from contract to first flight was less than a year. When the USAF revealed the existence of the XF-104, they gave a vague description of it
F-104 Starfighter
–
F-104 Starfighter
F-104 Starfighter
–
The first XF-104 (s/n 53-7786) prototype of the F-104
F-104 Starfighter
–
Detail of F-104G's J79 turbojet exhaust (the red coloring has been added by the museum).
F-104 Starfighter
–
M61 cannon installation of a
German Navy F-104G
25.
Lockheed A-12
–
The Lockheed A-12 was a reconnaissance aircraft built for the United States Central Intelligence Agency by Lockheeds Skunk Works, based on the designs of Clarence Kelly Johnson. The aircraft was designated A-12, the 12th in a series of internal design efforts for Archangel and it competed in the CIAs Oxcart program against the Convair Kingfish proposal in 1959, and won for a variety of reasons. CIAs representatives initially favored Convairs design for its smaller radar cross-section, the companies respective track records proved decisive. Convairs work on the B-58 had been plagued with delays and cost overruns, whereas Lockheed had produced the U-2 on time, in addition, it had experience running a “black” project. The A-12 was produced from 1962 to 1964, and operated from 1963 to 1968, the A-12s final mission was flown in May 1968, and the program and aircraft retired in June. The program was revealed in the mid-1990s. A CIA officer later wrote, OXCART was selected from a random list of codenames to designate this R&D, the aircraft itself came to be called that as well. The crews named the A-12 the Cygnus, suggested by pilot Jack Weeks to follow the Lockheed practice of naming aircraft after celestial bodies, under Project Gusto the designs were nicknamed Archangel, after the U-2 program, which had been known as Angel. As the aircraft designs evolved and configuration changes occurred, the internal Lockheed designation changed from Archangel-1 to Archangel-2 and these names for the evolving designs soon simply became known as A-1, A-2, etc. The CIA program to develop the aircraft to the U-2 was code-named Oxcart. These designs had reached the A-11 stage when the program was reviewed, the A-11 was competing against a Convair proposal called Kingfish, of roughly similar performance. However, the Kingfish included a number of features that reduced its radar cross-section. Lockheed responded with an update of the A-11, adding twin canted fins instead of a single right-angle one. On 26 January 1960, the CIA ordered 12 A-12 aircraft, because the A-12 was way ahead of its time, many new technologies had to be invented specifically for the Oxcart project, some still in use today. One of the biggest problems that engineers faced at that time was working with titanium, the Russians never had an inkling of how they were actually contributing to the creation of the airplane being rushed into construction to spy on their homeland. After development and production at the Skunk Works, in Burbank, California, on 25 April 1962 it was taken on its first flight with Lockheed test pilot Louis Schalk at the controls. The first official flight took place on 30 April and subsequent supersonic flight on 4 May 1962. The first five A-12s, in 1962, were flown with Pratt & Whitney J75 engines capable of 17,000 lbf thrust each
Lockheed A-12
–
A-12
Lockheed A-12
–
Archangel 1 design, July 1958
Lockheed A-12
–
A-11 design, March 1959
Lockheed A-12
–
A-12 model mounted inverted for radar testing at
Area 51
26.
Bell X-1
–
Conceived during 1944 and designed and built in 1945, it achieved a speed of nearly 1,000 miles per hour in 1948. A derivative of this design, the Bell X-1A, having greater fuel capacity and hence longer rocket burning time. In 1942, the United Kingdoms Ministry of Aviation began a top secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the worlds first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier. The project resulted in the development of the prototype turbojet-powered Miles M.52, designed to reach 1,000 miles per hour in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft in 1 min 30 sec. By 1944, design of the M.52 was 90% complete, later that year, the Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange high-speed research and data. Unknown to Miles, Bell had already started construction of a supersonic design of their own. Bell was battling the problem of control due to blanking the elevators. A variable-incidence tail appeared to be the most promising solution, the Miles, meanwhile, on 16 March 1945, the U. S. The X-1 was, in principle, a bullet with wings, its shape resembling a Browning. 50-caliber machine gun bullet. The shape was followed to the extent of seating its pilot behind a sloped, framed window inside a confined cockpit in the nose, after the rocket plane experienced compressibility problems during 1947, it was modified with a variable-incidence tailplane following technology transfer with the United Kingdom. The rocket engine was a design built by Reaction Motors. This rocket burned ethyl alcohol diluted with water with a liquid oxygen oxidizer and its thrust could be changed in 1,500 lbf increments by using just additional chambers. The fuel and oxygen tanks for the first two X-1 engines were pressurized with nitrogen, but the rest used gas-driven turbopumps, the all-important fuel turbopumps were necessary to increase the chamber pressure and thrust while making the engine lighter. The color of the X-1 #46-062, the Glamorous Glennis, is International Orange, not all subsequent models were painted with the same shade. Bell Aircraft chief test pilot Jack Woolams became the first person to fly the XS-1 and he made a glide-flight over Pinecastle Army Airfield, in Florida, on 25 January 1946. These were performed at Muroc Army Air Field near Palmdale, California, after Woolams death on 30 August 1946, Chalmers Slick Goodlin was the primary Bell Aircraft test pilot for the X-1-1. He made 26 successful flights in both X-1s from September 1946 through June 1947, the Army Air Forces was unhappy with the cautious pace of flight envelope expansion and Bell Aircrafts flight test contract for airplane #46-062 was terminated. The test program was acquired by the Army Air Force Flight Test Division on 24 June after months of negotiation, Goodlin had demanded a US$150,000 bonus for exceeding the speed of sound
Bell X-1
–
X-1
Bell X-1
–
XLR-11 rocket engine.
Bell X-1
–
Chuck Yeager in front of the X-1 that he nicknamed the Glamorous Glennis.
Bell X-1
–
X-1A.
27.
The Right Stuff (film)
–
The Right Stuff stars Ed Harris, Scott Glenn, Sam Shepard, Fred Ward, Dennis Quaid and Barbara Hershey. Levon Helm is the narrator in the introduction and elsewhere in the film, in 2013 the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. In 1947, the Muroc Army Air Field in California has test pilots fly high-speed aircraft such as the rocket-powered Bell X-1, but they die as a result. After another pilot, Slick Goodlin, demands $150,000 to attempt to break the sound barrier, war hero Captain Chuck Yeager receives the chance to fly the X-1. While on a ride with his wife Glennis, Yeager collides with a tree branch and breaks his ribs. Worried that he not fly the mission, Yeager confides in friend. Six years later, Muroc, now Edwards Air Force Base, Yeager and friendly rival Scott Crossfield repeatedly break the others speed records. They often visit the Happy Bottom Riding Club run by Pancho Barnes, gordon Gordo Cooper, Virgil Gus Grissom and Donald Deke Slayton, captains of the United States Air Force, are among the pudknockers who hope to also prove that they have the Right Stuff. The tests are no secret, as the military soon recognizes that it needs good publicity for funding. Coopers wife, Trudy, and other wives are afraid of becoming widows, in 1957, the launch of the Russian Sputnik satellite alarms the United States government. Politicians such as Senator Lyndon B. Johnson and military leaders demand that NASA help America defeat the Russians in the new Space Race, the search for the first Americans in space excludes Yeager because he lacks a college degree. Although many early NASA rockets explode during launch, the ambitious astronauts all hope to be the first in space as part of Project Mercury. Although engineers see the men as passengers, the pilots insist that the Mercury spacecraft have a window, a hatch with explosive bolts, however, Russia beats them on April 12,1961 with the launch of Vostok 1 carrying Yuri Gagarin into space. The seven astronauts immediately decide to start the Mercury program, Shepard is the first American to reach space on the 15-minute sub-orbital flight of Mercury-Redstone 3 on May 5. After Grissoms similar flight of Mercury-Redstone 4 on July 21, the capsules hatch blows open, Grissom escapes, but the spacecraft, overweight with seawater, sinks. Many criticize Grissom for possibly panicking and opening the hatch prematurely, Glenn becomes the first American to orbit the Earth on Mercury-Atlas 6 on February 20,1962, surviving a possibly loose heat shield, and receives a ticker-tape parade. While testing the new Lockheed NF-104A, Yeager attempts to set a new record at the edge of space but is nearly killed in a high-speed ejection when his engine fails. Though seriously burned, after reaching the ground Yeager gathers up his parachute and walks to the ambulance, on May 15,1963, Cooper has a successful launch on Mercury-Atlas 9, ending the Mercury program
The Right Stuff (film)
–
Theatrical release poster
The Right Stuff (film)
–
A replica of the Glamorous Glennis which was used in filming The Right Stuff. Now on display at the
Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center in Hutchinson, Kansas.
28.
Wright Glider
–
The Wright brothers designed, built and flew a series of three manned gliders in 1900–1902 as they worked towards achieving powered flight. They also made preliminary tests with a kite in 1899, in 1911 Orville conducted tests with a much more sophisticated glider. Neither the kite nor any of the gliders was preserved, the 1899 kite, which Wilbur flew near his home in Dayton, Ohio had a wingspan of only 5 feet. The Wrights burned the craft along with trash in 1905. The 1900 Wright Glider was the brothers first to be capable of carrying a human and its overall structure was based on Octave Chanutes two-surface glider of 1896. Its wing airfoil was derived from Otto Lilienthals published tables of aerodynamic lift, the glider was designed with wing-warping capability for full-size testing of the concept first tried on the 1899 Wright Kite. The glider was first flown as a kite on October 5,1900 near Kitty Hawk. Next, Wilbur rode as pilot while men on the ground held tether ropes attached to the airborne craft, subsequently, Wilbur made about a dozen free flights on a single day, concluding the seasons test efforts. The brothers abandoned the glider when they broke camp on 23 October, the fabric covering of the wing components were given to the wife of helper Bill Tate, whose family Wilbur first stayed with at Kitty Hawk in 1900. Mrs. Tate allegedly used the material to make dresses for her daughters, the 1901 Wright Glider was the second of the brothers experimental gliders. They tested it over the Kill Devil Hills, four miles south of Kitty Hawk, the glider was similar to the 1900 version, but had larger wings. It first flew on July 27,1901, and was retired on August 17, during this time it made between 50 and 100 free flights, in addition to tethered flights as a kite. The wing ribs flexed under the weight of the pilot, distorting the airfoil shapes of the wings, the brothers fixed the trouble, but the wings still produced much less lift than expected, and wing-warping sometimes made the glider turn opposite the intended direction. After testing concluded, the brothers stored the glider in their camp shed, the shed and glider were badly damaged later by windstorms. The wing uprights were salvaged for the 1902 Glider, but the rest was abandoned, as a result of lift and drift measurements taken with the tethered glider, the brothers concluded that Lilienthals data were inaccurate. Upon returning to Dayton, they designed and built a wind tunnel to collect their own data. The 1902 Wright Glider was the third free-flight glider built by the brothers and this was their first glider to incorporate yaw control by use of a rear rudder, and its design led directly to the powered 1903 Wright Flyer. The brothers designed the 1902 glider during the winter of 1901/02, the wing design was based on data from extensive tests of miniature airfoils in their homemade wind tunnel
Wright Glider
–
Wright Glider
Wright Glider
–
Orville with the 1901 glider, its nose pointing skyward.
Wright Glider
–
The 1902 Wright Glider (Wilbur piloting) on one of its early test flights before replacement of the fixed double rear vertical
rudder with a single steerable rudder.
Wright Glider
–
The 1911 glider over the Kill Devil Hills.
Library of Congress Wright Collection.
29.
Velie Monocoupe
–
The Velie Monocoupe was an American general aviation aircraft manufactured from 1927-1929 by the Mono-Aircraft Corp, a division of Velie Motors Corporation. The Velie Monocoupe was a framed, doped fabric-covered monoplane. In an era of big, costly, lumbering, open-cockpit biplanes, in all there were 350 Velie Monocoupes produced under the approved type certificate number 22. Upon W. L. Velies death, his son had planned to continue production of the aircraft, the company, and design, survived, however. Mono Aircraft would continue to produce the Monocoupe, in various versions—ultimately changing its name to Monocoupe Corp, the company producing the Monocoupe line changed ownership and location several times from 1926 to the early 1950s. There is a Monocoupe on display at the California Science Center, on loan from the National Air, another example exists at Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome, and is being restored to airworthiness. Another in private hands in Texas has been restored and is flown regularly
Velie Monocoupe
–
Velie Monocoupe
30.
Northrop T-38
–
The Northrop T-38 Talon is a two-seat, twin-engined supersonic jet trainer. It was the worlds first supersonic trainer and is also the most produced, the T-38 remains in service as of 2017 in several air forces. The United States Air Force operates the most T-38s, in addition to training USAF pilots, the T-38 is used by NASA. The U. S. Naval Test Pilot School is the principal US Navy operator, pilots of other NATO nations fly the T-38 in joint training programs with USAF pilots. As of 2015, the T-38 has been in service for over 50 years with its original operator, in 1952 Northrop began work on a fighter project, the Fang, with shoulder-mounted delta wing and a single engine. The proposed General Electric J79 engine, weighing two tons, meant the resulting aircraft would be large and expensive. Schmued and chief engineer Welko Gasich decided on a small twin-engine hot-rod fighter, Northrop began its N-156 project in 1954, aiming for a small supersonic fighter jet capable of operating from the US Navys escort carriers. In the mid-1950s the USAF issued a General Operating Requirement for a supersonic trainer, Northrop officials decided to adapt the N-156 to this competition. The only other candidate was the version of the North American F-100 Super Sabre. However, Northrop officials convincingly presented life-cycle cost comparisons which could not be ignored, the first flew on 10 March 1959. The type was adopted and the first production examples were delivered in 1961, officially entering service on 17 March that year. When production ended in 1972,1,187 T-38s had been built, since its introduction, it is estimated that some 50,000 military pilots have trained on this aircraft. The USAF remains one of the few armed flying forces using dedicated supersonic final trainers, as most, such as the US Navy, the T-38 is of conventional configuration, with a small, low, long-chord wing, a single vertical stabilizer, and tricycle undercarriage. The aircraft seats a student pilot and instructor in tandem, and has intakes for its two engines at the wing roots. Its nimble performance has earned it the nickname white rocket, in 1962 the T-38 set absolute time-to-climb records for 3,000,6,000,9,000 and 12,000 meters, beating the records for those altitudes set by the F-104 in December 1958. The wings of both the T-38 and the F-5 family use conventional skin over spar-rib structure, in 2015,504 T-38s were still operational with the USAF, with many more in operation around the world. Most of the USAF variant aircraft have been converted to the T-38C through an upgrade program. Improvements include the addition of a HUD, GPS, INS, most jets have also received PMP
Northrop T-38
–
T-38 Talon
Northrop T-38
–
Air-to-air right side view of a USAF T-38 Talon aircraft from 560th Flying Training Squadron, Randolph AFB, TX as his lead performs a left pitchout
Northrop T-38
–
T-38C cockpit
Northrop T-38
–
USAF
Thunderbirds flying T-38s in formation
31.
Northrop F-20
–
The Northrop F-20 Tigershark was a privately financed light fighter, designed and built by Northrop. Compared with the F-5E, the F-20 was much faster, gained beyond-visual-range air-to-air capability, with these improved capabilities, the F-20 became competitive with contemporary fighter designs such as the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, but was much less expensive to purchase and operate. Much of the F-20s development was carried out under a US Department of Defense project called FX, FX sought to develop fighters that would be capable in combat with the latest Soviet aircraft, but excluding sensitive front-line technologies used by the United States Air Forces own aircraft. The development program was abandoned in 1986 after three prototypes had been built and a partially completed. A number of designs were studied, including versions of the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter and Vought F-8 Crusader. On 23 April 1962, the United States Air Force informed the United States Secretary of Defense that the N-156F had been selected, under the designation F-5,847 F-5s of various early marks would be produced. As the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 became more common, the U. S. Air Force initiated the International Fighter Aircraft program to provide an equivalent to allies. The USAF desired a light fighter with competitive performance to the MiG, inexpensive when purchased in large numbers. Although numerous companies entered designs, Northrops existing F-5 put them in a leading position and they submitted an upgrade, the F-5E Tiger II, with the AN/APQ-153 radar and other changes to allow the AIM-9 Sidewinder missile to be fired from wing-tip rails. On 20 November 1970, Northrops entry was announced as the IFA winner, Northrop produced a total of 1,399 F-5E/F Tiger IIs by the time manufacturing ended in 1986. In the late 1970s, the Republic of China Air Force started looking for an aircraft to match improvements made in mainland Peoples Republic of China s air force. In particular, they wanted a capable of firing the AIM-7 Sparrow long-range missile. At the time, the US was in the process of opening up ties with the Peoples Republic of China after President Nixons famous visit in 1972, China considered US support of Taiwan against their interests, and the US State Department wanted to tread carefully. They blocked export of all of the AIM-7 capable aircraft, even otherwise outdated early models of the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, the State Department suggested the Israeli IAI Kfir instead, however, it was rejected. Taiwan was already producing the F-5E under license, so the Department of Defense asked Northrop to study adding an AIM-7 capable radar to the Tiger II as an alternative and this effort became the first of several F-5G studies. In the spring of 1977, Jimmy Carters administration had announced a new military policy that limited sales of front line designs to countries within NATO, along with Australia. Carter stated at the time that the U. S. could not be both the champion of peace and the worlds leading supplier of the weapons of war. Previously, there was no coherent export policy, fueling concerns that the USs latest technologies might quickly end up in Soviet hands, South Koreas F-16 order was initially blocked under this policy, but later allowed in the context of strengthening relations
Northrop F-20
–
F-20 Tigershark
Northrop F-20
–
A mock-up of the prototype cockpit with two multi-function displays and HUD
Northrop F-20
–
An F-20 launching an
AGM-65 Maverick missile
Northrop F-20
–
The first F-20 in Northrop colors. The reverse camber of the leading edge of the wing is evident.
32.
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18A Hornet
–
The McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet is a twin-engine supersonic, all-weather carrier-capable multirole combat jet, designed as both a fighter and attack aircraft. Designed by McDonnell Douglas and Northrop, the F/A-18 was derived from the latters YF-17 in the 1970s for use by the United States Navy and Marine Corps. The Hornet is also used by the air forces of other nations and, since 1986, by the U. S. Navys Flight Demonstration Squadron. The F/A-18 has a top speed of Mach 1.8 and it can carry a wide variety of bombs and missiles, including air-to-air and air-to-ground, supplemented by the 20-mm M61 Vulcan cannon. It is powered by two General Electric F404 turbofan engines, which give the aircraft a high thrust-to-weight ratio, the F/A-18 has excellent aerodynamic characteristics, primarily attributed to its leading edge extensions. The fighters primary missions are fighter escort, fleet air defense, Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses, air interdiction, close air support, the Hornet first saw combat action during the 1986 United States bombing of Libya and subsequently participated in the 1991 Gulf War and 2003 Iraq War. The F/A-18 Hornet provided the design for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, its larger. In August 1973, Congress mandated that the Navy pursue a lower-cost alternative to the F-14, grumman proposed a stripped F-14 designated the F-14X, while McDonnell Douglas proposed a naval variant of the F-15, but both were nearly as expensive as the F-14. That summer, Secretary of Defense Schlesinger ordered the Navy to evaluate the competitors in the Air Forces Lightweight Fighter program, the Air Force competition specified a day fighter with no strike capability. On 2 May 1975, the Navy announced its selection of the YF-17, since the LWF did not share the design requirements of the VFAX, the Navy asked McDonnell Douglas and Northrop to develop a new aircraft from the design and principles of the YF-17. On 1 March 1977, Secretary of the Navy W. Graham Claytor announced that the F-18 would be named Hornet. Northrop had partnered with McDonnell Douglas as a contractor on NACF to capitalize on the latters experience in building carrier aircraft. On the F-18, the two agreed to evenly split component manufacturing, with McDonnell Douglas conducting final assembly. McDonnell Douglas would build the wings, stabilators, and forward fuselage, while Northrop would build the center and aft fuselage and vertical stabilizers. McDonnell Douglas was the contractor for the naval versions. The F-18, initially known as McDonnell Douglas Model 267, was modified from the YF-17. For carrier operations, the airframe, undercarriage, and tailhook were strengthened, folding wings and catapult attachments were added, and the landing gear widened. To meet Navy range and reserves requirements, McDonnell increased fuel capacity by 4,460 pounds, by enlarging the dorsal spine, a snag was added to the wings leading edge and stabilators to prevent an Aeroelastic flutter discovered in the F-15 stabilator
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18A Hornet
–
F/A-18 Hornet
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18A Hornet
–
The
Northrop YF-17 Cobra was developed into the carrier-capable F/A-18.
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18A Hornet
–
The first pre-production F-18A on display in October 1978.
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18A Hornet
–
A US Navy F/A-18C on a mission during Operation Enduring Freedom in 2002
33.
Mercury-Redstone 2
–
Mercury-Redstone 2 was the penultimate test flight of the Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle prior to the first manned American space mission in Project Mercury. It was launched at 16,55 UTC on January 31,1961 from LC-5 at Cape Canaveral, Mercury spacecraft No.5 carried Ham the Chimp, a chimpanzee, on a suborbital flight, landing in the Atlantic Ocean 16 minutes and 39 seconds after launch. The previous Mercury-Redstone mission, MR-1A, flew a trajectory that was too steep with accelerations too high for a human passenger, MR-1A had climbed to its programmed apogee of about 130 miles and landed 235 miles downrange. Mercury-Redstone 2 would follow a more flattened trajectory and its planned flight path was an apogee of 115 miles and a range of 290 miles. The six chimps were trained in Mercury simulators for three weeks, the day before the flight, two chimps were chosen for the mission, one primary, Ham, and one backup, a female chimp named Minnie. The competition was fierce, but Ham was full of energy, Ham was named in honor of Holloman Aerospace Medical Center. Ham was from Cameroon, Africa, and was purchased by the USAF July 9,1959 and he was 3 years 8 months old at launch. At 12,53 UTC, January 31,1961, Ham was inserted into the spacecraft, the countdown was then delayed almost four hours because of a hot inverter, and several other minor problems. At 16,55 UTC the MR-2 lifted off, computers reported one minute after launch, the flight path angle was at least one degree too high and rising. At two minutes, the computers predicted a 17 g acceleration, at 2 minutes 17 seconds into the flight, the liquid oxygen supply was depleted. The closed-loop abort system sensed a change in engine chamber pressure when the LOX supply was depleted and fired the launch escape system, the abort signaled a Mayday message to the recovery forces. The high flight angle, and the abort, caused the maximum velocity of the spacecraft to be 7,540 ft/s instead of the planned 6,465 ft/s. The retrorockets had been jettisoned during the abort and therefore could not be used to slow down the spacecraft, all of this added up to an overshoot of the planned landing area by 130 miles and an apogee of 157 miles instead of 115 miles. Another problem occurred at 2 minutes and 18 seconds into the flight and this malfunction was traced later to the air inlet snorkel valve. Vibrations had loosened a pin in the valve and allowed the valve to open. Ham was safe in his own couch spacesuit and did not suffer any ill effects from the loss of cabin pressure and his couch spacesuit pressure remained normal, and suit temperature stayed well within the 60 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit optimum range. Because of over-acceleration of the vehicle and the boost from the escape rocket. At apogee Hams spacecraft was 48 miles farther downrange than planned, Ham was weightless for 6.6 minutes instead of the 4.9 minutes that were planned
Mercury-Redstone 2
–
Launch of Mercury-Redstone 2
Mercury-Redstone 2
–
Ham before the launch of Mercury-Redstone 2
Mercury-Redstone 2
–
Ham accepts an apple.
34.
Ham the Chimp
–
Ham, also known as Ham the Chimp and Ham the Astrochimp, was a chimpanzee and the first hominid launched into space, on 31 January 1961, as part of Americas space program. Hams name is an acronym for the lab which prepared him for his historic mission — the Holloman Aerospace Medical Center, Ham was born in 1956 or 1957 in Cameroon, captured by animal trappers and sent to Rare Bird Farm in Miami, Florida. He was purchased by the United States Air Force and brought to Holloman Air Force Base in 1959, there were originally 40 chimpanzee flight candidates at Holloman. After evaluation, the number of candidates was reduced to 18, then to 6, officially, Ham was known as No.65 before his flight, and only renamed Ham upon his successful return to Earth. This was reportedly because officials did not want the bad press that would come from the death of a named chimpanzee if the mission were a failure, among his handlers, No.65 had been known as Chop Chop Chang. On January 31,1961, Ham was secured in a Project Mercury mission labeled MR-2 and launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, Ham had his vital signs and tasks monitored using computers on Earth. The capsule suffered a loss of pressure during the flight. Hams lever-pushing performance in space was only a fraction of a slower than on Earth. Hams capsule splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean and was recovered by a rescue ship later that day and he only suffered a bruised nose. His flight was 16 minutes and 39 seconds long, after the flight, Ham lived for 17 years in the National Zoo in Washington, D. C. before joining a small group of captive chimps at North Carolina Zoo. After his death in 1983, Hams body was turned over to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology for necropsy, following the necropsy, the plan was to have him stuffed and placed on display at the Smithsonian, following Soviet precedent with pioneering space dogs Belka and Strelka. However, this plan was abandoned after a public reaction. Hams remains, minus the skeleton, were buried at the International Space Hall of Fame in Alamogordo, colonel John Stapp gave the eulogy at the memorial service. The skeleton is held in the collection of the National Museum of Health, Hams backup, Minnie, was the only female chimpanzee trained for the Mercury program. She was the last surviving astro-chimpanzee and died at age 41 on March 14,1998, the 1961 animated television series Tales of the Wizard of Oz featured two flying monkeys named Ham and Baker. The film mentions that the chimpanzee became the first American to cross into outer space, a 2001 film titled Race to Space, was a fictionalized version of Hams story about sending chimpanzees to space. The chimpanzee in the movie was named Mac, in series 1, episode 1 of The Ricky Gervais Show, Karl Pilkington tells his version of Hams mission in his Monkey News segment. The 2006 song Monkey 61 by Irish band Bell X1 was based on Ham the Chimp, in 2007, a French documentary was made in association with Animal Planet called Ham - Astrochimp #65, which tells the story of Ham as witnessed by Jeff
Ham the Chimp
–
Ham fitted into a special biopack couch prior to flight to space.
Ham the Chimp
–
A "hand shake" welcome. After his flight on a Mercury-Redstone rocket, chimpanzee Ham is greeted by the commander of the recovery ship,
USS Donner (LSD-20).
Ham the Chimp
–
Ham's grave at the
New Mexico Museum of Space History in
Alamogordo, New Mexico
35.
Hominid
–
Several revisions in classifying the great apes have caused the use of the term hominid to vary over time. Its original meaning referred only to humans and their closest non-extant relatives and that restrictive meaning has now been largely assumed by the term hominin, which comprises all members of the human clade after the split from the chimpanzees. The current, 21st-century meaning of hominid includes all the great apes including humans, the most recent common ancestor of all Hominidae lived roughly 14 million years ago, when the ancestors of the orangutans speciated from the ancestral line of the other three genera. Those ancestors of the family Hominidae had already speciated from the family Hylobatidae, in the early Miocene, about 22 million years ago, there were many species of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa, the variety suggests a long history of prior diversification. Fossils at 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the most recent of these far-flung Miocene apes is Oreopithecus, from the fossil-rich coal beds in northern Italy and dated to 9 million years ago. Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the split off from the line leading to the humans. Human DNA is approximately 98. 4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms, the earliest fossils argued by some to belong to the human lineage are Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Orrorin tugenensis, followed by Ardipithecus, with species Ar. kadabba and Ar. ramidus. The classification of the apes has been revised several times in the last few decades. The original meaning of the referred to only humans and their closest relatives—what is now the modern meaning of the term hominin. And the meaning of the taxon Hominidae changed gradually, leading to a different usage of hominid that today all the great apes including humans. A hominid is a member of the family Hominidae, the apes, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees. A hominine is a member of the subfamily Homininae, gorillas, chimpanzees, a hominin is a member of the tribe Hominini, Chimpanzees and humans. A homininan is a member of the subtribe Hominina of the tribe Hominini, a human is a member of the genus Homo, of which Homo sapiens is the only extant species, and within that Homo sapiens sapiens is the only surviving subspecies. For each clade it is indicated approximately when newer extant clades emerged, some texts will refer to Homonini as the Hominina branch. Many scientists, including paleoanthropologists, continue to use the term hominid to mean humans, as mentioned, Hominidae was originally the name given to the family of humans and their close relatives, with the other great apes all being placed in a separate family, the Pongidae. However, that eventually made Pongidae paraphyletic because at least one great ape species proved to be more closely related to humans than to other great apes. Most taxonomists today encourage monophyletic groups—this would require, in this case, thus, many biologists now assign Pongo to the family Hominidae
Hominid
Hominid
–
Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii)
Hominid
–
A reconstruction of a female
Australopithecus afarensis (
National Museum of Natural History)
Hominid
–
Humans are one of the four
extant hominid genera.
36.
Gemini 11
–
Gemini 11 ) was the ninth manned spaceflight mission of NASAs Project Gemini, which flew from September 12 to 15,1966. It was the 17th manned American flight and the 25th spaceflight to that time, astronauts Charles Pete Conrad, Jr. and Richard F. Gordon Jr. Gordon also performed two extra-vehicular activities for a total of 2 hours and 41 minutes. Williams, Jr. John W. Young Alan L. Bean Mass,8,374 pounds Highest orbit and this would simulate a Lunar Module rendezvous with the Command/Service Module after a lunar landing. Use the Agena rocket engine to put the craft in a high-apogee elliptical orbit. Demonstrate passive attitude stabilization of the two connected by a tether, and create artificial gravity by spinning the combined craft. Perform a computer-controlled atmospheric reentry to a precision splashdown point, Gemini 11 used the rocket on its Agena target vehicle to raise its apogee to 850 miles, the highest Earth orbit ever reached by a manned spacecraft. The perigee was 179 miles, and maximum velocity was 17,967 miles per hour, the apogee record stands as of March 2016, even though men have achieved greater distances from Earth by flying to the Moon in the Apollo program. The maximum operational altitude of the Space Shuttle was lower, at 600 miles, the crew docked and undocked four times, and still had sufficient Gemini maneuvering fuel for an unplanned fifth rendezvous. They did not remain in the orbit, but changed it back to a near-circular one at 184 miles. Gordons first EVA, planned to last for two hours, involved fastening a 100-foot tether, stored in the Agenas docking collar, to the Geminis docking bar for the passive stabilization experiment, the passive stabilization experiment proved to be a bit troublesome. Conrad and Gordon separated the craft in a position, but found that the tether would not be kept taut simply by the Earths gravity gradient. However, they were able to generate an amount of artificial gravity, about 0.00015 g. Gordon successfully performed a second EVA standing up with his head and shoulders out of the hatch to photograph the Earth, clouds and this was not tiring, and lasted more than two hours. Radiation and Zero G Effects on Blood and Neurospora, To determine if weightlessness enhances the effects of radiation on human blood cells. Synoptic Terrain Photography, To obtain high-quality photographs for research in geology, geophysics, geography, oceanography, synoptic Weather Photography, To obtain selective high quality photographs of clouds to study the fine structure of the Earths weather system. Nuclear Emulsion, To study the radiation incident on the Earths atmosphere, to obtain detailed chemical composition of the heavy primary nuclei. Airglow Horizon Photography, To measure by direct photography the heights at which atomic oxygen, dim-Light Photography and Orthicon, To obtain photographs of various faint and diffuse astronomical phenomena. The Gemini 11 mission was supported by 9,054 United States Department of Defense personnel,73 aircraft and 13 ships, since Conrad and Gordon were both members of the US Navy, the embroidered mission patch was designed in Navy colors, blue and gold
Gemini 11
–
Gemini XI conducting a tether experiment using the Agena Target Vehicle
Gemini 11
Gemini 11
–
Gemini 11 launch
Gemini 11
–
An
Atlas launch vehicle launches GATV-5006 into orbit for the Gemini 11 mission.
37.
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
–
The Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, conducted in July 1975, was the first joint U. S. –Soviet space flight, as a symbol of the policy of détente that the two superpowers were pursuing at the time. It involved the docking of an Apollo Command/Service Module with the Soviet Soyuz 19, the unnumbered Apollo vehicle was a surplus from the terminated Apollo program and the last one to fly. This mission ceremoniously marked the end of the Space Race that had begun in 1957 with the Sputnik launch, ASTP was the last manned US space mission until the first Space Shuttle flight in April 1981. It was also U. S. astronaut Donald Deke Slaytons only space flight and he was chosen as one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts in April 1959, but had been grounded until 1972 for medical reasons. The purpose and catalyst of the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project was the policy of détente between the two Cold War superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. Prior to this mission, tensions remained high between the two world superpowers while the United States was engaged in the Vietnam War, due to tense relations, space cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union was unlikely in the early 1970s. On June 7,1971, the USSR had launched the first piloted orbital space station, meanwhile, the United States had launched the Apollo 14 mission several months prior, the third spacecraft to land humans on the moon. Each side gave the other little coverage whatsoever of their achievements, both sides had severe criticisms of the other side’s engineering. By contrast, the Apollo spacecraft was designed to be operated by humans, the Soviet Union criticised the Apollo spacecraft as being extremely complex and dangerous. The Americans also had their own concerns about Soviet spacecraft, each Soyuz component, however, is designed for a specific function, if one fails, the cosmonauts land as soon as possible. The Apollo vehicle also relied on astronaut piloting to a greater extent than did the Soyuz machine. With the close of the Vietnam War, relations between the United States and the USSR began to improve, as did the prognosis for a cooperative space mission. According to Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, The Soviet and American spacemen will go up into space for the first major joint scientific experiment in the history of mankind. They know that from outer space our planet looks even more beautiful and it is big enough for us to live peacefully on it, but it is too small to be threatened by nuclear war. Thus, both sides recognized ASTP as an act of peace. You are free to commit--in fact, I want you to tell your counterparts in Moscow that the President has sent you on this mission. ASTP was particularly significant for the USSR’s policy of keeping the details of their space program secret from the Soviet people, the ASTP was the first space mission to be televised in a live fashion during the launch, while in space, and during the landing. Soyuz 19 was the first spacecraft to which a flight crew had access before flight
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
–
The Apollo spacecraft, as seen by the Soyuz crew.
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
–
A
Saturn IB launch vehicle lifts the American ASTP crew into orbit.
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
–
Mission control center in Houston during ASTP.
38.
Viking Lander
–
The Viking program consisted of a pair of American space probes sent to Mars, Viking 1 and Viking 2. Each spacecraft was composed of two parts, an orbiter designed to photograph the surface of Mars from orbit. The orbiters also served as communication relays for the landers once they touched down, the Viking program grew from NASAs earlier, even more ambitious, Voyager Mars program, which was not related to the successful Voyager deep space probes of the late 1970s. Viking 1 was launched on August 20,1975, and the craft, Viking 2, was launched on September 9,1975. Viking 1 entered Mars orbit on June 19,1976, with Viking 2 following suit on August 7, the Viking 1 lander touched down on the surface of Mars on July 20,1976, and was joined by the Viking 2 lander on September 3. The orbiters continued imaging and performing other operations from orbit while the landers deployed instruments on the surface. The project cost roughly 1 billion USD in 1970s dollars, equivalent to about 11 billion USD in 2016 dollars and it was highly successful and formed most of the body of knowledge about Mars through the late 1990s and early 2000s. Each orbiter, based on the earlier Mariner 9 spacecraft, was an octagon approximately 2.5 m across, the fully fueled orbiter-lander pair had a mass of 3527 kg. After separation and landing, the lander had a mass of about 600 kg, the total launch mass was 2328 kg, of which 1445 kg were propellant and attitude control gas. The eight faces of the structure were 0.4572 m high and were alternately 1.397 and 0.508 m wide. The overall height was 3.29 m from the attachment points on the bottom to the launch vehicle attachment points on top. There were 16 modular compartments,3 on each of the 4 long faces, four solar panel wings extended from the axis of the orbiter, the distance from tip to tip of two oppositely extended solar panels was 9.75 m. The main propulsion unit was mounted above the orbiter bus, propulsion was furnished by a bipropellant liquid-fueled rocket engine which could be gimballed up to 9 degrees. The engine was capable of 1,323 N thrust, translating to a change in velocity of 1480 m/s, attitude control was achieved by 12 small compressed-nitrogen jets. An acquisition Sun sensor, a cruise Sun sensor, a Canopus star tracker, two accelerometers were also on board. Communications were accomplished through a 20 W S-band transmitter and two 20 W TWTAs, an X band downlink was also added specifically for radio science and to conduct communications experiments. A two-axis steerable parabolic dish antenna with a diameter of approximately 1.5 m was attached at one edge of the base. Two tape recorders were each capable of storing 1280 megabits, a 381-MHz relay radio was also available
Viking Lander
–
Artist impression of a Viking orbiter releasing a lander descent capsule
Viking Lander
–
Mars image mosaic from the Viking 1 orbiter
Viking Lander
Viking Lander
39.
Cassini-Huygens
–
Cassini–Huygens is an unmanned spacecraft sent to the planet Saturn. It is a Flagship-class NASA–ESA–ASI robotic spacecraft, Cassini is the fourth space probe to visit Saturn and the first to enter orbit, and its mission is ongoing as of April 2017. It has studied the planet and its natural satellites since arriving there in 2004. Its design includes a Saturn orbiter and a lander for the moon Titan, the two spacecraft are named after astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christiaan Huygens. On December 25,2004, Huygens separated from the orbiter and it successfully returned data to Earth, using the orbiter as a relay. This was the first landing ever accomplished in the outer Solar System, on November 30,2016, Cassini entered the final phase of the project. Cassini will dive through the ring of Saturn 20 times. The spacecraft will enter areas that have been untouched up until this point, the first pass of the rings took place on December 4,2016. Cassini continued to study the Saturn system in the following years, however, due to the spacecrafts dwindling fuel resources for further orbital corrections, it is currently planned to be destroyed by diving into the planets atmosphere in September 2017. This method of disposal was chosen to avoid potential biological contamination of Saturns moons, Cassinis death spiral is set to officially begin on April 22,2017 and will take its final plunge on September 15,2017 before it beams its last batch of images. Sixteen European countries and the United States make up the team responsible for designing, building, flying and collecting data from the Cassini orbiter, the mission is managed by NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory in the United States, where the orbiter was assembled. Huygens was developed by the European Space Research and Technology Centre, the Centres prime contractor, Aérospatiale of France, assembled the probe with equipment and instruments supplied by many European countries. The VIMS infrared counterpart was provided by NASA, as well as Main Electronic Assembly, on April 16,2008, NASA announced a two-year extension of the funding for ground operations of this mission, at which point it was renamed the Cassini Equinox Mission. This was again extended in February 2010 with the Cassini Solstice Mission, the mission was commonly called Saturn Orbiter Titan Probe during gestation, both as a Mariner Mark II mission and generically. Cassini-Huygens is a mission to the outer planets. The other planetary flagships include Galileo, Voyager, and Viking, Cassini has several objectives, including, Determine the three-dimensional structure and dynamic behavior of the rings of Saturn. Determine the composition of the surfaces and the geological history of each object. Determine the nature and origin of the material on Iapetuss leading hemisphere
Cassini-Huygens
–
Artist's concept of Cassini 's
orbit insertion around Saturn
Cassini-Huygens
–
Huygens' explanation for the aspects of Saturn, Systema Saturnium, 1659.
Cassini-Huygens
–
Saturn's north side (2014)
Cassini-Huygens
40.
Pioneer 10
–
Pioneer 10 is an American space probe, launched in 1972 and weighing 258 kilograms, that completed the first mission to the planet Jupiter. Thereafter, Pioneer 10 became the first spacecraft to escape velocity from the Solar System. This space exploration project was conducted by the NASA Ames Research Center in California, Pioneer 10 was assembled around a hexagonal bus with a 2.74 meters diameter parabolic dish high-gain antenna, and the spacecraft was spin stabilized around the axis of the antenna. Its electric power was supplied by four radioisotope thermoelectric generators that provided a combined 155 watts at launch and it was launched on March 2,1972, by an Atlas-Centaur expendable vehicle from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Between July 15,1972, and February 15,1973, photography of Jupiter began November 6,1973, at a range of 25,000,000 kilometers, and a total of about 500 images were transmitted. The closest approach to the planet was on December 4,1973, radio communications were lost with Pioneer 10 on January 23,2003, because of the loss of electric power for its radio transmitter, with the probe at a distance of 12 billion kilometers from Earth. An advocacy group named the Outer Space Panel and chaired by American space scientist James A. Van Allen, NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center put together a proposal for a pair of Galactic Jupiter Probes that would pass through the asteroid belt and visit Jupiter. These were to be launched in 1972 and 1973 during favorable windows that occurred only a few weeks every 13 months, Launch during other time intervals would have been more costly in terms of propellant requirements. Approved by NASA in February 1969, the spacecraft were designated Pioneer F and Pioneer G before launch, later they were named Pioneer 10. They formed part of the Pioneer program, a series of United States unmanned space missions launched between 1958 and 1978 and this model was the first in the series to be designed for exploring the outer Solar System. More than 150 scientific experiments were proposed for the missions, the experiments to be carried on the spacecraft were selected in a series of planning sessions during the 1960s, then were finalized by early 1970. NASA Ames Research Center, rather than Goddard, was selected to manage the project as part of the Pioneer program, the Ames Research Center, under the direction of Charles F. Hall, was chosen because of its previous experience with spin-stabilized spacecraft. The requirements called for a small, lightweight spacecraft which was magnetically clean and it was to use spacecraft modules that had already been proven in the Pioneer 6 through 9 missions. In February 1970, Ames awarded a combined $380 million contract to TRW for building both of the Pioneer 10 and 11 vehicles, bypassing the usual bidding process to save time, B. J. OBrien and Herb Lassen led the TRW team that assembled the spacecraft. Design and construction of the spacecraft required an estimated 25 million man-hours, to meet the schedule, the first launch would need to take place between February 29 and March 17 so that it could arrive at Jupiter in November 1974. The encounter trajectory for Pioneer 10 was selected to maximize the information returned about the environment around Jupiter. It would come within three times the radius of the planet, which was thought to be the closest it could approach. The trajectory chosen would give the spacecraft a good view of the sunlit side, the Pioneer 10 bus measured 36 centimeters deep and with six 76-centimeter long panels forming the hexagonal structure
Pioneer 10
–
Artist's impression of Pioneer 10 's flyby of
Jupiter
Pioneer 10
–
Pioneer 10 in the final stages of construction
Pioneer 10
–
Pioneer 10 on a Star-37E kick motor just prior to being encapsulated for launch
Pioneer 10
–
Two of the SNAP-19 RTGs mounted on an extension boom
41.
Mariner IV
–
Mariner 4 was the fourth in a series of spacecraft intended for planetary exploration in a flyby mode. It was designed to conduct closeup scientific observations of Mars and to transmit these observations to Earth, launched on November 28,1964, Mariner 4 performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian surface. It captured the first images of another planet ever returned from space, their depiction of a cratered. On December 21,1967 communications with Mariner 4 were terminated, the Mariner 4 spacecraft consisted of an octagonal magnesium frame,127 cm across a diagonal and 45.7 cm high. Four solar panels were attached to the top of the frame with a span of 6.88 meters. A116.8 cm diameter parabolic antenna was mounted at the top of the frame as well. An omnidirectional low-gain antenna was mounted on a seven foot, four inch tall mast next to the high-gain antenna, the overall height of the spacecraft was 2.89 meters. The octagonal frame housed the equipment, cabling, midcourse propulsion system. A trapped radiation detector, mounted on the body with counter-axes pointing 70° and 135° from the direction, to measure the intensity. A cosmic ray telescope, mounted inside the body pointing in direction, to measure the direction and energy spectrum of protons. A solar plasma probe, mounted on the body pointing 10° from the solar direction, a cosmic dust detector, mounted on the body with microphone plate approximately perpendicular to the plane of orbit, to measure the momentum, distribution, density, and direction of cosmic dust. A television camera, mounted on a platform at the bottom center of the spacecraft. This subsystem consisted of 4 parts, a Cassegrain telescope with a 1. 05° by 1. 05° field of view, a rechargeable 1200 W·h silver-zinc battery was also used for maneuvers and backup. Monopropellant hydrazine was used for propulsion, via a four-jet vane vector control motor, with 222-newton thrust, the space probes attitude control was provided by 12 cold nitrogen gas jets mounted on the ends of the solar panels and three gyros. Solar pressure vanes, each with an area of 0.65 square meter, were attached to the tips of the solar panels. Positional information was provided by four Sun sensors, and a sensor for either the Earth, Mars, or the star Canopus, during this flight, both the Earth and Mars would be too dim to lock onto. Another bright source at an angle away from the Sun was needed. Subsequently, Canopus was used as a point in many following missions
Mariner IV
–
The Mariner 4 spacecraft
Mariner IV
–
Mariner 4 is prepared for a weight test on November 1, 1963
Mariner IV
–
Launch of Mariner 4
Mariner IV
–
Jack N. James (center), JPL's Mariner 4 Project Manager, with a group in the White House presenting the spacecraft's famous picture Number 11 of Mars to US President
Lyndon B. Johnson (center right) in July 1965.
42.
Pioneer Venus project
–
The Pioneer Venus project was part of the Pioneer program consisting of two spacecraft, the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and the Pioneer Venus Multiprobe, launched to Venus in 1978. The program was managed by NASAs Ames Research Center, the Pioneer Venus Orbiter entered orbit around Venus on December 4,1978, and performed observations to characterize the atmosphere and surface of Venus. It continued to transmit data until October 1992, the Pioneer Venus Multiprobe deployed four small probes into the Venusian atmosphere on December 9,1978. All four probes transmitted data throughout their descent to the surface, one probe survived landing and transmitted data from the surface for over an hour. The Pioneer mission consisted of two components, launched separately, an orbiter and a multiprobe, the orbiter was launched on 20 May 1978 with an Atlas-Centaur rocket. The orbiters mass was 517 kg, the Pioneer Venus Orbiter was inserted into an elliptical orbit around Venus on December 4,1978. The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe was launched on August 8,1978 on an Atlas-Centaur rocket and it consisted of a 290 kg bus which carried one large and three small atmospheric probes. The large probe was released on November 16,1978 and the three small probes on November 20, all four probes entered the Venus atmosphere on December 9, followed by the bus. The Pioneer Venus large probe was about 1.5 m in diameter, after deceleration from initial atmospheric entry at about 11.5 km/s, a parachute was deployed at 47 km altitude.8 m in diameter and 90 kg each small probe. The small probes were each targeted at different parts of the planet, They had no parachutes, the Pioneer Venus bus also carried two experiments, a neutral mass spectrometer and an ion mass spectrometer to study the composition of the atmosphere. With no heat shield or parachute, the bus made measurements only to about 110 km altitude before burning up, Pioneer Venus specifications at NASA The Pioneer Venus Orbiter,11 years of data. Results published in May 1,1990
Pioneer Venus project
–
Cloud structure in
the Venusian atmosphere in 1979, revealed by ultraviolet observations by
Pioneer Venus Orbiter
Pioneer Venus project
–
Geography
Pioneer Venus project
–
Orbiters
Pioneer Venus project
43.
Terra cotta
–
Terracotta, terra cotta or terra-cotta, a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic, where the fired body is porous. The term is used to refer to the natural, brownish orange color, of most terracotta. This article covers the senses of terracotta as a medium in sculpture, as in the Terracotta Army and Greek terracotta figurines, asian and European sculpture in porcelain is not covered. Glazed architectural terracotta and its version as exterior surfaces for buildings were used in Asia for some centuries before becoming popular in the West in the 19th century. In archaeology and art history, terracotta is used to describe objects such as figurines not made on a potters wheel. An appropriate refined clay is formed to the desired shape, after drying it is placed in a kiln or atop combustible material in a pit, and then fired. The typical firing temperature is around 1,000 °C, though it may be as low as 600 °C in historic and archaeological examples. In some contexts, such as Roman figurines, white-colored terracotta is known as pipeclay, as such clays were later preferred for tobacco pipes, fired terracotta is not watertight, but surface-burnishing the body before firing can decrease its porousness and a layer of glaze can make it watertight. It is suitable for use below ground to carry pressurized water, for garden pots or building decoration in many environments, most other uses, such as for tableware, sanitary piping, or building decoration in freezing environments, require the material to be glazed. Terracotta, if uncracked, will ring if lightly struck, painted terracotta is typically first covered with a thin coat of gesso, then painted. It has been widely used but the paint is only suitable for indoor positions and is much less durable than fired colors in or under a ceramic glaze. Terracotta sculpture was rarely left in its raw fired state in the West until the 18th century. Terracotta/earthenware was the known type of ceramic produced by Western and pre-Columbian people until the 14th century. Terracotta has been used throughout history for sculpture and pottery as well as for bricks, in ancient times, the first clay sculptures were dried in the sun after being formed. They were later placed in the ashes of open hearths to harden, however, only after firing to high temperature would it be classed as a ceramic material. Terracotta female figurines were uncovered by archaeologists in excavations of Mohenjo-daro, along with phallus-shaped stones, these suggest some sort of fertility cult and a belief in a mother goddess. The Burney Relief is a terracotta plaque from Ancient Mesopotamia of about 1950 BC. In Mesoamerica, the majority of Olmec figurines were in terracotta
Terra cotta
–
Terracotta head from
Akhnoor,
Kashmir. Head dates back to 6th century CE. On display in
Prince of Wales Museum
Terra cotta
–
International Gothic bust of the
Virgin Mary, Bohemia, c. 1390–95, terracotta with polychromy
Terra cotta
–
Sculpture of
Hanuman in unglazed terracotta
Terra cotta
–
Terracotta Army in
Xi'an,
China
44.
Ranching
–
A ranch is an area of land, including various structures, given primarily to the practice of ranching, the practice of raising grazing livestock such as cattle or sheep for meat or wool. The word most often applies to livestock-raising operations in Mexico, the Western United States and Canada, people who own or operate a ranch are called ranchers, cattlemen, or stockgrowers. Ranching is also a used to raise less common livestock such as elk, American bison or even ostrich, emu. Ranches generally consist of areas, but may be of nearly any size. In the western United States, many ranches are a combination of owned land supplemented by grazing leases on land under the control of the federal Bureau of Land Management. If the ranch includes arable or irrigated land, the ranch may also engage in an amount of farming, raising crops for feeding the animals, such as hay. Ranches that cater exclusively to tourists are called guest ranches or, colloquially, most working ranches do not cater to guests, though they may allow private hunters or outfitters onto their property to hunt native wildlife. Ranching is part of the iconography of the Wild West as seen in Western movies, the person who owns and manages the operation of a ranch is usually called a rancher, but the terms cattleman, stockgrower, or stockman are also sometimes used. If this individual in charge of management is an employee of the actual owner. A rancher who primarily raises young stock sometimes is called an operator or a cow-calf man. This person is usually the owner, though in cases, particularly where there is absentee ownership. The people who are employees of the rancher and involved in handling livestock are called a number of terms, including cowhand, ranch hand, people exclusively involved with handling horses are sometimes called wranglers. Ranching and the tradition originated in Spain, out of the necessity to handle large herds of grazing animals on dry land from horseback. During the Reconquista, members of the Spanish nobility and various military orders received large land grants that the Kingdom of Castile had conquered from the Moors and these landowners were to defend the lands put into their control and could use them for earning revenue. When the Conquistadors came to the Americas in the 16th century, followed by settlers, they brought their cattle, huge land grants by the Spanish government, part of the hacienda system, allowed large numbers of animals to roam freely over vast areas. A number of different traditions developed, often related to the location in Spain from which a settlement originated. For example, many of the traditions of the Jalisco charros in central Mexico come from the Salamanca charros of Castile, however, there were cattle on the eastern seaboard. Deep Hollow Ranch,110 miles east of New York City in Montauk, New York, claims to be the first ranch in the United States, the prairie and desert lands of what today is Mexico and the western United States were well-suited to open range grazing
Ranching
–
View of the
Grant-Kohrs Ranch near
Deer Lodge,
Montana.
Ranching
–
The historic 101 Ranch in Oklahoma showing the ranchhouse, corrals, and out-buildings.
Ranching
–
An 1898
photochrom of a round-up in or near the town of
Cimarron, Colorado.
Ranching
–
Cattle near the
Bruneau River in
Elko County, Nevada
45.
Coal mining
–
Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its content, and, since the 1880s, has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore, in the United Kingdom and South Africa a coal mine and its structures are a colliery, a coal mine a pit, the above-ground structures the pit head. In Australia, colliery generally refers to a coal mine. In the United States colliery has been used to describe a coal mine operation, Coal mining has had many developments over the recent years, from the early days of men tunnelling, digging and manually extracting the coal on carts, to large open cut and long wall mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines, trucks, conveyors, hydraulic jacks, small-scale mining of surface deposits dates back thousands of years. For example, in Roman Britain, the Romans were exploiting most of the major coalfields by the late 2nd century AD. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 18th century and later spread to continental Europe, international trade expanded rapidly when coal-fed steam engines were built for the railways and steamships. Until the late nineteenth century coal was mined using a pick and shovel. Coal-cutting machines were introduced in the 1880s, by 1912, surface mining was conducted with steam shovels designed for coal mining. The most economical method of extraction from coal seams depends on the depth and quality of the seams. Coal mining processes are differentiated by whether they operate on the surface or underground, many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant. Surface mining and deep underground mining are the two methods of mining. Coal that occurs at depths of 180 to 300 ft are usually deep mined, for example, some western U. S. coal that occur at depths in excess of 200 ft are mined by the open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam 60–90 feet. Coals occurring below 300 ft are usually deep mined, However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to 1000–1500 feet below ground level, for instance Tagebau Hambach in Germany. When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open cut mining methods, open cast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through the surface or overburden, the overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured, the coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used
Coal mining
–
A painting depicting men leaving a UK colliery at the close of a shift.
Coal mining
–
Surface coal mining in
Wyoming in the United States.
Coal mining
–
A coal mine in
Bihar, India.
Coal mining
–
A coal mine in
Frameries, Belgium.
46.
Lumbering
–
Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. In forestry, the logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest. However, in usage, the term may be used to indicate a range of forestry or silviculture activities. Illegal logging refers to what in forestry might be called timber theft by the timber mafia and it can also refer to the harvesting, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws. Clearcut logging is not necessarily considered a type of logging but a harvesting or silviculture method, in the forest products industry logging companies may be referred to as logging contractors, with the smaller, non-union crews referred to as gyppo loggers. Cutting trees with the highest value and leaving those with lower value and it is sometimes called selective logging, and confused with selection cutting, the practice of managing stands by harvesting a proportion of trees. Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging, submerged forests exist on land that has been flooded by damming to create reservoirs. Such trees are logged using underwater logging or by the lowering of the reservoirs in question, ootsa Lake and Williston Lake in British Columbia, Canada are notable examples where timber recovery has been needed to remove inundated forests. Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a method of harvesting that removes all the standing trees in a selected area. Silviculture objectives for clearcutting, and a focus on forestry distinguish it from deforestation, other methods include shelterwood cutting, group selective, single selective, seed-tree cutting, patch cut, and retention cutting. The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the three are considered industrial methods, Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is bucked and loaded on a truck and this leaves the slash in the cut area, where it must be further treated if wild land fires are of concern. This ability is due to the advancement in the style felling head that can be used, the trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing, in areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the tree including branches. Cut-to-length logging is the process of felling, delimbing, bucking, harvesters fell the tree, delimb, and buck it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by a skidder or forwarder. This method is available for trees up to 900 mm in diameter. Harvesters are employed effectively in level to steep terrain
Lumbering
–
A mountain ash (
Eucalyptus regnans) being felled using springboards, c. 1884–1917, Australia
Lumbering
–
McGiffert Log Loader in
East Texas, USA circa 1907
Lumbering
–
Log transportation
Lumbering
–
The
Washington Iron Works Skidder in Nuniong is the only one of its kind in Australia, with donkey engine, spars and cables still rigged for work.
47.
Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond
–
Duplicates have since been made, and they have been moved to other institutions. In March,1961 a new wing at the California Museum of Science. The IBM Corporation had been asked by the Museum to make a contribution, IBM in turn asked the famous California designer team of Charles Eames and his wife Ray Eames to come up with a good proposal. The result was that the Eames Office was commissioned by IBM to design an exhibition called Mathematica, A World of Numbers. This was the first of many designed by the Eames Office. The 3, 000-square-foot exhibition stayed at the Museum until January 1998, furthermore, it is the only one of the dozens of exhibitions designed by the Office of Charles and Ray Eames that is still extant. This original Mathematica exhibition was reassembled for display at the Alyce de Roulet Williamson Gallery at Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California and it is now owned by and on display at the New York Hall of Science. In November,1961 an exact duplicate was made for Chicagos Museum of Science and Industry, from there it was relocated to the Museum of Science in Boston, Massachusetts, where it is permanently on display. In January 2014, the temporarily closed to undergo a much-needed year-long refurbishment. Another copy was made for the IBM Pavilion at the 1964/1965 New York Worlds Fair, subsequently it was briefly on display in Manhattan, and was then installed in the Pacific Science Center in Seattle where it stayed until 1980. The exhibit was then shipped to Petaluma, California to the daughter of Charles Eames, as of 2015, the exhibit is in the hands of the Eames family, and some elements have been on display at the Eames office. Some of displays are interactive, in that they start to operate at the push of a button. Other displays are motorized and run continuously, or operate automatically on a cycle as long as power is supplied. The moving display elements combine with noise made by balls falling through the probability machine, in 1966, five years after the opening of the Mathematica Exhibit, IBM published a 2-by-12-foot timeline poster, titled Men of Modern Mathematics. It was based on the items displayed on the exhibits History Wall, the mathematical items in this chart were prepared by Professor Raymond Redheffer of UCLA. Long after the chart was distributed, mathematics departments around the world have proudly displayed this chart on their walls. In 2012, IBM Corporation released a free application, Minds of Modern Mathematics, based on the poster but updated to the present. The app was developed by IBM with the assistance of the Eames Office
Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond
–
Large
Möbius strip with traveling arrow
Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond
–
Multiplication machine in the exhibit
Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond
–
Pseudosphere model
Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond
–
Architecture
48.
IBM
–
International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
IBM
–
"THINK"
IBM
–
NACA researchers using an IBM type 704 electronic data processing machine in 1957
IBM
–
IBM's
Blue Gene supercomputers were awarded the
National Medal of Technology and Innovation by
U.S. President Barack Obama on September 18, 2009
IBM
–
IBM showing their various innovations at
CeBIT 2010 in Hanover, Germany
49.
Charles and Ray Eames
–
Among their most well-known designs is the Eames Lounge Chair. They also worked in the fields of industrial and graphic design, fine art, Charles Ormond Eames, Jr, was an American designer, architect and film maker. Along with his wife Ray Kaiser Eames he is responsible for groundbreaking contributions in the field of architecture, furniture design, industrial design, manufacturing and he briefly studied architecture at Washington University in St. Louis on an architecture scholarship. After two years of study, he left the university, many sources claim that he was dismissed for his advocacy of Frank Lloyd Wright and his interest in modern architects. The university reportedly dropped him because of his too modern views, other sources, less frequently cited, note that while a student, Charles Eames also was employed as an architect at the firm of Trueblood and Graf. The demands on his time from this employment and from his classes led to sleep-deprivation, while at Washington University, he met his first wife, Catherine Woermann, whom he married in 1929. A year later, they had a daughter, Lucia Jenkins, in 1930, Charles began his own architectural practice in St. Louis with partner Charles Gray. They were later joined by a partner, Walter Pauley. Charles Eames was greatly influenced by the Finnish architect Eliel Saarinen, in order to apply for the Architecture and Urban Planning Program, Eames defined an area of focus—the St. Louis waterfront. Together with Eero Saarinen he designed prize-winning furniture for New Yorks Museum of Modern Art Organic Design in Home Furnishings competition, in 1941, Charles and Catherine divorced, and he married his Cranbrook colleague Bernice Kaiser, who was born in Sacramento, California. He then moved with her to Los Angeles, California, where they worked and lived until their deaths. In the late 1940s, as part of the Arts & Architecture magazines Case Study program, Charles Eames died of a heart attack on August 21,1978 while on a consulting trip in his native Saint Louis, and was buried in the Calvary Cemetery there. He now has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame, in 1970 and 1971, Charles Eames gave the Charles Eliot Norton Lectures at Harvard University. He related the progression of design and its process where the leaf is transformed into something fantastically ornate. Ray-Bernice Alexandra Kaiser Eames was an American artist, designer, along with her husband Charles Eames she is responsible for groundbreaking contributions in the field of architecture, furniture design, industrial design, manufacturing and the photographic arts. She was born in Sacramento, California to Alexander and Edna Burr Kaiser and she spent her early childhood years with her parents in their apartment, and then moved to a bungalow outside of the town. Her parents taught her the quality of enjoyment which later led to inventions in furniture design and her parents also instilled the value of enjoyment of nature. She was a founder of the American Abstract Artists group in 1936, one of her paintings is in the permanent collection of The Whitney Museum of American Art
Charles and Ray Eames
–
Charles and Ray leaving Los Angeles with the Films for the 1959
American National Exhibition in Moscow
Charles and Ray Eames
–
Eames Lounge (670) and Ottoman (671) circa 1956
Charles and Ray Eames
–
Eames House entry (
Case Study House #8)
Charles and Ray Eames
–
House Of Cards, German edition
Expo Park/USC (Expo Line)
.jpg)
