1.
HDV
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HDV is a format for recording of high-definition video on DV cassette tape. The format was developed by JVC and supported by Sony, Canon. The four companies formed the HDV consortium in September 2003, HDV and HDV logo are trademarks of JVC and Sony. HDV video and audio are encoded in digital form, using lossy interframe compression, video is encoded with the H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 compression scheme, using 8-bit chroma and luma samples with 4,2,0 chroma subsampling. Stereo audio is encoded with the MPEG-1 Layer 2 compression scheme, the compressed audio and video are multiplexed into an MPEG-2 transport stream, which is typically recorded onto magnetic tape, but can also be stored in a computer file. The data rate for both the audio and video is constant and is roughly the same as DV data rate, in contrast to the video, HDV audio bitrate is relatively generous. At the coded bitrate of 384 kbit/s, MPEG-1 Layer 2 audio is regarded as perceptually lossless, two major versions of HDV are HDV 720p and HDV 1080i. The former is used by JVC and is known as HDV1. The latter is preferred by Sony and Canon and is referred to as HDV2. The HDV 1080i defines optional progressive recording modes, and in recent publications is sometimes called HDV1080 or 1080-line HDV as progressive 1080-line recording becomes commonplace, HDV 720p format allows recording high definition video as well as progressive-scan standard definition video. HDV-HD closely matches broadcast 720p progressive scan video standard in terms of scanning type, frame size, aspect ratio, earlier HDV 720p camcorders could shoot only at 24,25 and 30 frames per second. Later models offer both film-like and reality-like frame rates, HDV-SD is a mode for recording progressive-scan standard definition video. Such a video is called enhanced definition video, but is considered high definition video in Australia. Depending on region, HDV-SD video is recorded either as 576p50 or as 480p60, like DVCPRO Progressive, HDV-SD was meant as an intermediate format during the transition time from standard definition to high definition video. Later models of HDV 720p camcorders do not record in this mode, JVC was the only manufacturer of HDV 720p camcorders. JVC was the first to release an HDV camcorder, the handheld GR-HD1, later JVC shifted its HDV development to shoulder-mounted cameras. A common misconception is that JVC developed an extension to HDV called ProHD, featuring film-like 24-frame/s progressive recording mode and LPCM audio. JVC has clarified that ProHD is not a video recording format, but an approach for delivering affordable HD products, Sony adapted HDV, originally conceived as progressive-scan format by JVC, to interlaced video
2.
Video camera
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A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition, initially developed for the television industry but now common in other applications as well. The earliest video cameras were those of John Logie Baird, based on the mechanical Nipkow disk, all-electronic designs based on the video camera tube, such as Vladimir Zworykins Iconoscope and Philo Farnsworths image dissector, supplanted the Baird system by the 1930. The transition to digital TV gave a boost to digital cameras and by the 2010s. With the advent of video capture, the distinction between professional video cameras and movie cameras has disappeared as the intermittent mechanism has become the same. Nowadays, mid-range cameras exclusively used for television and other work are termed professional video cameras, video cameras are used primarily in two modes. The first, characteristic of early broadcasting, is live television. A few cameras still serve live television production, but most live connections are for security, military/tactical, recorded video is used in television production, and more often surveillance and monitoring tasks in which unattended recording of a situation is required for later analysis. Modern video cameras have numerous designs and uses, professional video cameras, such as those used in television production, may be television studio-based or mobile in the case of an electronic field production. Such cameras generally offer extremely fine-grained manual control for the camera operator and they usually use three sensors to separately record red, green and blue. Since the transition to video cameras, most cameras have in-built recording media. Action cameras often have 360° recording capabilities, closed-circuit television generally uses pan tilt zoom cameras, for security, surveillance, and/or monitoring purposes. Webcams are video cameras which stream a live feed to a computer. Camera phones have video cameras that are incorporated into mobile phones, special camera systems are used for scientific research, e. g. on board a satellite or a spaceprobe, in artificial intelligence and robotics research, and in medical use. Such cameras are often tuned for non-visible radiation for infrared or X-ray
3.
Videocassette recorder
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Use of a VCR to record a television program to play back at a more convenient time is commonly referred to as timeshifting. VCRs can also play back prerecorded tapes, in the 1980s and 1990s, prerecorded videotapes were widely available for purchase and rental, and blank tapes were sold to make recordings. These features began as simple mechanical counter-based single-event timers, but were replaced by more flexible multiple-event digital clock timers. In later models the multiple timer events could be programmed through a menu interface displayed on the playback TV screen and this feature allowed several programs to be recorded at different times without further user intervention, and became a major selling point. The history of the recorder follows the history of videotape recording in general. Ampex introduced the Quadruplex videotape professional broadcast standard format with its Ampex VRX-1000 in 1956 and it became the worlds first commercially successful videotape recorder using two-inch wide tape. Due to its price of US$50,000, the Ampex VRX-1000 could be afforded only by the television networks. In 1959 Toshiba announced a new method of recording known as helical scan, first implemented in reel-to-reel videotape recorders, the Telcan, produced by the UK Nottingham Electronic Valve Company in 1963, was the first home video recorder. It could be bought as a unit or in kit form for £60, however, there were several drawbacks, it was expensive, not easy to assemble, and could only record 20 minutes at a time. It recorded in black-and-white, the format available in the UK at the time. The half-inch tape Sony model CV-2000, first marketed in 1965, was their first VTR intended for home use, Ampex and RCA followed in 1965 with their own reel-to-reel monochrome VTRs priced under US$1,000 for the home consumer market. The EIAJ format was a standard format used by various manufacturers. EIAJ-2 used a cartridge that contained a supply reel, the reel was part of the recorder, and the tape had to be fully rewound before removing the cartridge. In 1972, videocassettes of movies became available for home use, Sony demonstrated a videocassette prototype in October 1969, then set it aside to work out an industry standard by March 1970 with seven fellow manufacturers. The result, the Sony U-matic system, introduced in Tokyo in September 1971, was the worlds first commercial videocassette format. Its cartridges, resembling larger versions of the later VHS cassettes, used 3/4-inch tape and had a playing time of 60 minutes. Sony also introduced two machines to use the new tapes, U-matic, with its ease of use, quickly made other consumer videotape systems obsolete in Japan and North America, where U-matic VCRs were widely used by television newsrooms schools and businesses. But the high cost - US$1,395 in 1971 for a combination TV/VCR, in 1970, Philips developed a home video cassette format specially made for a TV station in 1970 and available on the consumer market in 1972
4.
Flash memory
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Flash memory is electronic non-volatile computer storage medium that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. Toshiba developed flash memory from EEPROM in the early 1980s and introduced it to the market in 1984, the two main types of flash memory are named after the NAND and NOR logic gates. The individual flash memory cells exhibit internal characteristics similar to those of the corresponding gates, where EPROMs had to be completely erased before being rewritten, NAND-type flash memory may be written and read in blocks which are generally much smaller than the entire device. NOR-type flash allows a machine word to be written—to an erased location—or read independently. The NAND type operates primarily in memory cards, USB flash drives, solid-state drives, NAND or NOR flash memory is also often used to store configuration data in numerous digital products, a task previously made possible by EEPROM or battery-powered static RAM. One key disadvantage of flash memory is that it can endure a relatively small number of write cycles in a specific block. In addition to being non-volatile, flash memory offers fast read access times, although flash memory is technically a type of EEPROM, the term EEPROM is generally used to refer specifically to non-flash EEPROM which is erasable in small blocks, typically bytes. Because erase cycles are slow, the block sizes used in flash memory erasing give it a significant speed advantage over non-flash EEPROM when writing large amounts of data. As of 2013, flash memory costs much less than byte-programmable EEPROM and had become the dominant memory type wherever a system required a significant amount of non-volatile solid-state storage, Flash memory was invented by Fujio Masuoka while working for Toshiba circa 1980. According to Toshiba, the flash was suggested by Masuokas colleague, Shōji Ariizumi. Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention at the IEEE1984 International Electron Devices Meeting held in San Francisco, Intel Corporation saw the massive potential of the invention and introduced the first commercial NOR type flash chip in 1988. NOR-based flash has long erase and write times, but provides full address and data buses, allowing random access to any memory location. This makes it a replacement for older read-only memory chips. Its endurance may be from as little as 100 erase cycles for a flash memory, to a more typical 10,000 or 100,000 erase cycles. NOR-based flash was the basis of early flash-based removable media, CompactFlash was originally based on it, however, the I/O interface of NAND flash does not provide a random-access external address bus. Rather, data must be read on a basis, with typical block sizes of hundreds to thousands of bits. This makes NAND flash unsuitable as a replacement for program ROM. In this regard, NAND flash is similar to other data storage devices, such as hard disks and optical media
5.
Secure Digital
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Secure Digital is a non-volatile memory card format developed by the SD Card Association for use in portable devices. The standard was introduced in August 1999 by joint efforts between SanDisk, Panasonic and Toshiba as an improvement over MultiMediaCards, and has become the industry standard. The three companies formed SD-3C, LLC, a company that licenses and enforces intellectual property rights associated with SD memory cards and SD host, the companies also formed the SD Association, a non-profit organization, in January 2000 to promote and create SD Card standards. SDA today has about 1,000 member companies, the SDA uses several trademarked logos owned and licensed by SD-3C to enforce compliance with its specifications and assure users of compatibility. There are many combinations of factors and device families, although as of 2016. Secure Digital includes four card families available in three different sizes, the four families are the original Standard-Capacity, the High-Capacity, the eXtended-Capacity, and the SDIO, which combines input/output functions with data storage. The three form factors are the size, the mini size, and the micro size. Electrically passive adapters allow a card to fit and function in a device built for a larger card. The SD cards small footprint is a storage medium for smaller, thinner. The second-generation Secure Digital card was developed to improve on the MultiMediaCard standard, which continued to evolve, Secure Digital changed the MMC design in several ways, Asymmetrical slots in the sides of the SD card prevent inserting it upside down. Most SD cards are 2.1 mm thick, compared to 1.4 mm for MMCs. The SD specification defines a card called Thin SD with a thickness of 1.4 mm, the cards electrical contacts are recessed beneath the surface of the card, protecting them from contact with a users fingers. The SD specification envisioned capacities and transfer rates exceeding those of MMC, for a comparison table, see below. While MMC uses a pin for data transfers, the SD card added a four-wire bus mode for higher data rates. The SD card added Content Protection for Recordable Media security circuitry for digital rights management content-protection, full-size SD cards do not fit into the slimmer MMC slots, and other issues also affect the ability to use one format in a host device designed for the other. The Secure Digital High Capacity format, announced in January 2006 and defined in version 2.0 of the SD specification, the SDHC trademark is licensed to ensure compatibility. SDHC cards are physically and electrically identical to standard-capacity SD cards, Version 2.0 also introduces a High-speed bus mode for both SDSC and SDHC cards, which doubles the original Standard Speed clock to produce 25 MB/s. SDHC host devices are required to accept older SD cards, however, older host devices do not recognize SDHC or SDXC memory cards, although some devices can do so through a firmware upgrade
6.
Camera phone
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A camera phone is a mobile phone which is able to capture photographs. Most camera phones also record video, most camera phones are simpler than separate digital cameras. Their usual fixed-focus lenses and smaller sensors limit their performance in poor lighting, lacking a physical shutter, some have a long shutter lag. Photoflash is typically provided by an LED source which illuminates less intensely over a longer exposure time than a bright. Optical zoom and tripod screws are rare and none has a hot shoe for attaching an external flash, some also lack a USB connection or a removable memory card. Most have Bluetooth and WiFi, and can make geotagged photographs, some of the more expensive camera phones have only a few of these technical disadvantages, but with bigger image sensors, their capabilities approach those of low-end point-and-shoot cameras. In the smartphone era, the sales increase of camera phones caused point-and-shoot camera sales to peak about 2010. Most model lines improve their cameras every year or two, most smartphones only have a menu choice to start a camera application program and an on-screen button to activate the shutter. Some also have a camera button, for quickness and convenience. The principal advantages of camera phones are cost and compactness, indeed for a user who carries a mobile phone anyway, smartphones that are camera phones may run mobile applications to add capabilities such as geotagging and image stitching. However, the screen, being a general purpose control, lacks the agility of a separate cameras dedicated buttons. Nearly all camera phones use CMOS image sensors, due to reduced power consumption compared to CCD type cameras, which are also used. Some of camera phones even use more expensive Back Side Illuminated CMOS which uses energy lesser than CMOS, although more expensive than CMOS and CCD. The latest generation of cameras also apply distortion, vignetting. Most camera phones have a digital zoom feature, an external camera can be added, coupled wirelessly to the phone by Wi-Fi. They are compatible with most smartphones, images are usually saved in the JPEG file format, except for some high-end camera phones which have also RAW feature and the Android 5.0 Lollipop has facility of it. Windows Phones can be configured to operate as a camera if the phone is asleep. An external flash can be employed, to improve performance, Phones usually store pictures and video in a directory called /DCIM in the internal memory
7.
Digital camera
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A digital camera or digicam is a camera that produces digital images that can be stored in a computer, displayed on a screen and printed. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs, Digital and movie cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film, however, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound, some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing. The history of the camera began with Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. His 1961 idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts position, unfortunately, as with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcocks filmless camera in 1972, the technology had yet to catch up with the concept. Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and built the first electronic camera using a charge-coupled device image sensor in 1975, earlier ones used a camera tube, later ones digitized the signal. Early uses were military and scientific, followed by medical. In the mid to late 1990s digital cameras became common among consumers, by the mid-2000s digital cameras had largely replaced film cameras, and higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera. By the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had a digital camera. The two major types of image sensor are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier, compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a back-side-illuminated CMOS sensor, overall final image quality is more dependent on the image processing capability of the camera, than on sensor type. The resolution of a camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into that discrete signals. The brighter the image at a point on the sensor. Depending on the structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used. The number of pixels in the sensor determines the cameras pixel count, in a typical sensor, the pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example, a 1,000 by 1,000 pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, final quality of an image depends on all optical transformations in the chain of producing the image
8.
Professional video camera
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A professional video camera is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images. Originally developed for use in studios, they are now also used for music videos, direct-to-video movies, corporate and educational videos. Since the 2010s, most of the video cameras are digital professional video cameras. With the advent of video capture in the 2000s, the distinction between professional video cameras and movie cameras disappeared as the intermittent mechanism became the same. Nowadays, mid-range cameras exclusively used for television and other works are termed as professional video cameras, the earliest video cameras were mechanical flying-spot scanners which were in use in the 1920s and 1930s during the period of mechanical television. Improvements in video camera tubes in the 1930s ushered in the era of electronic television, earlier, cameras were very large devices, almost always in two sections. The camera head could not generate a picture signal on its own. The video signal was output to the studio for switching and transmission, by the fifties, electronic miniaturization had progressed to the point where some monochrome cameras could operate stand alone and even be handheld. But the studio configuration remained, with the cable bundle transmitting the signals back to the camera control unit. The CCU in turn was used to align and operate the functions, such as exposure, system timing, video. The first color cameras, notably the RCA TK-40/41 series, were more complex with their three pickup tubes, and their size and weight drastically increased. Handheld color cameras did not come into use until the early 1970s - the first generation of cameras were split into a camera head unit connected via a cable bundle to a backpack CCU. The Ikegami HL-33, the RCA TK45 and the Thomson Microcam were portable two piece color cameras introduced in the early 1970s, for field work a separate VTR was still required to record the cameras video output. Typically this was either a portable 1 reel to reel VTR, typically, the two camera units would be carried by the camera operator, while a tape operator would carry the portable recorder. A separate videotape recording unit was still required, portable video tape production also enabled much faster turnaround time for the quick completion of news stories, compared to the need to chemically process film before it could be shown or edited. However some news stories for weekly news magazine shows continued to use 16mm film cameras until the 1990s. At first all these cameras used tube based sensors, but Charge-Coupled Device imagers came on the scene in the mid-80s, eventually, cameras with the recorder permanently mated to the camera head became the norm for ENG. In studio cameras, the electronics shrank, and CCD imagers replaced the pickup tubes
9.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
10.
Broadcasting
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Broadcasting began with AM radio, which came into popular use around 1920 with the spread of vacuum tube radio transmitters and receivers. Before this, all forms of communication were one-to-one, with the message intended for a single recipient. Over the air broadcasting is usually associated with radio and television, the receiving parties may include the general public or a relatively small subset, the point is that anyone with the appropriate receiving technology and equipment can receive the signal. The field of broadcasting includes both government-managed services such as radio, community radio and public television, and private commercial radio. The U. S. Code of Federal Regulations, title 47, part 97 defines broadcasting as transmissions intended for reception by the general public, private or two-way telecommunications transmissions do not qualify under this definition. For example, amateur and citizens band radio operators are not allowed to broadcast, as defined, transmitting and broadcasting are not the same. Transmissions using a wire or cable, like television, are also considered broadcasts. In the 2000s, transmissions of television and radio programs via streaming digital technology have increasingly been referred to as broadcasting as well, the earliest broadcasting consisted of sending telegraph signals over the airwaves, using Morse code, a system developed in the 1830s by Samuel F. B. Morse, physicist Joseph Henry and Alfred Vail and they developed an electrical telegraph system which sent pulses of electric current along wires which controlled an electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph system. A code was needed to transmit natural language using only these pulses, Morse therefore developed the forerunner to modern International Morse code. Audio broadcasting began experimentally in the first decade of the 20th century, by the early 1920s radio broadcasting became a household medium, at first on the AM band and later on FM. Television broadcasting started experimentally in the 1920s and became widespread after World War II, satellite broadcasting was initiated in the 1960s and moved into general industry usage in the 1970s, with DBS emerging in the 1980s. Originally all broadcasting was composed of signals using analog transmission techniques but in the 2000s. In general usage, broadcasting most frequently refers to the transmission of information, Analog audio vs. HD Radio Analog television vs.9 zettabytes. This is the equivalent of 55 newspapers per person per day in 1986. Historically, there have been several methods used for broadcasting electronic media audio and/or video to the public, Telephone broadcasting. Telephone broadcasting also grew to include telephone services for news and entertainment programming which were introduced in the 1890s. These telephone-based subscription services were the first examples of electrical/electronic broadcasting, Radio broadcasting, audio signals sent through the air as radio waves from a transmitter, picked up by an antenna and sent to a receiver
11.
Filming location
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A filming location is a place where some or all of a film or television series is produced, in addition to or instead of using sets constructed on a movie studio backlot or soundstage. In filmmaking, a location is any place where a crew will be filming actors. A location where dialog is not recorded may be considered as a second unit photography site, filmmakers often choose to shoot on location because they believe that greater realism can be achieved in a real place, however, location shooting is often motivated by the films budget. Many films shoot interior scenes on a stage and exterior scenes on location. It is often believed that filming on location takes place in the actual location in which its story is set. There are two types of locations. Location shooting Location manager, the responsible for the locations department Location scouting Location library Filmmaking
12.
JVC
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Victor Company of Japan, Ltd, TYO,6792, usually referred to as JVC, is a Japanese international professional and consumer electronics corporation based in Yokohama. Founded in 1927, the company is best known for introducing Japans first televisions, from 1953 to 2008, Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. Ltd. was the majority stockholder in JVC. In 2008, JVC merged with Kenwood Corporation to create JVC Kenwood Holdings, JVC was founded in 1927 as The Victor Talking Machine Company of Japan, Limited, a subsidiary of the United States leading phonograph and record company, the Victor Talking Machine Company. In 1929 majority ownership was transferred to RCA-Victor, in the 1930s JVC produced phonographs and records. In 1932, JVC started producing radios, and in 1939 Japans first locally-made television, JVC severed relations with its foreign partners during World War II. Today the record company in Japan is known as Victor Entertainment, in 1953, JVC became majority-owned by the Panasonic Corporation. Panasonic released its ownership in 2007, in the 1960s, JVC established the Nivico brand for Delmonicos line of console televisions and stereos. In 1970, JVC marketed the Videosphere, a cathode ray tube television inside a space-helmet-shaped casing with an alarm clock at the base. In 1971, JVC introduced the first discrete system for four channel quadraphonic sound on vinyl records - CD-4 or Quadradisc, in 1975, JVC introduced the first combined portable battery-operated radio with inbuilt TV, as the model 3050. The TV was a 3-inch black-and-white cathode ray tube, one year later, JVC expanded the model to add a cassette-recorder, as the 3060, creating the worlds first boombox with radio, cassette and TV. In 1976, the first VCR to use VHS was the Victor HR-3300, JVC started selling the HR-3300 in Akihabara, Tokyo, Japan on October 31,1976. Region-specific versions of the JVC HR-3300 were also distributed later on, such as the HR-3300U in the United States, in the late 1970s, JVC developed the VHS format, introducing the first VHS recorders to the consumer market in 1976 for the equivalent of US $1060. Sony, which had introduced the Betamax home videocassette tape a year earlier, became the competitor for JVCs VHS format into the 1980s. The Betamax cassette was smaller, with slightly superior quality to the VHS cassette. The two companies competed fiercely to encourage others to adopt their format, but by 1984 forty companies were using JVCs VHS format, Sony began producing VHS recorders in 1988 and after 1993 stopped making Betamax recorders for the US market. In 1979, JVC demonstrated a prototype of its high density disc system. This system was capacitance-based, like capacitance electronic disc, but the discs were grooveless with the stylus being guided by signals in the disc surface. The VHD discs were initially handled by the operator and played on a machine that looked like an audio LP turntable, development suffered numerous delays, and the product was launched in 1983 in Japan, followed by the United Kingdom in 1984, to a limited industrial market
13.
VHS
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The Video Home System is a standard for consumer-level analog video recording on tape cassettes. Developed by Victor Company of Japan in the early 1970s, it was released in Japan in late 1976, from the 1950s, magnetic tape video recording became a major contributor to the television industry, via the first commercialized video tape recorders. At that time, the devices were used only in professional environments such as television studios. In the 1970s, videotape entered home use, creating the video industry and changing the economics of the television. The television industry viewed videocassette recorders as having the power to disrupt their business, in the 1980s and 1990s, at the peak of VHSs popularity, there were videotape format wars in the home video industry. Two of the formats, VHS and Betamax, received the most media exposure, VHS eventually won the war, dominating 60 percent of the North American market by 1980 and emerging as the dominant home video format throughout the tape media period. Optical disc formats later began to better quality than analog consumer video tape such as standard. The earliest of these formats, LaserDisc, was not widely adopted, however, after the introduction of the DVD format in 1997, VHSs market share began to decline. By 2008, DVD had replaced VHS as the preferred method of distribution. After several attempts by other companies, the first commercially successful VTR, at a price of US$50,000 in 1956, and US$300 for a 90-minute reel of tape, it was intended only for the professional market. Kenjiro Takayanagi, a broadcasting pioneer then working for JVC as its vice president, saw the need for his company to produce VTRs for the Japan market. In 1959, JVC developed a video tape recorder. In 1964, JVC released the DV220, which would be the companys standard VTR until the mid-1970s, in 1969 JVC collaborated with Sony Corporation and Matsushita Electric in building a video recording standard for the Japanese consumer. The effort produced the U-matic format in 1971, which was the first format to become a unified standard, U-matic was successful in business and some broadcast applications, but due to cost and limited recording time very few of the machines were sold for home use. Soon after, Sony and Matsushita broke away from the collaboration effort, Sony started working on Betamax, while Matsushita started working on VX. JVC released the CR-6060 in 1975, based on the U-matic format, Sony and Matsushita also produced U-matic systems of their own. In 1971, JVC engineers Yuma Shiraishi and Shizuo Takano put together a team to develop a consumer-based VTR, by the end of 1971 they created an internal diagram titled VHS Development Matrix, which established twelve objectives for JVCs new VTR. These included, The system must be compatible with any television set
14.
Sony
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Sony Corporation is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation that is headquartered in Kōnan, Minato, Tokyo. Its diversified business includes consumer and professional electronics, gaming, entertainment, the company is one of the leading manufacturers of electronic products for the consumer and professional markets. Sony was ranked 116th on the 2015 list of Fortune Global 500 and these make Sony one of the most comprehensive entertainment companies in the world. The group consists of Sony Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Sony Interactive Entertainment, Sony Music Entertainment, Sony Financial Holdings and others. Sony is among the Semiconductor sales leaders by year and as of 2013, the companys current slogan is BE MOVED. Their former slogans were make. believe, like. no. other, Sony has a weak tie to the SMFG keiretsu, the successor to the Mitsui keiretsu. Sony began in the wake of World War II, in 1946, Masaru Ibuka started an electronics shop in a department store building in Tokyo. The company had $530 in capital and a total of eight employees, in the following year he was joined by his colleague, Akio Morita, and they founded a company called Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo 東京通信工業. The company built Japans first tape recorder, called the Type-G, in 1958 the company changed its name to Sony. When Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo was looking for a name to use to market themselves, they strongly considered using their initials. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company Tokyo Kyuko was known as TTK, the company occasionally used the acronym Totsuko in Japan, but during his visit to the United States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out for a while was Tokyo Teletech until Akio Morita discovered that there was an American company already using Teletech as a brand name, the name Sony was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words. One was the Latin word sonus, which is the root of sonic and sound, and the other was sonny, a common slang term used in 1950s America to call a boy. In the 1950s Japan sonny boys, was a word into Japanese which connoted smart and presentable young men. The first Sony-branded product, the TR-55 transistor radio, appeared in 1955, at the time of the change, it was extremely unusual for a Japanese company to use Roman letters to spell its name instead of writing it in kanji. The move was not without opposition, TTKs principal bank at the time and they pushed for a name such as Sony Electronic Industries, or Sony Teletech. Akio Morita was firm, however, as he did not want the company tied to any particular industry. Eventually, both Ibuka and Mitsui Banks chairman gave their approval, according to Schiffer, Sonys TR-63 radio cracked open the U. S. market and launched the new industry of consumer microelectronics
15.
U-matic
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U-matic is an analogue recording videocassette format first shown by Sony in prototype in October 1969, and introduced to the market in September 1971. It was among the first video formats to contain the videotape inside a cassette, a locking mechanism integral to each cassette case secures the tape hubs during transportation to keep the tape wound tightly on the hubs. Once the cassette is taken off the case, the hubs are free to spin, accidental recording is prevented by the absence of a red plastic button fitted to a hole on the bottom surface of the tape, removal of the button disabled recording. As part of its development, in March 1970, Sony, victor Co. of Japan, and five non-Japanese companies reached agreement on unified standards. U-matic was named after the shape of the path when it was threaded around the helical scan video head drum. Betamax used a type of B-load as well. Recording time was limited to one hour, at the 1971 introduction of U-Matic, Sony originally intended it to be a videocassette format oriented at the consumer market. This proved to be something of a failure, because of the manufacturing cost. But the cost was affordable enough for industrial and institutional customers, as a result, Sony shifted U-Matics marketing to the industrial, professional, and educational sectors. This model ushered in the era of ENG, or Electronic News Gathering, film required developing which took time, compared to the instantly available playback of videotape, making faster breaking news possible. U-matic is also available in a smaller size, officially known as U-Matic S. To minimise weight and bulk in the field, portable recorders had an external AC power supply, the price point of the VO series was oriented toward educational, corporate and industrial fields, featured unbalanced audio connectors, and did not typically include SMPTE time code. The VO-3800 was largely metal, which made the unit heavy, the VO-4800 had the same functionality as the VO-3800, but at a greatly reduced weight and size, by replacing many components with plastic. The VO-6800 added the improvement of a long, thin battery standard that permitted storage of the batteries in a trouser pocket, common model numbers for these batteries were NP-1, NP-1A and NP-1B. The VO-8800 was the last of the portable VO series to be produced by Sony, the Sony BVU series added longitudinal and vertical interval SMPTE time code, balanced audio XLR connectors, and heavier-duty transport features. The BVU-50 enabled recording in the field but not playback, portable recorders were connected to the camera with a multi-conductor cable terminated with multi-pin connectors on each end. The cable carried bi-directional audio, video, synchronisation, record on/off control, early studio and all portable U-Matic VCRs had a drawer-type mechanism which required the tape to be inserted, followed by manual closure of the drawer. Later studio VCRs accepted the cassette from an opening and the cassette was pulled into
16.
Betamax
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Betamax is a consumer-level analog-recording and cassette format of magnetic tape for video. It was developed by Sony and was released in Japan on May 10,1975, the first Betamax introduced in the United States was the LV-1901 console, which included a 19-inch color monitor, and appeared in stores in early November 1975. The cassettes contain 0. 50-inch-wide videotape in a similar to that of the earlier, professional 0. 75-inch-wide. Betamax is obsolete, having lost the videotape format war to VHS, production of Betamax recorders ceased in 2002, new Betamax cassettes were available until March 2016, when Sony stopped making and selling them. Like the rival videotape format VHS, Betamax has no guard band, the suffix -max, from the word maximum, was added to suggest greatness. In 1977, Sony issued the first long-play Betamax VCR, the SL-8200 and this VCR had two recording speeds, normal, and the newer half speed. This provided two hours recording on the L-500 Beta videocassette, the SL-8200 was to compete against the VHS VCRs, which allowed up to 4, and later 6 and 8, hours of recording on one cassette. Sanyo marketed a version as Betacord, which also was casually called Beta, in addition to Sony and Sanyo, Beta-format video recorders were manufactured and sold by Toshiba, Pioneer, Murphy, Aiwa, and NEC. The Zenith Electronics Corporation and WEGA Corporations contracted with Sony to produce VCRs for their product lines, the department stores Sears and Quelle sold Beta-format VCRs under their house brands, as did the RadioShack chain of electronic stores. Betamax and VHS competed in a format war, which saw VHS win in most markets. For the professional and broadcast video industry, Sony derived Betacam from Betamax, released in 1982, Betacam became the most widely used videotape format in ENG, replacing the.75 in wide U-matic tape format. But in the key area of recording, Betacam and Betamax are completely different. Sony also offered a range of industrial Betamax products, a Beta I-only format for industrial and institutional users and these were aimed at the same market as U-Matic equipment, but were cheaper and smaller. The arrival of Betacam reduced the demand for both industrial Beta and U-Matic equipment, Betamax also had a significant part to play in the music recording industry, when Sony introduced its PCM digital recording system as an encoding box/PCM adaptor that connected to a Betamax recorder. The Sony PCM-F1 adaptor was sold with a companion Betamax VCR SL-2000 as a digital audio recording system. Many recording engineers used this system in the 1980s and 1990s to make their first digital master recordings and this feature is discussed in more detail on Peep Search. Sony believed that the M-Load transports used by VHS machines made copying these trick modes impossible, betaSkipScan is now available on miniature M-load formats, but even Sony was unable to fully replicate this on VHS. BetaScan was originally called Videola until the company made the Moviola threatened legal action
17.
Betacam
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Betacam is a family of half-inch professional videocassette products developed by Sony in 1982. In colloquial use, Betacam singly is often used to refer to a Betacam camcorder, a Betacam tape, the cassettes are available in two sizes, S and L. The Betacam camcorder can only load S magnetic tapes, while television studio sized video tape recorders designed for video editing can play both S and L tapes, the cassette shell and case for each Betacam cassette is colored differently depending on the format, allowing for easy visual identification. There is also a key, that allows a video tape recorder to identify which format has been inserted. The smaller S cassettes use the form factor as Betamax. The format supplanted the three-quarter-inch U-Matic format, which Sony had introduced in 1971, in addition to improvements in video quality, the Betacam configuration of an integrated professional video camera/recorder led to its rapid adoption by electronic news gathering organizations. DigiBeta, the name for Digital Betacam, went on to become the single most successful professional broadcast digital recording video tape format in history. The original Betacam format was launched on August 7,1982, a blank Betamax-branded tape will work on a Betacam deck, and a Betacam-branded tape can be used to record in a Betamax deck. However, in later years Sony discouraged this practice, suggesting, in particular, the guide rollers tend to be noisy. Another common point between Betamax and Betacam is the placement of the linear audio tracks. Also, some Betacam and Betamax portables share the same batteries, Betacam was initially introduced as a camera line along with a video cassette player. The first cameras were the BVP-3, which utilized three saticon tubes, and the BVP1, which used a single tri-stripe Trinicon tube, both these cameras could be operated standalone, or with their docking companion VTR, the BVV-1, to form the BVW-1 integrated camcorder. The only transport controls on the deck were Eject and Rewind, the docked cameras VTR button started and paused the tape recorder. Later the Betacam SP docking decks had full transport controls but tapes could not be played back except in the viewfinder in black-and-white only. Sony then came out with the Play Adapter, a portable unit that connected via a multi-pin cable and had a composite video out jack for color playback. At first color playback required the studio source deck, the BVW-10 and it was primarily designed as a feeder deck for A/B roll edit systems, usually for editing to a one-inch Type C or three-quarter-inch U-matic cassette edit master tape. There was also the BVW-20 field playback deck, which was a unit with DC power and a handle. Unlike the BVW-10, it did not have a built in Time Base Corrector, or TBC, with the popular success of the Betacam system as a news acquisition format, the line was soon extended to include the BVW-15 studio player, and the BVW-40 Studio Edit Recorder
18.
News media
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The news media or news industry are those elements of the mass media that focus on delivering news to the general public or a target public. These include print media, broadcast news, and more recently the Internet, a medium is a carrier of something. Common things carried by media include information, art, or physical objects, a medium may provide transmission or storage of information or both. The industries which produce news and entertainment content for the media are often called the media. In the late 20th century it became commonplace for this usage to be construed as singular rather than as the traditional plural, broadcasting is the distribution of audio and video signals to a number of recipients that belong to a large group. This group may be the public in general, or a large audience within the public. Thus, an Internet channel may distribute text or music worldwide, the sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule. Television and radio programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or cable, by coding signals and having decoding equipment in homes, the latter also enables subscription-based channels and pay-per-view services. A broadcasting organization may broadcast several programs at the time, through several channels, for example BBC One. On the other hand, two or more organizations may share a channel and each use it during a part of the day. Digital radio and digital television may also transmit multiplexed programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble, when broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used. Broadcasting forms a large segment of the mass media. Broadcasting to a narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting. In a broadcast system, journalists or reporters are also involved editing the video material that has been shot alongside their research. Broadcast journalists often make an appearance in the story at the beginning or end of the video clip. In television or broadcast journalism, news analysts examine, interpret, anchors present this as news, either videotaped or live, through transmissions from on-the-scene reporters. News films can vary in length, there are some which may be as long as ten minutes, others that need to fit in all the relevant information and material in two or three minutes. News channels these days have begun to host special documentary films that stretch for much longer durations and are able to explore a news subject or issue in greater detail
19.
VHS-C
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VHS-C is the compact VHS videocassette format introduced in 1982 and used primarily for consumer-grade compact analog recording camcorders. The format is based on the video tape as is used in VHS. Though quite inexpensive, the format is largely obsolete even as a standard and has been replaced in the marketplace by digital video formats. The magnetic tape on VHS-C cassettes is wound on one main spool and it can also be moved by hand. This development hampered the sales of the Betamax system somewhat, because the Betamax cassette geometry prevented a similar development, VHS-C cassette was larger than Video8 cassette, but was compatible with VHS tape recorders, using a special adapter cassette. The adapter contains a standard full-size engagement hub for the VCRs takeup sprocket, when the VHS-C cartridge is to be removed from the adapter, a geared retraction system pulls in the excess loose tape when the swing arm retracts. A higher quality version of VHS-C was released, based on S-VHS, known as S-VHS-C, that competed against Hi8, compared with Video8, VHS-C had similar video quality but a shorter run time,90 versus 30 minutes at SP speed,180 versus 60 for longer-running modes. JVC did market 45-minute and 60-minute SP Mode tapes with the Extra High Grade formulation for a time, similarly, Video8 spawned a 120-minute version of the cassette. The later Hi8 and S-VHS-C systems both have a quality similar to the laserdisc system, early VHS-C cassettes did not have a mechanism to ratchet or lock the supply reel when not in use, making them susceptible to spilling tape inside the shell. Consequently, manufacturers placed a label on their camcorders and adapters to warn the user to check that the tape is not slackened before inserting a cassette, the user could dissipate the slack by manually turning the take-up gear. Later cassettes corrected this problem by adding teeth to the reel to lock it in place when no upward pressure is applied. The spindle of the camcorder or VCR supplies pressure to float the reels turntable and teeth above the shell, if a tape with slack was loaded into a VHSC-C adaptor, the tape could sit on the wrong side of a tape guide when the adaptor loaded. The result would be a tape and cassette combination that would not play in a video deck, VHS-C cassettes have a switch to inhibit recording of a cassette. Not all adapters propagate the state of this switch to the VCR itself, to reduce the size of cameras, the VHS-C mechanism uses a two-thirds size head drum. The wrap angle is 270 degrees instead of VHSs 180 degrees, the drum rotates at a proportionately higher speed, and four rotary video heads are used to trace out exactly the same helical recording path as a standard sized VHS drum. By adding more heads, the same small VHS-C drum can record, youtube. com How to put VHS-C videos into Computer - Easy. Youtube. com V2 Tech Video View - Dynex VHS-C -to- VHS Cassette Adapter MediaCollege. com The VHS-C Format panasonic. com VHS-C FAQ
20.
8 mm video format
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The 8mm video format refers informally to three related videocassette formats for the NTSC and PAL/SECAM television systems. These are the original Video8 format and its improved successor Hi8 and their user base consisted mainly of amateur camcorder users, although they also saw important use in the professional television production field. In 1985, Sony of Japan introduced the Handycam, one of the first Video8 cameras with commercial success, much smaller than the competitions VHS and Betamax video cameras, Video8 became very popular in the consumer camcorder market. The three formats are very similar, featuring both the same magnetic tape width and near-identical cassette shells, measuring 95 ×62.5 ×15 mm. This gives a measure of compatibility in some cases. One difference between them is in the quality of the tape itself, but the differences lie in the encoding of the video when it is recorded onto the tape. Video8 was the earliest of the three formats, and is entirely analog and it was followed by Hi8, a version with improved resolution. Although this was still analog, some professional Hi8 equipment could store additional digital stereo PCM sound on a reserved track. Digital8 is the most recent 8mm video format and it retains the same physical cassette shell as its predecessors, and can even record onto Video8 or Hi8 cassettes. However, the format in which video is encoded and stored on the tape itself is the entirely digital DV format, some Digital8 camcorders support Video8 and Hi8 with analog sound, but this is not required by the Digital8 specification. In all three cases, a length of 8mm-wide magnetic tape is wound between two spools and contained within a hard-shell cassette and these cassettes share similar size and appearance with the audio cassette, but their mechanical operation is far closer to that of VHS or Betamax videocassettes. Standard recording time is up to 180 minutes for PAL and 120 minutes for NTSC, like most other videocassette systems, Video8 uses a helical-scan 40mm head drum to read from and write to the magnetic tape. The drum rotates at high speed while the tape is pulled along the drums path, because the tape and drum are oriented at a slight angular offset, the recording tracks are laid down as parallel diagonal stripes on the tape. Unlike preceding systems, 8mm did not use a track on the tape to facilitate the head following the diagonal tracks. Instead 8mm recorded a sequence of four sine waves on each video track such that adjacent tracks would produce one of two heterodyne frequencies if the head mistracked, the system automatically adjusted the tracking such that the two frequencies produced were of equal magnitude. This system was derived from the track following used by the Philips Video 2000 system. Sony rechristened the system as automatic track following as the 8mm system lacked the ability of the heads to physically move within the head drum. The main disadvantage of the ATF system was that unlike in the case of a control track and this made editing using a non linear editing system problematic
21.
Video8
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The 8mm video format refers informally to three related videocassette formats for the NTSC and PAL/SECAM television systems. These are the original Video8 format and its improved successor Hi8 and their user base consisted mainly of amateur camcorder users, although they also saw important use in the professional television production field. In 1985, Sony of Japan introduced the Handycam, one of the first Video8 cameras with commercial success, much smaller than the competitions VHS and Betamax video cameras, Video8 became very popular in the consumer camcorder market. The three formats are very similar, featuring both the same magnetic tape width and near-identical cassette shells, measuring 95 ×62.5 ×15 mm. This gives a measure of compatibility in some cases. One difference between them is in the quality of the tape itself, but the differences lie in the encoding of the video when it is recorded onto the tape. Video8 was the earliest of the three formats, and is entirely analog and it was followed by Hi8, a version with improved resolution. Although this was still analog, some professional Hi8 equipment could store additional digital stereo PCM sound on a reserved track. Digital8 is the most recent 8mm video format and it retains the same physical cassette shell as its predecessors, and can even record onto Video8 or Hi8 cassettes. However, the format in which video is encoded and stored on the tape itself is the entirely digital DV format, some Digital8 camcorders support Video8 and Hi8 with analog sound, but this is not required by the Digital8 specification. In all three cases, a length of 8mm-wide magnetic tape is wound between two spools and contained within a hard-shell cassette and these cassettes share similar size and appearance with the audio cassette, but their mechanical operation is far closer to that of VHS or Betamax videocassettes. Standard recording time is up to 180 minutes for PAL and 120 minutes for NTSC, like most other videocassette systems, Video8 uses a helical-scan 40mm head drum to read from and write to the magnetic tape. The drum rotates at high speed while the tape is pulled along the drums path, because the tape and drum are oriented at a slight angular offset, the recording tracks are laid down as parallel diagonal stripes on the tape. Unlike preceding systems, 8mm did not use a track on the tape to facilitate the head following the diagonal tracks. Instead 8mm recorded a sequence of four sine waves on each video track such that adjacent tracks would produce one of two heterodyne frequencies if the head mistracked, the system automatically adjusted the tracking such that the two frequencies produced were of equal magnitude. This system was derived from the track following used by the Philips Video 2000 system. Sony rechristened the system as automatic track following as the 8mm system lacked the ability of the heads to physically move within the head drum. The main disadvantage of the ATF system was that unlike in the case of a control track and this made editing using a non linear editing system problematic
22.
Panasonic M5
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This is a list of Panasonic camcorders. The Panasonic AG-DVX100 was the first affordable digital progressive scan camcorder, the Panasonic AG-DVC7 is a low level professional-grade camcorder. The Panasonic AG-HPX500 is a popular, highly regarded, versatile P2 HD camcorder debuted at the NAB2007 trade show and it is notable for a number of features records on three 2⁄3 progressive CCDs and utilizes a menu structure similar to the HVX200. The camera records at 1080i/p/50/60/25/30/24fps 720p/25/30/60/24fps as well as standard definition progressive and interlaced in PAL, variable frame rates are available for undercranking and overcranking. Sensitivity is rated at f10 at 2000lux and it is related to the Panasonic Varicam. Panasonics cine-like gamma curves are included, Cinegama-V for video out, the AG-HVX200 is a fixed-lens hybrid camcorder released in December 2005 for 60 Hz market and April 2006 for 50 Hz market. The camcorder allows file-based recording onto P2 cards, as well recording SD footage onto traditional MiniDV cassettes, the imaging section employs a 3CCD system with 1/3 inch sensors, each having about 520,000 photosites. High definition resolution is achieved by both horizontal and vertical offset or pixel shifting, though the effective resolution does not exceed 600 lines either horizontally or vertically. The camcorder is capable of recording in several standard-definition and high-definition video formats, the image is always scanned progressively at 1920×1080 resolution, then is downsized to target frame size. Only standard DV video can be recorded to MiniDV tapes, in 720p mode the camcorder offers variable shooting rates for overcranking/undercranking. The updated model, AG-HVX200A, was released in late May 2008, among other changes, the HVX200A featured improved CCDs and an adjusted lens. These changes improved image quality in addition to providing a wider angle of view, the camcorder is popular with independent and professional film and television companies. The AG-HPX170 can be thought of as the AG-HVX200A without a tape deck, the camcorder employs the same imaging section as the AG-HVX200A, and is similar to it in terms of physical appearance, layout of controls and functionality. Compared to the AG-HVX200/200A, the AG-HPX170 is smaller and about 1.6 pound lighter, the lens thread size is reduced from 82mm to 72mm, and field of view is wider. The camera offers more frame rates for overcranking/undercranking, there are more focus assist options, including focus assist bar and focus assist graph. New functionality includes a monitor and vectorscope. Revised neutral density filter offers three settings instead of two for finer control, the AG-HPX170 also contains an SDI output terminal enabling the serial transfer of uncompressed video and audio data. Released in 2008, this camcorder was nothing more than the consumer model HDC-SD1 rebadged and restyled for the professional market, although it acquired a professional price tag, the blow was softened by the inclusion of a 40GB portable disc drive
23.
RCA
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RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut the German transatlantic telegraph cables. In 1917 the government of the United States took charge of the owned by the major companies involved in radio manufacture in the United States to devote radio technology to the war effort. All production of equipment was allocated to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps. The War Department and the Navy Department sought to maintain a monopoly of all uses of radio technology. The wartime takeover of all radio systems ended late in 1918, the war ended in November of that year. The ending of the governments monopoly in radio communications did not prevent the War. On 8 April 1919, naval Admiral W. H. G. Bullard, the proposal presented by the government was that if GE created an American-owned radio company, then the Army and Navy would effect a monopoly of long-distance radio communications via this company. This marked the beginning of a series of negotiations through which GE would buy the American Marconi company, the Army and the Navy granted RCA the former American Marconi radio terminals that had been confiscated during the War. Admiral Bullard received a seat on the Board of Directors of RCA for his efforts in establishing RCA, the result was federally-created monopolies in radio for GE and the Westinghouse Corporation and in telephone systems for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. The first chief officer of RCA was Owen D. Young. RCAs incorporation papers required that a majority of its stock be held by American citizens, as the years went on, RCA either took over, or produced for itself, a large number of patents, including that of the superheterodyne receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong. Over the years, RCA continued to operate international services, under its subsidiary RCA Communications, Inc. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, Westinghouse also marketed home radios through RCA until 1930. In 1929, RCA purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company, then the worlds largest manufacturer of phonographs and this included a majority ownership of the Victor Company of Japan. The new subsidiary then became RCA Victor, with Victor, RCA acquired New World rights to the Nipper His Masters Voice trademark. This trademark is used by the British music & entertainment company HMV. RCA began selling the first electronic turntable in 1930, in 1931, RCA Victor began selling 33⅓ rpm records
24.
Hitachi
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Hitachi, Ltd. is a Japanese multinational conglomerate company headquartered in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. It is the parent company of the Hitachi Group and forms part of the DKB Group of companies, Hitachi is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices. It is ranked 38th in the 2012 Fortune Global 500 and 129th in the 2012 Forbes Global 2000, Hitachi was founded in 1910 by electrical engineer Namihei Odaira in Ibaraki Prefecture. The companys first product was Japans first 5-horsepower induction motor, initially developed for use in copper mining, odairas company soon became the domestic leader in electric motors and electric power industry infrastructure. The company began as a venture of Fusanosuke Kuharas mining company in Hitachi. Odaira moved headquarters to Tokyo in 1918, long before that, he coined the company’s toponymic name by superimposing two kanji characters, hi meaning “sun” and tachi meaning “rise”. The young companys national aspirations were conveyed by its original brand mark, world War II and its aftermath devastated the company. Many of its factories were destroyed by Allied bombing raids, and after the war, founder Odaira was removed from the company. Nevertheless, as a result of three years of negotiations, Hitachi was permitted to all but 19 of its manufacturing plants. The cost of such a production shutdown, though, compounded by a labor strike in 1950. Only the Korean War saved the company from complete collapse, Hitachi and many other struggling Japanese industrial firms benefited from defense contracts offered by the American military. Meanwhile, Hitachi went public in 1949, Hitachi America, Ltd. was established in 1959. Hitachi Europe, Ltd. was established in 1982, in March 2011, Hitachi agreed to sell its hard disk drive subsidiary, HGST, to Western Digital for a combination of cash and shares worth US$4.3 billion. Due to concerns of a duopoly of WD and Seagate Technology by the EU Commission, the transaction was completed in March 2012. The talks subsequently broke down and were suspended, the joint venture began operations in February 2014. It is a high density information storage medium utilizing laser etched/readable Fused quartz, Hitachi is taking for 2016 an estimated ¥65 billion write-off in value of a SILEX technology laser uranium enrichment joint venture with General Electric. Hitachi Consulting is a management and technology consulting firm with headquarters in Dallas, Texas. Hitachi Data Systems is an owned subsidiary of Hitachi which provides hardware, software
25.
Videography
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Videography refers to the process of capturing moving images on electronic media and even streaming media. The term includes methods of production and post-production. It was initially equivalent of cinematography, the advent of digital video recording in the late 20th century blurred the distinction between videography and cinematography, as in both methods the intermittent mechanism became the same. Nowadays, any work outside commercial motion picture production could be called videography. The word combines video from Latin, meaning I see or I apprehend, with the Greek terminal ending graphy and its contemporary sense is video writing or video recording. As the field progresses, videographers may produce their assets entirely on a computer without ever involving an imaging device, a videographer may be the actual camera operator or they may be the person in charge of the visual design of a production. One of the best known application is in workplace studies, the Sage Handbook of Visual Methods
26.
D1 (Sony)
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D-1 or 4,2,2 Component Digital is a SMPTE digital recording video standard, introduced in 1986 through efforts by SMPTE engineering committees. It started as a Sony and Bosch - BTS product and was the first major professional digital video format, SMPTE standardized the format within ITU-R601, also known as Rec. 601, which was derived from SMPTE 125M and EBU 3246-E standards, D-1 or 4,2,2 D-1 was a major feat in real time, broadcast quality digital video recording. The uncompressed component video used enormous bandwidth,173 Mbit/sec, for its time, the maximum record time on a D-1 tape is 94 minutes. Hard drives in the 1980s that stored broadcast-quality video would only hold 30 seconds to a few minutes of space. By contrast, the D-1 machine allowed 94 minutes of recording on a $200 cassette, D-1 resolution is 720 ×486 for NTSC systems and 720 ×576 for PAL systems, these resolutions come from Rec. The D1 units are switchable between NTSC and PAL, luma is sampled at 13.5 MHz and Chroma at 6.75 MHz with an overall data rate of 27 MHz. Sampling at 13.5 MHz was used as it is a multiple of NTSC/PAL line rate. The first input/output interface was a 25 pin parallel cable and later updated to serial digital interface on coaxial cable, ancillary data can be put in H/V blanking intervals. Color space for Y’ B’-Y’ R’-Y’ is also defined in ITU Rec.601 or Rec.709 color space, panasonics D-5 format has similar specifications, but sampled at 10-bits as opposed to D-1s 8-bits. It had the advantage of development time as it was introduced later than Sonys D-1. The D-2 format system from Sony and Ampex soon followed two years later, using video in order to lower the bandwidth needed. This reduced D-2s price tag to half that of D-1, since D-2 was composite digital as opposed to component, it could easily be dropped into the space and infrastructure of composite analog machines presently used at the time. Since less information was recorded on D-2 than on D-1, tape speed could be reduced, however, D-2 was still a compromise, being composite video. As broadcasters would later convert from analog to digital wiring, component digital infrastructure became feasible, Sonys popular component Digital Betacam would usher the transition of keeping the colors separated in component digital space rather than combined together in composite space. Digital Betacam could play previous analog Betacam/Betacam SP tapes – which by now – had built an archive for broadcasters using its 1/2-inch tape format. 1/2-inch Digital Betacam thus became the de facto standard-definition broadcast editing, delivery, even as HD broadcasting and delivery became more commonplace in the U. S. after 2008-2010, networks would often require standard definition copies on Digital Betacam. Television shows such as CBS The Rachael Ray Show was still recorded and archived on Digital Betacam as late as 2012, early D-1 operations were plagued with difficulties, though the format quickly stabilized and is still renowned for its superb standard definition image quality
27.
Ampex
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Ampex is an American electronics company founded in 1944 by Alexander M. Poniatoff. The name AMPEX is an acronym, created by its founder, at one time public, the remaining ongoing business unit was acquired by Delta Information Systems in October 2014, with the original parent, Ampex Corporation, ceasing operations in October 2014. Ampexs first great success was a line of tape recorders developed from the German wartime Magnetophon system at the behest of Bing Crosby. Ampex quickly became a leader in audio technology, developing many of the analog recording formats for both music and movies that remained in use into the 1990s. They also introduced multi-track recording, slow-motion and instant playback television, Ampexs tape business was rendered obsolete during the 1990s, and the company turned to digital storage products. They never managed to become a player in this field, russian inventor Alexander Matthew Poniatoff established the company in San Carlos, California, in 1944 as the Ampex Electric and Manufacturing Company. The name came from his initials plus ex to avoid using the name AMP already in use, during World War II, Ampex was a small manufacturer of high quality electric motors and generators for radars that used alnico 5 magnets from General Electric. Ampexs first offices were at 1313 Laurel St. San Carlos California, near the end of the war, while serving in the U. S. Army Signal Corps, Major Jack Mullin was assigned to investigate German radio and electronics experiments. He discovered the Magnetophons with AC biasing on a trip to Radio Frankfurt, the device produced much better fidelity than shellac records. Mullin acquired two Magnetophon recorders and 50 reels of BASF Type L tape, and brought them to America and he demonstrated them to the Institute of Radio Engineers in San Francisco on May 16,1946. Bing Crosby, a big star on radio at the time, was receptive to the idea of pre-recording his radio programs and he disliked the regimentation of live broadcasts, and much preferred the relaxed atmosphere of the recording studio. This may have been what Crosby was hoping to avoid, as that was the argument Crosby used with the network when he asked to use transcription disc recordings of his show. Those recordings were made directly from the live east coast show, in June 1947, Mullin, who was pitching the technology to the major Hollywood movie studios, got the chance to demonstrate his modified tape recorders to Crosby. When Crosby heard a demonstration of Mullins tape recorders, he saw the potential of the new technology. Ampex was finishing its prototype of the Model 200 tape recorder, after a successful test broadcast, ABC agreed to allow Crosby to pre-record his shows on tape. Crosby immediately appointed Mullin as his engineer and placed an order for $50,000 worth of the new recorders so that Ampex could develop a commercial production model from the prototypes. Crosby Enterprises was Ampexs West Coast representative until 1957, the companys first tape recorder, the Ampex Model 200A, was first shipped in April 1948. The first two units, serial numbers 1 and 2, were used to record the Bing Crosby Show
28.
DCT (videocassette format)
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DCT is a digital recording component video videocassette format developed and introduced by Ampex in 1992. It was based on the D1 format, and unlike the uncompressed recording scheme of D1, like D1, it uses a similar cassette loaded with 3/4 width tape. One of the models of VCR released for the format was the Ampex DCT-1700D, the type of data compression used by the format, discrete cosine transform, shares the same acronym as the format, but the meaning is different for the latter. DST, a version of DCT, was also developed by Ampex at the same time for the backup and archiving of data from servers. Cutaway view of a DCT VCR Encyclopedia Pros entry on DCT Ampexs History
29.
Data compression
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In signal processing, data compression, source coding, or bit-rate reduction involves encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation. Compression can be lossy or lossless. Lossless compression reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy, no information is lost in lossless compression. Lossy compression reduces bits by removing unnecessary or less important information, the process of reducing the size of a data file is referred to as data compression. In the context of data transmission, it is called coding in opposition to channel coding. Compression is useful because it reduces resources required to store and transmit data, computational resources are consumed in the compression process and, usually, in the reversal of the process. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off, Lossless data compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy to represent data without losing any information, so that the process is reversible. Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy, for example, an image may have areas of color that do not change over several pixels, instead of coding red pixel, red pixel. The data may be encoded as 279 red pixels and this is a basic example of run-length encoding, there are many schemes to reduce file size by eliminating redundancy. The Lempel–Ziv compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage, DEFLATE is a variation on LZ optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, but compression can be slow. DEFLATE is used in PKZIP, Gzip, and PNG, LZW is used in GIF images. LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data, for most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded, current LZ-based coding schemes that perform well are Brotli and LZX. LZX is used in Microsofts CAB format, the best modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching. The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as a form of statistical modelling. The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string, sequitur and Re-Pair are practical grammar compression algorithms for which software is publicly available. In a further refinement of the use of probabilistic modelling. Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols
30.
Discrete cosine transform
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A discrete cosine transform expresses a finite sequence of data points in terms of a sum of cosine functions oscillating at different frequencies. DCTs are important to numerous applications in science and engineering, from lossy compression of audio and images, in particular, a DCT is a Fourier-related transform similar to the discrete Fourier transform, but using only real numbers. DCTs are equivalent to DFTs of roughly twice the length, operating on data with even symmetry. There are eight standard DCT variants, of four are common. The most common variant of discrete cosine transform is the type-II DCT and its inverse, the type-III DCT, is correspondingly often called simply the inverse DCT or the IDCT. Multidimensional DCTs are developed to extend the concept of DCT on MD Signals, there are several algorithms to compute MD DCT. A new variety of fast algorithms are developed to reduce the computational complexity of implementing DCT. For strongly correlated Markov processes, the DCT can approach the efficiency of the Karhunen-Loève transform. As explained below, this stems from the boundary conditions implicit in the cosine functions, a related transform, the modified discrete cosine transform, or MDCT, is used in AAC, Vorbis, WMA, and MP3 audio compression. The DCT is used in JPEG image compression, MJPEG, MPEG, DV, Daala, there, the two-dimensional DCT-II of N × N blocks are computed and the results are quantized and entropy coded. In this case, N is typically 8 and the DCT-II formula is applied to each row, due to enhancement in the hardware, software and introduction of several fast algorithms, the necessity of using M-D DCTs is rapidly increasing. DCT-IV has gained popularity for its applications in fast implementation of real-valued polyphase filtering banks, lapped orthogonal transform, like any Fourier-related transform, discrete cosine transforms express a function or a signal in terms of a sum of sinusoids with different frequencies and amplitudes. Like the discrete Fourier transform, a DCT operates on a function at a number of discrete data points. The obvious distinction between a DCT and a DFT is that the former uses only cosine functions, while the latter uses both cosines and sines. However, this difference is merely a consequence of a deeper distinction. That is, once you write a function f as a sum of sinusoids, you can evaluate that sum at any x, the DFT, like the Fourier series, implies a periodic extension of the original function. A DCT, like a cosine transform, implies an even extension of the original function, however, because DCTs operate on finite, discrete sequences, two issues arise that do not apply for the continuous cosine transform. First, one has to specify whether the function is even or odd at both the left and right boundaries of the domain, second, one has to specify around what point the function is even or odd
31.
DV
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DV is a format for storing digital video. It was launched in 1995 with joint efforts of leading producers of video camera recorders, the original DV specification, known as Blue Book, was standardized within the IEC61834 family of standards. These standards define common features such as physical videocassettes, recording modulation method, magnetization, part 2 describes the specifics of 525-60 and 625-50 systems. The IEC standards are available as publications sold by IEC and ANSI, in 2003, DV was joined by a successor format HDV, which used the same tape format with a different video codec. Some cameras at the time had the ability to switch between DV and HDV recording modes, DV uses lossy compression of video while audio is stored uncompressed. An intraframe video compression scheme is used to video on a frame-by-frame basis with the discrete cosine transform. Closely following ITU-R Rec.601 standard, DV video employs interlaced scanning with the sampling frequency of 13.5 MHz. This results in 480 scanlines per complete frame for the 60 Hz system, in both systems the active area contains 720 pixels per scanline, with 704 pixels used for content and 16 pixels on the sides left for digital blanking. The same frame size is used for 4,3 and 16,9 frame aspect ratios, prior to the DCT compression stage, chroma subsampling is applied to the source video in order to reduce the amount of data to be compressed. Baseline DV uses 4,1,1 subsampling in its 60 Hz variant and 4,2,0 subsampling in the 50 Hz variant. Audio can be stored in either of two forms, 16-bit Linear PCM stereo at 48 kHz sampling rate, or four nonlinear 12-bit PCM channels at 32 kHz sampling rate. In addition, the DV specification also supports 16-bit audio at 44.1 kHz, in practice, the 48 kHz stereo mode is used almost exclusively. The audio, video, and metadata are packaged into 80-byte Digital Interface Format blocks which are multiplexed into a 150-block sequence. DIF blocks are the units of DV streams and can be stored as computer files in raw form or wrapped in such file formats as Audio Video Interleave, QuickTime. One video frame is formed from either 10 or 12 such sequences, depending on scanning rate, which results in a rate of about 25 Mbit/s for video. When written to tape, each corresponds to one complete track. This means that the sound may be +/- ⅓ frame out of sync with the video, however, this is the maximum drift of the audio/video synchronization, it is not compounded throughout the recording. Sony and Panasonic created their versions of DV, which use the same compression scheme
32.
Citizen journalism
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The concept of citizen journalism is based upon public citizens playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and information. Jay Rosen proposes a simpler definition, When the people known as the audience employ the press tools they have in their possession to inform one another. Citizen journalism is not to be confused with community journalism or civic journalism, collaborative journalism is also a separate concept and is the practice of professional and non-professional journalists working together. Similarly, Social Journalism is a separate concept denoting a digital publication with a hybrid of professional and non-professional journalism, Citizen journalism is a specific form of both citizen media and user-generated content. By juxtaposing the term citizen, with its attendant qualities of civic-mindedness and social responsibility, with that of journalism, recent advances in new media have started to have a profound political impact. Due to the availability of technology, citizens often can report breaking news more quickly than traditional media reporters, critics of the phenomenon, including professional journalists, claim that citizen journalism is unregulated, too subjective, amateur, and haphazard in quality and coverage. Citizen journalism, as a form of media, presents a radical challenge to the professionalized and institutionalized practices of the mainstream media. According to Terry Flew, there have been three elements critical to the rise of journalism, open publishing, collaborative editing. For example, you write about a city council meeting on your blog or in an online forum. Or you could fact-check a newspaper article from the mainstream media, or you might snap a digital photo of a newsworthy event happening in your town and post it online. Or you might videotape a similar event and post it on a such as YouTube. Some scholars have sought to extend the study of citizen journalism beyond the Western, developed world, including Sylvia Moretzsohn, Courtney C. Radsch, for example, wrote that Throughout the Arab world, citizen journalists have emerged as the vanguard of new social movements dedicated to promoting human rights and democratic values. One criticism of the citizen journalism to describe this concept is that the word citizen has a conterminous relation to the nation-state. The fact that millions of people are considered stateless and often, are without citizenship limits the concept to those recognised only by governments. Some additional names given to the concept based on this analysis are, grassroots media, peoples media, criticisms have been made against citizen journalism, especially from among professionals in the field. Citizen journalists gather material by being on the streets and their tools can be narrowed down to a camera, social media and an instinct to start recording whenever something seems newsworthy or out of order. Much of their knowledge regarding the issues that are raised are obtained through their experience as a part of the community, the idea that every citizen can engage in acts of journalism has a long history in the United States
33.
Ikegami Tsushinki
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Ikegami Tsushinki Co. Ltd. is a Japanese manufacturer of professional and broadcast television equipment, especially professional video cameras, both for electronic news gathering and studio use. The company was founded in 1946, Ikegami introduced of the first portable hand-held TV camera. The camera made its debut in the United States in May 1962, in 1972, Ikegami introduced the HL-33, the first compact hand-held color video camera for ENG. The later HL-51 was popular among broadcasters for both ENG and EFP image acquisition, in 1995, Ikegami co-operated with Avid on a tapeless video acquisition format called Editcam, but few were sold. Ikegami developed a camera format is called GFCAM Toshiba. According to some sources in the early 80s, Ikegami developed a number of games as a subcontractor to Japanese video game companies. At that time, computer programs were not recognized as copyrightable material, in 1990, Ikegami and Nintendo reached a settlement, terms of which were never disclosed. Some Ikegami Models included the ITC -730, HL-79 HL-55, HL-V55, Ikegami makes a full line of SDTV and HDTV TV cameras. Many of the numbers of Ikegami portable television cameras begin with the initial letters HL, which stand for Handy-Looky
34.
DVD player
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A DVD player is a device that plays discs produced under both the DVD-Video and DVD-Audio technical standards, two different and incompatible standards. Some DVD players will also play audio CDs, DVD players are connected to a television to watch the DVD content, which could be a movie, a recorded TV show, or other content. The first DVD player was created by Sony Company in Taiwan in collaboration with Pacific Digital Company from the United States in 1994, some manufacturers originally announced that DVD players would be available as early as the middle of 1996. Delivery was initially held up for reasons of copy protection demanded by movie studios. The first players appeared in Japan in November 1,1996, players slowly trickled into other regions around the world. Prices for the first players in 1997 were $1000 and up, by the end of 2000, players were available for under $100 at discount retailers. In 2003 players became available for under $50, six years after the initial launch, close to one thousand models of DVD players were available from over a hundred consumer electronics manufacturers. Fujitsu released the first DVD-ROM-equipped computer on Nov.6 in GB, Toshiba released a DVD-ROM-equipped computer and a DVD-ROM drive in Japan in early 1997. DVD-ROM drives from Toshiba, Pioneer, Panasonic, Hitachi, and Sony began appearing in sample quantities as early as January 1997, the first PC upgrade kits became available from Creative Labs, Hi-Val, and Diamond Multimedia in April and May 1997. In 2014, every major PC manufacturer has models that include DVD-ROM drives, the first DVD-Audio players were released in Japan by Pioneer in late 1999, but they did not play copy-protected discs. Matsushita first released full-fledged players in July 2000 for $700 to $1,200, DVD-Audio players are now also made by Aiwa, Denon, JVC, Kenwood, Madrigal, Marantz, Nakamichi, Onkyo, Toshiba, Yamaha, and others. Sony released the first SACD players in May 1999 for $5,000, pioneers first DVD-Audio players released in late 1999 also played SACD. SACD players are now made by Accuphase, Aiwa, Denon, Kenwood, Marantz, Philips, Sharp. A DVD player has to complete tasks, Read a DVD disc in ISO – UDF version 1. DVD players cannot play Blu-ray discs, however, most Blu-ray players are backwards compatible and they will play DVDs. Additionally, most DVD players allow users to play audio CDs, a few include a home cinema decoder. Some newer devices also play videos in the MPEG-4 ASP video compression format popular in the Internet, most hardware DVD players have to be connected to a television, there are portable devices which have an attached LCD screen and stereo speakers. Portable DVD players are used for long road trips and travel
35.
Video editing
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The term video editing can refer to, The process of manipulating video images. Once the province of expensive machines called video editors, video editing software is now available for personal computers, video editing includes cutting segments, re-sequencing clips, and adding transitions and other Special Effects. Linear video editing, using tape and is edited in a very linear way. Several video clips from different tapes are recorded to one single tape in the order that they will appear, non-linear editing system, This is edited on computers with specialised software. These are non destructive to the video being edited and use such as Adobe Premiere Pro, Final Cut Pro. Offline editing is the process in which raw footage is copied from an original source, once the editing has been completely edited, the original media is then re-assembled in the online editing stage. Online editing is the process of reassembling the edit to full resolution video after an offline edit has been performed and is done in the stage of a video production. Vision mixing, when working within live television and video production environments, a vision mixer is used to cut live feed coming from several cameras in real time. Video editing is the process of editing segments of video production footage, special effects. Using video, a director can communicate non-fictional and fictional events, the goals of editing is to manipulate these events to bring the communication closer to the original goal or target. The two pieces of tape to be joined were painted with a solution of fine iron filings suspended in carbon tetrachloride. This developed the magnetic tracks, making them visible when viewed through a microscope so that they could be aligned in a designed for this task. If a scene closer to the beginning of the video tape needed to be changed in length, in addition, sources could be played back simultaneously through a vision mixer to create more complex transitions between scenes. A popular 1970-80s system for doing that was the U-matic equipment and that system used two tape players and one tape recorder, and edits were done by automatically having the machines back up, then speed up together in synchrony, so the edit didnt roll or glitch. Later, 1980-90s came the smaller beta equipment, and more complex controllers, content is ingested and recorded natively with the appropriate codec which will be used by video editing software to manipulate the captured footage. High-definition video is becoming popular and can be readily edited using the same video editing software along with related motion graphics programs. Video clips are arranged on a timeline, music tracks, titles, digital on-screen graphics are added, special effects can be created, and the finished program is rendered into a finished video. The video may then be distributed in a variety of ways including DVD, web streaming, QuickTime Movies, iPod, CD-ROM, like many other technologies, the cost of video editing has declined by an order of magnitude or more
36.
MiniDV
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DV is a format for storing digital video. It was launched in 1995 with joint efforts of leading producers of video camera recorders, the original DV specification, known as Blue Book, was standardized within the IEC61834 family of standards. These standards define common features such as physical videocassettes, recording modulation method, magnetization, part 2 describes the specifics of 525-60 and 625-50 systems. The IEC standards are available as publications sold by IEC and ANSI, in 2003, DV was joined by a successor format HDV, which used the same tape format with a different video codec. Some cameras at the time had the ability to switch between DV and HDV recording modes, DV uses lossy compression of video while audio is stored uncompressed. An intraframe video compression scheme is used to video on a frame-by-frame basis with the discrete cosine transform. Closely following ITU-R Rec.601 standard, DV video employs interlaced scanning with the sampling frequency of 13.5 MHz. This results in 480 scanlines per complete frame for the 60 Hz system, in both systems the active area contains 720 pixels per scanline, with 704 pixels used for content and 16 pixels on the sides left for digital blanking. The same frame size is used for 4,3 and 16,9 frame aspect ratios, prior to the DCT compression stage, chroma subsampling is applied to the source video in order to reduce the amount of data to be compressed. Baseline DV uses 4,1,1 subsampling in its 60 Hz variant and 4,2,0 subsampling in the 50 Hz variant. Audio can be stored in either of two forms, 16-bit Linear PCM stereo at 48 kHz sampling rate, or four nonlinear 12-bit PCM channels at 32 kHz sampling rate. In addition, the DV specification also supports 16-bit audio at 44.1 kHz, in practice, the 48 kHz stereo mode is used almost exclusively. The audio, video, and metadata are packaged into 80-byte Digital Interface Format blocks which are multiplexed into a 150-block sequence. DIF blocks are the units of DV streams and can be stored as computer files in raw form or wrapped in such file formats as Audio Video Interleave, QuickTime. One video frame is formed from either 10 or 12 such sequences, depending on scanning rate, which results in a rate of about 25 Mbit/s for video. When written to tape, each corresponds to one complete track. This means that the sound may be +/- ⅓ frame out of sync with the video, however, this is the maximum drift of the audio/video synchronization, it is not compounded throughout the recording. Sony and Panasonic created their versions of DV, which use the same compression scheme
37.
XDCAM
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XDCAM is a series of products for digital recording using random access solid-state memory media, introduced by Sony in 2003. Four different product lines – the XDCAM SD, XDCAM HD, XDCAM EX and XDCAM HD422 – differ in types of encoder used, frame size, container type, none of the later products have made earlier product lines obsolete. Sony maintains that different formats within XDCAM family have been designed to different applications. The XDCAM range includes cameras and decks which act as replacements for traditional VTRs allowing XDCAM discs to be used within a traditional videotape-based workflow. These decks can also serve as random access computer hard drives for easy import of the data files into non-linear editing systems via FireWire. In September 2008, JVC announced its alliance with Sony to support the XDCAM EX format, in August 2009, Convergent Design began shipping the nanoFlash Portable Recorder, which uses the Sony XDCAM HD422 codec. In November 2012, VITEC began shipping the FS-T2001 Portable Recorder, the XDCAM format uses multiple video compression methods and media container formats. Video is recorded with DV, MPEG-2 Part 2 or MPEG-4 compression schemes, DV is used for standard definition video, MPEG-2 is used both for standard and high definition video, while MPEG-4 is used for proxy video. Audio is recorded in uncompressed PCM form for all formats except proxy video, equipment that uses Professional Disc as well as XDCAM4,2,2 on SxS cards as recording media employs MXF container to store digital audio/digital video streams. Tapeless camcorders that record onto solid-state memory cards, use MP4 container for high definition audio/video, JVC camcorders that use XDCAM EX recording format, are also capable of recording into QuickTime container besides using MP4 container. DVCAM uses standard DV encoding, which runs at 25 Mbit/s, some camcorders that allow DVCAM recording can record progressive-scan video. MPEG IMX allows recording in standard definition, using MPEG-2 encoding at data rate of 30,40 or 50 megabits per second, unlike most other MPEG-2 implementations, IMX uses intraframe compression with each frame having the same exact size in bytes to simplify recording onto video tape. Sony claims that at 50 Mbit/s it offers visual quality that is comparable to Digital Betacam MPEG IMX is not supported in the XDCAM EX product line, MPEG HD is used in all product lines except for XDCAM SD. This format supports multiple frame sizes, frame rates, scanning types, depending on product line or a particular model, not all modes of this format may be available. MPEG HD422 doubles the chroma horizontal resolution compared to the generations of high-definition video XDCAM formats. To accommodate the improved chroma detail, video bitrate has been increased to 50 Mbit/s and this format is used only in XDCAM HD422 products. Proxy AV is used to record low resolution proxy videos and this format employs MPEG-4 video encoding at 1.5 Mbit/s with 64 kbit/s for each audio channel. This disc is similar to Blu-ray Disc and holds either 23 GB of data,50 GB,100 GB or 128 GB, essentially, the Professional Disc format was deemed to be a suitable, cost effective and easy step forward
38.
Professional Disc
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Professional Disc is a digital recording optical disc format introduced by Sony in 2003 primarily for XDCAM, its new tapeless camcorder system. PFD uses a 405 nm wavelength and an aperture of 0. After the 23GB disc was released, a dual-layer 50 GB was developed and released and this format is sometimes confused with the Blu-ray Disc format, another optical disc format using blue-violet lasers and supported by Sony. Even the PFDs caddy and Blu-rays bk prototype caddy looked very similar, capabilities differ, single-layer PFD discs have a capacity of 23 GB whereas Blu-rays can store 25 GB. However, Blu-ray Discs currently allows a 2x data transfer rate of 72 Mbit/s – lower than PFD and this is because PFD discs use much higher quality media and drives use higher quality components, making them prohibitively expensive for the consumer segment to which Blu-ray is aimed. The PFD format is used as the medium in Sonys XDCAM professional video devices. Professional Disc for DATA was a general-use recording media variant of PFD, aimed primarily at small and medium-sized enterprise for data archival, PDD drives and media became available in mid-2004. The BW-RS101 external SCSI-3 drive originally retailed in the UK at £2,344 directly from Sony, two other drives – the BW-F101/A internal SCSI drive and the BW-RU101 external USB2.0 drive also became available around the same time. On March 31,2007, Professional Disc for DATA reached their end of life, PFD are still being manufactured and used in Sony XDCAM devices. Sony states that PDD and PFD media are not compatible, Sonys PDW-U1 Professional Disc drive is an external drive that connects via USB2.0 to Windows or Mac OS X computers using the included free software from Sony. In a firmware and software upgrade in late July 2009, Sony added the ability for users to store any computer files on the Professional Disc into the dedicated User Data folder. Blu-ray Disc HD DVD Ultra Density Optical Optical disc Sony Global - Professional Disc for DATA Sony Storage Solutions - ProData Sony b2b - Professional Disk
39.
P2 (storage media)
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P2 is a professional digital recording solid-state memory storage media format introduced by Panasonic in 2004, and especially tailored to electronic news-gathering applications. It features tapeless recording of DV, DVCPRO, DVCPRO25, DVCPRO50, DVCPRO-HD, the P2 card is essentially a RAID of Secure Digital memory cards with an LSI controller tightly packaged in a die-cast PC Card enclosure, so data transfer rate increases as memory capacity increases. The system includes cameras, decks as drop-in replacements for Videocassette recorders, and a special 5. 25-inch computer drive for random-access integration with non-linear editing systems. The cards can also be used directly where a PC card slot is available, as in most older notebook computers, as a hard disk drive. As of early 2010, P2 cards are available in capacities of 4,8,16,32 and 64 GB, at introduction, P2 cards offered low recording capacity compared to competing, video tape-based formats. To solve this, camcorders and decks using P2 media employ multiple card slots, cards are recorded in sequence, and when a card is full, it can be swapped out while another card is recording. This limits recording time only by power supply and the number of cards. If a card is full, the deck will record only until it is full. Unlike video tape, old video cannot be recorded over accidentally, P2 cards are of a ruggedized PCMCIA type with the fastest transfer speeds currently available through this format. The card also contains a processor that organizes and safeguards the files, Panasonic has also announced the P2-based AG-HPX170 handheld HD tapeless camcorder. The HPX170 is very similar to the HVX200 and the HVX200A, the latest products to feature P2 technology are the well-received recently launched AJ-HPX2700 and AH-HPX3700 Varicam high end cameras. On April 15,2012, Panasonic introduced the MicroP2 system, most current P2 products can use MicroP2 and SDHC/SDXC cards through a MicroP2 card adapter, with some requiring a firmware update. Some P2 products are not able to use MicroP2 at all, on February 27,2014, Panasonic has announced a new generation of P2 media, the expressP2 card, designed to accommodate high frame rate 1080 HDAVC-ULTRA recording as well as 4K capture
40.
Solid-state drive
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A solid-state drive is a solid-state storage device that uses integrated circuit assemblies as memory to store data persistently. SSD technology primarily uses electronic interfaces compatible with traditional block input/output hard disk drives, additionally, new I/O interfaces like SATA Express and M.2 have been designed to address specific requirements of the SSD technology. SSDs have no moving mechanical components and this distinguishes them from traditional electromechanical magnetic disks such as hard disk drives or floppy disks, which contain spinning disks and movable read/write heads. Compared with electromechanical disks, SSDs are typically resistant to physical shock, run silently. However, while the price of SSDs has continued to decline over time, as of 2015, most SSDs use MLC NAND-based flash memory, which is a type of non-volatile memory that retains data when power is lost. For applications requiring fast access but not necessarily data persistence after power loss, such devices may employ batteries as integrated power sources to retain data for a certain amount of time after external power is lost. SSDs had origins in the 1950s with two similar technologies, magnetic core memory and charged capacitor read-only storage and these auxiliary memory units emerged during the era of vacuum-tube computers, though their use ceased with the introduction of cheaper drum storage units. Later, in the 1970s and 1980s, SSDs were implemented in memory for early supercomputers of IBM, Amdahl, and Cray. In the late 1970s, General Instruments produced an electrically alterable ROM which operated somewhat like the later NAND flash memory, unfortunately, a ten-year life was not achievable and many companies abandoned the technology. In 1976, Dataram started selling a product called Bulk Core, in 1978, Texas Memory Systems introduced a 16 kilobyte RAM solid-state drive to be used by oil companies for seismic data acquisition. The following year, StorageTek developed the first RAM solid-state drive, the Sharp PC-5000, introduced in 1983, used 128-kilobyte solid-state storage cartridges containing bubble memory. In 1984, Tallgrass Technologies Corporation had a backup unit of 40 MB with a solid state 20 MB unit built in. The 20 MB unit could be used instead of a hard drive, in September 1986, Santa Clara Systems introduced BatRam, a 4 megabyte mass storage system expandable to 20 MB using 4 MB memory modules. The package included a battery to preserve the memory chip contents when the array was not powered. 1987 saw the entry of EMC Corporation into the SSD market, however, by 1993, EMC had exited the SSD market. Software-based RAM disks remain in use as of 2016 because they are an order of faster than other technology, though they consume CPU resources. In 1989, the Psion MC400 laptop included four slots for removable storage in the form of flash-based solid-state disk cards, in 1991, SanDisk Corporation created a 20 MB solid state drive which sold for around $1,000. In 1994, STEC, Inc. bought Cirrus Logics flash controller operation, in 1995, M-Systems introduced flash-based solid-state drives
41.
Memory card
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A memory card, flash card or memory cartridge is an electronic flash memory data storage device used for storing digital information. PC Cards were the first commercial memory card formats to come out, since 1994, a number of memory card formats smaller than the PC Card arrived, the first one was CompactFlash later SmartMedia and Miniature Card. The desire for smaller cards for cell-phones, PDAs, and compact digital cameras drove a trend that left the previous generation of compact cards looking big, in digital cameras SmartMedia and CompactFlash had been very successful. In 2001, SM alone captured 50% of the camera market. By 2005 however, SD/MMC had nearly taken over SmartMedias spot, though not to the level and with stiff competition coming from Memory Stick variants. In industrial and embedded fields, even the venerable PC card memory cards still manage to maintain a niche, while in mobile phones and PDAs, since 2010, new products of Sony and Olympus have been offered with an additional SD-Card slot. Effectively the format war has turned in SD-Cards favor, PCMCIA ATA Type I Card PCMCIA Type II, Type III cards CompactFlash Card, CompactFlash High-Speed CompactFlash Type II, CF+, CF3. MU-Flash C-Flash SIM card Smart card UFC FISH Universal Transportable Memory Card Standard Intelligent Stick SxS memory card, SxS complies to the ExpressCard industry standard. Nexflash Winbond Serial Flash Module cards, size range 1 mb,2 mb and 4 mb, many older video game consoles used memory cards to hold saved game data. Cartridge-based systems primarily used battery-backed volatile RAM within each individual cartridge to hold saves for that game, cartridges without this RAM may have used a password system, or wouldnt save progress at all. The Neo Geo AES, released in 1990 by SNK, was the first video game console able to use a memory card, AES memory cards were also compatible with Neo-Geo MVS arcade cabinets, allowing players to migrate saves between home and arcade systems and vice versa. Memory cards became commonplace when home consoles moved to read-only optical discs for storing the game program, until the sixth generation of video game consoles, memory cards were based on proprietary formats, later systems have used established industry hardware formats for memory cards, such as FAT32. Comparison of memory cards Hot swapping
42.
AVCHD
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AVCHD is a file-based format for the digital recording and playback of high-definition video. Developed jointly by Sony and Panasonic, the format was introduced in 2006 primarily for use in high definition consumer camcorders, favorable comparisons of AVCHD against HDV and XDCAM EX solidified perception of AVCHD as a format acceptable for professional use. Both Panasonic and Sony released the first consumer AVCHD camcorders in spring of 2007, Panasonic released the first AVCHD camcorder aimed at the professional market in 2008, though it was nothing more than the FLASH card consumer model rebadged with a different model number. In 2011 the AVCHD specification was amended to include 1080-line 50-frame/s and 60-frame/s modes, the new video modes require double the data rate of previous modes. AVCHD and its logo are trademarks of Sony and Panasonic, for video compression, AVCHD uses the MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 standard, supporting a variety of standard, high definition, and stereoscopic video resolutions. For audio compression, it supports both Dolby AC-3 and uncompressed linear PCM audio, stereo and multichannel surround are both supported. Aside from recorded audio and video, AVCHD includes many features to improve media presentation, menu navigation, simple slide shows. The menu navigation system is similar to DVD-video, allowing access to individual videos from a common intro screen, slide shows are prepared from a sequence of AVC still frames, and can be accompanied by a background audio track. Subtitles are used in some camcorders to timestamp the recordings, audio, video, subtitle, and ancillary streams are multiplexed into an MPEG transport stream and stored on media as binary files. Usually, memory cards and HDDs use the FAT file system, at the file system level, the structure of AVCHD is derived from the Blu-ray Disc specification, but is not identical to it. In particular, it uses legacy 8.3 file naming convention, another difference is location of the BDMV directory, which contains media files. On a DVD-based camcorder the BDMV directory is placed at the root level, on the HDD-based Canon HG10 camcorder the BDMV directory is located in the AVCHD directory, which is placed at the root level. Solid-state Panasonic and Canon camcorders nest the AVCHD directory inside the PRIVATE directory, following a standard agreed upon by many still camera manufacturers, solid-state camcorders have a root-level DCIM directory for still images. AVCHD recordings can be transferred to a computer by connecting the camcorder via the USB connection, removable media like SDHC and Memory Stick cards or DVDs can be read on a computer directly. Copying files from an AVCHD camcorder or from removable media can be performed faster than from a tape-based camcorder, just as editing DVCPRO HD and HDV video once demanded an expensive high-end computer, AVCHD editing software requires powerful machines. Compared to HDV, AVCHD requires 2-4x the processing power for realtime playback, placing a burden on the computers CPU. Improvements in multi-core computing and graphics processor acceleration bring AVCHD playback to mainstream desktops and laptops, AVCHD supports a variety of video resolutions and scanning methods, which was further extended with the 2011 amendment of the specification. The licensing body of the specification defines a variety of labels for products compliant with specific features, most AVCHD camcorders support only a handful of the video and audio formats allowed in the AVCHD standard
