1.
Georgia (U.S. state)
–
Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
2.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden
–
Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, PC was an English lawyer, judge and Whig politician who was first to hold the title of Earl of Camden. As a lawyer and judge he was a proponent of civil liberties, championing the rights of the jury. However, he clung to office himself, even when Pitt was out of power, serving in the cabinet for fifteen years, during his life, Pratt played a leading role in opposing perpetual copyright, resolving the regency crisis of 1788 and in championing Foxs Libel Bill. He started the development of the settlement that was later to become Camden Town in London. Born in Kensington in 1714, he was a descendant of an old Devon family of high standing, charless mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of Rev. Hugh Wilson of Trefeglwys, and the aunt of landscape painter Richard Wilson and he received his early education at Eton, where he became acquainted with William Pitt, and Kings College, Cambridge. He had already developed an interest in law and civil liberties. In 1734 he became a fellow of his college, and in the following year obtained his degree of BA, having adopted his fathers profession, he had entered the Middle Temple in 1728, and ten years later he was called to the Bar. He practised at first in the courts of law, travelling also the western circuit. For some years his practice was so limited, and he became so discouraged that he seriously thought of turning his back on the law. He listened, however, to the advice of his friend Sir Robert Henley, a brother barrister, reputedly, once instructed as Henleys junior, Henley feigned illness so that Pratt could lead and earn the credit. The first case brought him prominently into notice and gave him assurance of ultimate success was the government prosecution, in 1752, of a bookseller. The author had left the country so the weight of the governments censure fell on Owen, the jury disagreed and acquitted Owen. Pratt was appointed Kings Counsel in 1755, and knighted in December 1761, in 1756, Newcastle offered Pratt a judgeship but Pratt preferred to take the role of Attorney General to the Prince of Wales. In July 1757, Pitt formed a government with Newcastle. Pratt was preferred over Solicitor General Charles Yorke, Yorke was the son of Lord Hardwicke, a political ally of Newcastle who, as Lord Chancellor had obstructed Pratts career in favour of his own son. They asserted that, while the Crown of Great Britain enjoyed sovereignty over both, only the property of the former was vested in the Crown, though the original opinion related to the British East India Company, it came to be applied elsewhere in the developing British Empire. The same year he entered the House of Commons as Member of Parliament for the borough of Downton in Wiltshire and he sat in Parliament for four years, but did not distinguish himself as a debater
4.
County seat
–
A county seat is an administrative center, seat of government, or capital city of a county or civil parish. The term is used in the United States, Canada, Romania, China, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, county towns have a similar function. In the United States, counties are the subdivisions of a state. Depending on the state, counties may provide services to the public, impose taxes. Some types of subdivisions, such as townships, may be incorporated or unincorporated. The city, town, or populated place that houses county government is known as the seat of its respective county, a county seat is usually, but not always, an incorporated municipality. The exceptions include the county seats of counties that have no incorporated municipalities within their borders, such as Arlington County, Virginia, likewise, some county seats may not be incorporated in their own right, but are located within incorporated municipalities. For example, Cape May Court House, New Jersey, though unincorporated, is a section of Middle Township, in some of the colonial states, county seats include or formerly included Court House as part of their name. Most counties have only one county seat, an example is Harrison County, Mississippi, which lists both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats. The practice of multiple county seat towns dates from the days when travel was difficult, there have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement, since a county seat is a source of pride for the towns involved. There are 36 counties with multiple county seats in 11 states, Coffee County, for example, the official county seat is Greensboro, but an additional courthouse has been located in nearby High Point since 1938. For example, Clearwater is the county seat of Pinellas County, Florida, in New England, the town, not the county, is the primary division of local government. Historically, counties in this region have served mainly as dividing lines for the judicial systems. Connecticut and Rhode Island have no county level of government and thus no county seats, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine the county seats are legally designated shire towns. County government consists only of a Superior Court and Sheriff, both located in the shire town. Bennington County has two towns, but the Sheriff is located in Bennington. In Massachusetts, most government functions which would otherwise be performed by county governments in other states are performed by town governments. As such, Massachusetts has dissolved many of its county governments, two counties in South Dakota have their county seat and government services centered in a neighboring county
5.
Woodbine, Georgia
–
Woodbine is a city in, and the county seat of, Camden County, Georgia, United States, an original county established when the state constitution was adopted in 1777. The population was 1,412 at the 2010 census, the East Coast Greenway, a 3,000 mile long system of trails connecting Maine to Florida, runs along the Woodbine Riverwalk. Records in 1765 show that John Brown, John McGillvary, William Molyneaux and they were granted the land named Piles Bluff, which historians believe to be near Woodbine. A tract of land was granted to Anton Cunning by the state in 1808 and it became known as the Woodbine Plantation. Luke John Bailey purchased it in 1835 and held it through the Civil War, james King Bedell acquired the property, constructed a new house, and restored the plantation. The railroad entered Camden County in 1893, and Bedell sold a right-of-way across his land, Woodbine was incorporated as a town on August 13,1908, and the word is the common English name for the honeysuckle, Lonicera. The town grew more after the Atlantic Coastal Highway was constructed during 1927, Woodbine re-incorporated as a city in 1953. The city is situated near the center of the county, which is located in the southeast corner of the state near the Florida border and it is located on the south bank of the Satilla River near the head of its tidal extent. U. S. Route 17 passes through the center of the city, leading northeast 29 miles to Brunswick, the city has extended its borders 2 miles east along 10th Street to reach Interstate 95 at its Exit 14. Woodbine is located at 30°57′43″N 81°43′12″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 2.6 square miles, of which 2.5 square miles is land and 0.08 square miles, or 2. 37%, is water. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,218 people,423 households, the population density was 543.1 people per square mile. There were 520 housing units at a density of 231.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 53. 61% White,43. 84% African American,0. 33% Native American,0. 25% Asian,0. 90% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 30% of the population. 24. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.18. In the city, the population was out with 30. 0% under the age of 18,10. 1% from 18 to 24,29. 8% from 25 to 44,20. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 98.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.9 males, the median income for a household in the city was $34,632, and the median income for a family was $39,688. Males had an income of $30,192 versus $22,273 for females
6.
St. Marys, Georgia
–
St. Marys is a city in Camden County, Georgia, United States. The city is the gateway to Cumberland Island National Seashore, the largest of the Georgia Coasts barrier islands, the National Seashores visitor center and boat access are both located at the St. Marys waterfront. The city is home to the annual St. Marys Rock Shrimp Festival, the St. Marys Submarine Museum, the Kings Bay Naval Submarine Base. The population of St. Marys was 17,121 at the 2010 census, St. Marys is located along the southern border of Camden County at 30°45′23″N 81°34′17″W, on the north bank of the St. Marys River. The state of Florida is to the south, across the river, the city of Kingsland borders St. Marys to the west. According to the United States Census Bureau, St. Marys has an area of 24.9 square miles, of which 22.5 square miles is land and 2.4 square miles. The closest major city is Jacksonville, Florida,38 miles south, template, Weather warm The St. Marys area was first explored in the mid 16th century as part of the settlement of Spanish Florida, with nearby St. Augustine as the established capital. Settlement for Georgians became legal after the Treaty of Paris in 1763, local inhabitants of Camden County gathered on Cumberland Island and signed a charter for a town on the St. Marys on November 20,1787. There were twenty charter members who received four town lots and one marsh lot, each lot was 4 acres square. These twenty city founders are named on a marker in downtown St. The original boundaries of the town correspond to the waterfront, Bartlett Street, North Street. There were two public town squares, St. Marys was recognized by an act of the Georgia legislature on December 5,1792, with the result of incorporation in November 1802. Oak Grove Cemetery is included in the St. Marys Historic District and was laid outside the border of St. Marys during its founding in 1787. On June 29,1796, the Treaty of Colerain was signed just up the river from St Marys between the United States and the Creek Nation, St. Marys town founder Langley Bryant served as the official interpreter between the Creek Indians and the United States. St. Marys was made a United States port of entry by act of the U. S. Congress March 2,1799, the first Collector was James Seagrove. During the antebellum period, Archibald Clark served as the U. S. Customs Collector from 1807 until his death in 1848, during the War of 1812 the Battle of Fort Peter occurred near the town, at the fort on Point Peter along the St. Marys River. The British captured the fort and the town and occupied it for about a month, the United States Navy bombarded the towns shoreside buildings during the American Civil War. St. Marys served as Camden Countys seat of government from 1869 until 1923, as of the census of 2000, there were 13,761 people,4,837 households, and 3,758 families residing in the city
7.
United States Census Bureau
–
The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
8.
Georgia's 1st congressional district
–
Georgias 1st congressional district is a congressional district in the U. S. state of Georgia. The first election using the new boundaries were the 2012 congressional elections. The district comprises the coastal area of Sea Islands and much of the southeastern part of the state. In addition to Savannah, the district includes the cities of Brunswick, Jesup, house of Representatives from Georgias 1st congressional district. Georgias congressional districts List of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present PDF map of Georgias 1st district at nationalatlas. gov Georgias 1st district at GovTrack. us
9.
Time in the United States
–
The time zone boundaries and DST observance are regulated by the Department of Transportation. The clocks run by these services are synchronized with each other as well as with those of other international timekeeping organizations. It is the combination of the zone and daylight saving rules, along with the timekeeping services. The use of solar time became increasingly awkward as railways. American railroads maintained many different time zones during the late 1800s, each train station set its own clock making it difficult to coordinate train schedules and confusing passengers. Time calculation became a problem for people travelling by train. Every city in the United States used a different time standard so there were more than 300 local sun times to choose from, Time zones were therefore a compromise, relaxing the complex geographic dependence while still allowing local time to be approximate with mean solar time. Railroad managers tried to address the problem by establishing 100 railroad time zones, operators of the new railroad lines needed a new time plan that would offer a uniform train schedule for departures and arrivals. Four standard time zones for the continental United States were introduced at noon on November 18,1883, the conference therefore established the Greenwich Meridian as the prime meridian and Greenwich Mean Time as the worlds time standard. The US time-zone system grew from this, in all zones referred back to GMT on the prime meridian. It is, within about 1 second, mean time at 0°. It does not observe daylight saving time and it is one of several closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, standard time zones in the United States are currently defined at the federal level by law 15 USC §260. The federal law establishes the transition dates and times at which daylight saving time occurs. As of August 9,2007, the time zones are defined in terms of hourly offsets from UTC. Prior to this they were based upon the solar time at several meridians 15° apart west of Greenwich. Only the full-time zone names listed below are official, abbreviations are by common use conventions, the United States uses nine standard time zones. The Central standard time zone, which comprises roughly the Gulf Coast, Mississippi Valley, the Mountain standard time zone, which comprises roughly the states that include the Rocky Mountains
10.
Eastern Time Zone
–
Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
11.
Coordinated Universal Time
–
Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated to UTC, is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean time at 0° longitude. It is one of closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time. For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, the first Coordinated Universal Time was informally adopted on 1 January 1960. This change also adopted leap seconds to simplify future adjustments, a number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new system that would eliminate leap seconds, but no consensus has yet been reached. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to keep UTC within 0.9 seconds of universal time, see the Current number of leap seconds section for the number of leap seconds inserted to date. The official abbreviation for Coordinated Universal Time is UTC and this abbreviation arose from a desire by the International Telecommunication Union and the International Astronomical Union to use the same abbreviation in all languages. English speakers originally proposed CUT, while French speakers proposed TUC, the compromise that emerged was UTC, which conforms to the pattern for the abbreviations of the variants of Universal Time. Time zones around the world are expressed using positive or negative offsets from UTC, the westernmost time zone uses UTC−12, being twelve hours behind UTC, the easternmost time zone, theoretically, uses UTC+12, being twelve hours ahead of UTC. In 1995, the nation of Kiribati moved those of its atolls in the Line Islands from UTC-10 to UTC+14 so that the country would all be on the same day. UTC is used in internet and World Wide Web standards. The Network Time Protocol, designed to synchronise the clocks of computers over the internet, computer servers, online services and other entities that rely on having a universally accepted time use UTC as it is more specific than GMT. If only limited precision is needed, clients can obtain the current UTC from a number of official internet UTC servers, for sub-microsecond precision, clients can obtain the time from satellite signals. UTC is also the standard used in aviation, e. g. for flight plans. Weather forecasts and maps all use UTC to avoid confusion about time zones, the International Space Station also uses UTC as a time standard. Amateur radio operators often schedule their radio contacts in UTC, because transmissions on some frequencies can be picked up by many time zones, UTC is also used in digital tachographs used on large goods vehicles under EU and AETR rules. UTC divides time into days, hours, minutes and seconds, days are conventionally identified using the Gregorian calendar, but Julian day numbers can also be used. Each day contains 24 hours and each hour contains 60 minutes, the number of seconds in a minute is usually 60, but with an occasional leap second, it may be 61 or 59 instead
12.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
13.
County (United States)
–
In the United States, an administrative or political sub-division of a state is a county, which is a region having specific boundaries and usually some level of governmental authority. The term county is used in 48 U. S. states, while Louisiana and Alaska have functionally equivalent subdivisions called parishes, most counties have subdivisions which may include municipalities and unincorporated areas. Others have no divisions, or may serve as a singular consolidated city-county. Some municipalities are in multiple counties, New York City is uniquely partitioned into multiple counties/boroughs, the U. S. federal government uses the term county equivalent to describe non-county administrative or statistical areas that are comparable to counties. Alaskas Unorganized Borough is divided into 11 census areas that are equivalent to counties. As of 2013, the United States has 3,007 counties and 137 county equivalents for a total of 3,144 counties, the number of counties per state ranges from the 3 counties of Delaware to the 254 counties of Texas. Counties have significant governmental functions in all states except Rhode Island and Connecticut, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts has removed most government functions from eight of its 14 counties. The county with the largest population, Los Angeles County, counties were among the earliest units of local government established in the Thirteen Colonies that would become the United States. Virginia created the first counties in order to ease the workload in Jamestown. Americas oldest intact county court records can be found at Eastville, Virginia, in Northampton County, maryland established its first county, St. Marys, in 1637, and Massachusetts followed in 1643. When independence came, the framers of the Constitution did not provide for local governments, rather, they left the matter to the states. Subsequently, early state constitutions generally conceptualized county government as an arm of the state, in some states, these powers are partly or mostly devolved to the counties smaller divisions usually called townships, though in New York, New England and Wisconsin they are called towns. The county may or may not be able to override its townships on certain matters, the newest county in the United States is the city and county of Broomfield, Colorado, established in 2001 as a consolidated city-county. The newest county-equivalents are the Alaskan boroughs of Skagway established in 2007, Wrangell established in 2008, there are 40 consolidated city-counties in the U. S. Similarly, some of Alaskas boroughs have merged with their principal cities creating unified city-boroughs. Some such consolidations and mergers have created cities that rank among the geographically largest cities in the world, see also, #County names, regarding Louisiana. Independent cities, These are cities that legally belong to no county, Washington, D. C. outside the jurisdiction of any state, has a special status. The city of Washington comprises the entirety of the District of Columbia, when founded in 1801, the District consisted of two counties and three cities. In 1846, Alexandria County – including the then–City of Alexandria – was given back to Virginia, in 1871, the three remaining entities – the City of Washington, Georgetown City, and Washington County – were merged into a consolidated government by an act of Congress
14.
U.S. state
–
A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
15.
2010 United States Census
–
The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
16.
Jacksonville, Florida
–
Jacksonville is a seaport city and the seat of Duval County, Florida, United States. With an estimated 868,031 residents as of 2015, Jacksonville is the most populous city in both the state of Florida and the southeastern United States. It is estimated to be the 12th most populous city in the United States and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States. The Jacksonville metropolitan area has a population of 1,603,497 and is the 34th largest in the United States and fourth largest in the state of Florida. The city is situated on the banks of the St. Johns River, in the First Coast region of North Florida, prior to European settlement, the Jacksonville area was inhabited by Native American people known as the Timucua. In 1564, the French established the colony of Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St. Johns River. In 1822, a year after the United States gained Florida from Spain, Jacksonville is the cultural, commercial and financial center of North Florida. A major military and civilian deep-water port, the citys riverine location supports two United States Navy bases and the Port of Jacksonville, Floridas third largest seaport. The two US Navy bases, Blount Island Command and the nearby Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Jacksonville is also home to several colleges and universities, including University of North Florida, Jacksonville University and Florida State College at Jacksonville. The area of the city of Jacksonville has been inhabited for thousands of years. In the 16th century, the beginning of the era, the region was inhabited by the Mocama. At the time of contact with Europeans, all Mocama villages in present-day Jacksonville were part of the powerful chiefdom known as the Saturiwa, centered around the mouth of the St. Johns River. One early map shows a village called Ossachite at the site of what is now downtown Jacksonville, French Huguenot explorer Jean Ribault charted the St. Johns River in 1562 calling it the River of May because he discovered it in May. Ribault erected a column near present-day Jacksonville claiming the newly discovered land for France. In 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière established the first European settlement, Fort Caroline, philip II of Spain ordered Pedro Menéndez de Avilés to protect the interest of Spain by attacking the French presence at Fort Caroline. On September 20,1565, a Spanish force from the nearby Spanish settlement of St. Augustine attacked Fort Caroline, the Spanish renamed the fort San Mateo, and following the ejection of the French, St. Augustines position as the most important settlement in Florida was solidified. The location of Fort Caroline is subject to debate but a reconstruction of the fort was established on the St. Johns River in 1964. Spain ceded Florida to the British in 1763 after the French and Indian War, the British introduced the cultivation of sugar cane, indigo and fruits as well the export of lumber
17.
Palatka, Florida
–
Palatka is a city in Putnam County, Florida, United States. The population was 10,558 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Putnam County. Palatka is the city of the Palatka Micropolitan Statistical Area. The city is home to St. Johns River State College, St. Johns River Water Management District Headquarters. The area is known for its local festivals, most notably the Florida Azalea Festival. The area was once the domain of the Timucuan peoples, two tribes of which existed in the Palatka region under chiefs Saturiwa and Utina and they fished bass and mullet, or hunted deer, turkeys, bear and opossum. Others farmed beans, corn, melons, squash, and tobacco, however, infectious disease that came with European contact and war devastated the tribes, and they were extinct by the mid-18th century. The last people evacuated with the Spanish to Cuba in 1763, during the late eighteenth century, remnants of Creek and other tribes made their way to Florida. In a process of ethnogenesis, the Seminole tribe was formed and they called the location Pilo-taikita, meaning crossing over or cows crossing. Here the St. Johns River narrows and begins a shallower, winding course upstream to Lake George, in 1767, Denys Rolle, an English gentleman and philanthropist, established Rollestown on the east bank of the St. Johns River at the head of deep-water navigation. His 78, 000-acre plantation was a commercial and humanitarian experiment, recruiting settlers off the streets of London, including paupers, vagrants, pickpockets. Two hundred indentured servants arrived to clear wilderness for agriculture and livestock, unaccustomed to either hard work or a subtropical climate, however, they scattered. Rolle next imported slaves from West Africa to tend chickens, hogs, goats and sheep, or produce cotton, indigo, citrus and he built a mansion and laid out a village, but trouble beleaguered the ideal society. In 1770, a disgruntled overseer sold over 1,000 of his employers cattle, Rolle hired new overseers and bought more slaves, but the plantation failed to prosper. The point in East Palatka, is still called Rollestown, with changes of sovereignty in Florida came numerous changes of ownership in Pilo-taikita, now contracted to Pilatka. In 1774, naturalist William Bartram noted an Indian village on the west bank, the current existence of Palatka can be traced to the settlement established there in 1821. After the United States acquired Florida in 1821, Nehemiah Brush established a ferry and bought a 1, 200-acre tract in 1826 and another of equal size the next year. The site became a point, where goods were shipped by a New York company to supply immigrants at the Grant of Arredondo
18.
Florida
–
Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
19.
Jacksonville metropolitan area
–
The OMB defines the metropolitan statistical area as consisting of five counties, Duval, Clay, St. Johns, Nassau, and Baker. According to the 2010 United States Census, the population was 1,345,596. The Jacksonville metropolitan area is the 40th largest in the country and the fourth largest in the state of Florida, behind the Miami, Tampa, the CSA had a population of 1,603,497 in 2016 and was the 34th largest CSA. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,345,596 people,524,146 households, and 350,483 families residing within the MSA. The racial makeup of the MSA was 69. 9% White,21. 8% African American,0. 4% Native American,3. 4% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,1. 8% from other races, and 2. 6% from two or more races. 6. 9% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, the median income for a household in the MSA was $45,143, and the median income for a family was $51,327. Males had an income of $35,537 versus $25,093 for females. The public school districts for Greater Jacksonville are all managed by school boards, the Duval County School Board is the largest in the area and the 22nd largest in the United States with over 155,000 students. In 2010, it was home to two of the top ten schools in the country, Stanton College Preparatory School and Paxon School for Advanced Studies. The St. Johns County School District, Clay County School District, Nassau County School District, higher education in the Jacksonville area is offered at many institutions. There are three institutions in the area. University of North Florida, founded in 1969, is a university in southeastern Jacksonville. It has over 17,000 students and offers a variety of bachelors, masters, Florida State College at Jacksonville, is a public state college located in downtown Jacksonville with satellite campuses around the city. St. Johns River State College is a college with campuses in St. Augustine, Orange Park. Many private schools are located in the area. Edward Waters College, founded in 1866, is Jacksonvilles oldest institution of higher education, Jacksonville University, established in 1934, is a private, four-year institution located along the St. Johns River with over 3,500 students. The former mayor of Jacksonville, Alvin Brown, graduated from JU, flagler College is a liberal arts college located in St. Augustine. Noted for its campus, which includes Henry Flaglers former Ponce de León Hotel, the Jacksonville metropolitan area is served by four interstate highways operated by the Florida Department of Transportation
20.
Jean Ribault
–
Jean Ribault was a French naval officer, navigator, and a colonizer of what would become the southeastern United States. He was a figure in the French attempts to colonize Florida. A Huguenot and officer under Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, Ribault led an expedition to the New World in 1562 that founded the outpost of Charlesfort on Parris Island in present-day South Carolina. Two years later, he took command of the French colony of Fort Caroline in what is now Jacksonville. He and many of his followers were killed by Spanish soldiers near St. Augustine, Ribault was born in the town of Dieppe in the year of 1520 on the Province of Normandy. He entered into the French navy under the command of the great Huguenot admiral Gaspard de Coligny, in 1562 Coligny chose him to lead an expedition to the New World to found a colony. Leaving France on February 18 with a fleet of 150 colonists, he crossed the Atlantic Ocean and explored the mouth of the St. Johns River in modern-day Jacksonville, Florida. He named it the River May, as this was the month when he found it, Ribaults fleet then proceeded north, charting more of the coastline and noting several rivers. Eventually they came to the Port Royal Sound in present-day South Carolina, Ribault oversaw the layout of a small fort, which was named Charlesfort in honor of the French king Charles IX. Ribault left 27 men under the command of Albert de la Pierria to man the fort, Ribaults intention was to collect supplies for Charlesfort and return by the end of the year. When he arrived at Le Havre, however, he discovered the French Wars of Religion had broken out between the Roman Catholic majority and the Protestant Huguenots, Ribault assisted the Huguenots at Dieppe, but was forced to flee to England when the city fell. While in England, he managed to gain an audience with Queen Elizabeth I, however, despite this cordial welcome, he was soon arrested and detained in the Tower of London as a spy. During his time in England, and probably while imprisoned, Ribault wrote an account of the voyage, the 1563 Peace of Amboise finally allowed Coligny to devote attention for a new voyage to America. He appointed Ribaults former lieutenant, René Goulaine de Laudonnière, to replace Ribault in the North American endeavors, during this time, however, Charlesfort had fallen into despair. Captain Albert de la Pierrias heavy discipline led the soldiers to a mutiny in which he was deposed and killed at Florida in October 12,1565, afterward, a fire destroyed most of the settlements meager stores. The survivors elected to build a vessel and attempt to sail back to France. The trip was arduous, and most of the participants died before they reached the English coast. News of this reached France just before Laudonnière had embarked on his voyage, Laudonnière ultimately set sail on April 22,1564 and arrived at Florida two months later
21.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
22.
Huguenots
–
Huguenots are the ethnoreligious group of French Protestants who follow the Reformed tradition. It was used frequently to members of the French Reformed Church until the beginning of the 19th century. The term has its origin in 16th-century France, Huguenot numbers peaked near an estimated two million by 1562, concentrated mainly in the southern and western parts of France. As Huguenots gained influence and more openly displayed their faith, Catholic hostility grew, in spite of political concessions, a series of religious conflicts followed, known as the French Wars of Religion, fought intermittently from 1562 to 1598. The Huguenots were led by Jeanne dAlbret, her son, the future Henry IV, the wars ended with the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots substantial religious, political, and military autonomy. Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s prompted the abolishment of their political and they retained religious provisions of the Edict of Nantes until the rule of Louis XIV. Nevertheless, a minority of Huguenots remained and faced continued persecution under Louis XV. By the death of Louis XV in 1774, French Calvinism was almost completely wiped out, persecution of Protestants officially ended with the Edict of Versailles, signed by Louis XVI in 1787. Two years later, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 and they also spread to the Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa, the Dutch East Indies, the Caribbean, New Netherland, and several of the English colonies in North America. Small contingents of families went to Orthodox Russia and Catholic Quebec, a term used originally in derision, Huguenot has unclear origins. Geneva was John Calvins adopted home and the centre of the Calvinist movement, the label Huguenot was purportedly first applied in France to those conspirators involved in the Amboise plot of 1560, a foiled attempt to wrest power in France from the influential House of Guise. The move would have had the effect of fostering relations with the Swiss. Thus, Hugues plus Eidgenosse by way of Huisgenoten supposedly became Huguenot, a version of this complex hypothesis is promoted by O. I. A. Roche, who writes in his book, The Days of the Upright, A History of the Huguenots, that Huguenot is, a combination of a Dutch and a German word. Gallicised into Huguenot, often used deprecatingly, the word became, Some disagree with such double or triple non-French linguistic origins, arguing that for the word to have spread into common use in France, it must have originated in the French language. The Hugues hypothesis argues that the name was derived by association with Hugues Capet, king of France and he was regarded by the Gallicans and Protestants as a noble man who respected peoples dignity and lives. Janet Gray and other supporters of the hypothesis suggest that the name huguenote would be equivalent to little Hugos. It was in place in Tours that the prétendus réformés habitually gathered at night
23.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
24.
Catholicism
–
The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
25.
Timucua
–
The Timucua were a Native American people who lived in Northeast and North Central Florida and southeast Georgia. They were the largest indigenous group in that area and consisted of about 35 chiefdoms, the various groups of Timucua spoke several dialects of the Timucua language. At the time of European contact, the occupied by speakers of Timucuan dialects occupied about 19,200 square miles. The name Timucua came from the used by the Saturiwa to refer to the Utina. The Spanish came to use the more broadly for other peoples in the area. Eventually it became the term for all peoples who spoke what is known as the Timucuan language. While alliances and confederacies arose between the chiefdoms from time to time, the Timucua were never organized into a political unit. The various groups of Timucua speakers practiced several different cultural traditions, the people suffered severely from the introduction of Eurasian infectious diseases, to which they had no immunity. By 1595, their population was estimated to have reduced from 200,000 to 50,000. By 1700, the population of the tribe had been reduced to 1000, warfare against them by the English colonists and native allies completed their extinction as a tribe soon after the turn of the 19th century. The word Timucuan may derive from Thimogona or Tymangoua, a used by the Saturiwa chiefdom of present-day Jacksonville for their enemies, the Utina. Both groups spoke dialects of the Timucua language, the French followed the Saturiwa in this usage, but the Spanish applied the term Timucua much more widely to groups within a wide section of interior North Florida. In the 16th century they designated the area north of the Santa Fe River between the St. Johns and Suwannee Rivers as the Timucua Province, which they incorporated into the mission system, the dialect spoken in that province became known as Timucua. During the 17th century, the Province of Timucua was extended to include the area between the Suwannee River and the Aucilla River, thus extending its scope, eventually, Timucua was applied to all speakers of the various dialects of the Timucua language. The pre-Columbian era was marked by regular, routine, and probably small tribal wars with neighbors, the Timucua were organized into as many as 35 chiefdoms, each of which had hundreds of people in assorted villages within its purview. They sometimes formed loose political alliances, but did not operate as a political unit. It is the oldest archaeological site in the city, the Timucua may have been the first American natives to see the landing of Juan Ponce de León near St. Augustine in 1513. This notion is up for debate since most historians now agree that the Ponce de León landing point was likely much further south in Ais territory
26.
Battle of Bloody Marsh
–
With the victory, the Province of Georgia established undisputed claim to the island. It is now part of the U. S. state of Georgia, the British also won the Battle of Gully Hole Creek, which took place on the island the same day. James Oglethorpe led the colonization of Georgia for Great Britain, and had chosen Savannah as the port for the new colony. In the 1730s, Spain and Great Britain were disputing control of the border between Georgia and La Florida, where the Spanish had several settlements and forts, given a heightened threat of Spanish invasion, Oglethorpe sought to increase his southern defenses. Accompanied by rangers and two Native American guides, Oglethorpe picked St. Simons Island as the site for a new town, in 1734, Oglethorpe convinced the Parliament and the colonial trustees to pay for a military garrison at the fort. The trustees also recruited a group of colonists to settle St. Simons Island. The ships bearing the settlers and supplies arrived at Tybee Island early in 1736, from there, some went to the mainland while others traveled via periaguas to St. Simons Island to found Frederica. The town and its fort were built on the elbow of the Frederica River to control approaches from both directions, in 1737, Oglethorpe returned to England to acquire more funding and permission to raise a regiment of soldiers, he gained Parliamentary approval for both. He was appointed commander-in-chief of all British forces in the colonies of South Carolina, Oglethorpe subsequently recruited a company of Scots from Inverness, to migrate with their families to settle at Darien on the mainland, at the mouth of the Altamaha River. The men formed a unit known locally as the Highland Independent Company. Official British records list it as Oglethorpes Regiment of Foot and it was ranked as 42nd Regiment of Foot in 1747, and disbanded 29 May 1749 in Georgia. Two forts had been constructed about five miles apart on St. Simons Island, between the two ran a road the width of one wagon, named Military Road. This served to supply the garrison at Fort Frederica and settlers in the village from Fort St. Simons. The battles took place after a Spanish invasion of the island and they were part of the larger conflict known as the War of Jenkins Ear. It derived its name from an incident in 1731, a Spanish boarding party had gone aboard a British brig Rebecca, off the Florida coast, and found that its captain Robert Jenkins was smuggling. The Spanish officer cut off one of Jenkins ears for piracy, Parliament used the nearly forgotten incident to rally public opinion to their side in 1739, but the war was due to trade and territorial competition between Britain and Spain. On October 30,1739, Great Britain declared war on Spain, Spanish governor Don Manuel de Montiano commanded the invasion force, which by some estimates totaled between 4500 and 5000 men. Of that number, roughly 1900 to 2000 were ground assault troops, Oglethorpes forces, consisting of regulars, militia, and native Indians, numbered fewer than 1000
27.
St. Simons Island
–
St. Simons is a census-designated place located on St. Simons Island in Glynn County, Georgia, United States. The community and the island are interchangeable, known simply as St. Simons Island, St. Simons is part of the Brunswick, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area, and according to the 2010 census, the CDP had a population of 12,743. Located on the southeast Georgia coast, midway between Savannah and Jacksonville, St. Simons Island is both a seaside resort and residential community and it is the largest of Georgias renowned Golden Isles. Visitors are drawn to the Island for its climate, beaches, variety of outdoor activities, shops and restaurants, historical sites. In addition to its base of permanent residents, the island enjoys an influx of visitors and part-time residents throughout the year. The 2010 Census notes that 26. 8% of total housing units are for “seasonal, recreational, the vast majority of commercial and residential development is located on the southern half of the island. Much of the northern half remains marsh or woodland, a large tract of land in the northeast has been converted to a nature preserve containing trails, historical ruins, and undisturbed maritime forest. The tract, Cannon’s Point Preserve, is open to the public on specified days, originally inhabited by tribes of the Creek Nation, the area of South Georgia that includes St. Simons Island was contested by the Spaniards, English and French. The primary mode of travel to the island is by automobile via F. J. Torras Causeway, malcolm McKinnon Airport serves general aviation on the island. St. Simons Island is part of a cluster of barrier islands, Sea Island forms the eastern edge of this cluster, with Little St. Simons on the north, and the marshes of Glynn plus the Intracoastal Waterway to the west. The Köppen Climate Classification System rates the climate of St. Simons Island as humid subtropical, ocean breezes tend to moderate the island climate, as compared to the nearby mainland. Daytime mean highs in winter range from 61 to 68 °F, summertime mean highs are 88 to 90 °F, with average lows 73 to 75 °F. Average rainfall is 45 inches per year, rainfall is greatest in August and September, when passing afternoon thunderstorms are typical. Accumulation of snow/ice is extremely rare, the last recorded snow on St. Simons was in 1989. The island is located in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 9a, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 17.7 square miles,15.9 square miles of which is land and 1.7 square miles of it is water. On St. Simons Island, a diverse and complex ecology exists alongside residential and commercial development. The island shares many common to the chain of sea islands along the southeastern U. S. coast…sandy beaches on the ocean side, marshes to the west. Despite centuries of agriculture and development, a canopy of live oaks, the abundance of food provided by the marshes, estuaries and vegetation attracts a varied assortment of wildlife on land, sea and in the air
28.
Altamaha River
–
The Altamaha River /ˈɑːltəməhɑː/ is a major river in the U. S. state of Georgia. It flows generally eastward for 137 miles from its origin at the confluence of the Oconee River and Ocmulgee River towards the Atlantic Ocean, there are no dams directly on the Altamaha, though there are some on the Oconee and the Ocmulgee. Including its tributaries, the Altamaha Rivers drainage basin is about 14,000 square miles in size and it is reportedly the third largest contributor of fresh water to the Atlantic Ocean from North America. The beginning of the Colorado River of Texas is just within New Mexico, the long Mobile-Alabama-Coosa River system, mostly in Alabama, originates a short distance within Georgia. The Altamaha River traverses an area of low population density with few significant towns or cities along its course. There are some along its tributaries, such as the fall line cities of Milledgeville on the Oconee. Centuries ago, riverboats used the Altamaha to reach those towns and the plantations founded along the rivers, which were the main transportation routes. According to the USGS, variant and historical names of the Altamaha River include A-lot-amaha, Alatahama, Alatamaha, Allamah, Frederica River, Rio Al Tama, Rio de Talaje, and Talaxe River. The 1, 759-megawatt Plant Hatch nuclear power plant sits on the bank of the Altamaha River in Appling County. The Altamaha River originates at the confluence of the Oconee River and Ocmulgee River, at its source, the Altamaha River forms the border between Jeff Davis County to the south and Montgomery County to the north. On the north side, Toombs County gives way to Tattnall County, the Big Hammock Wildlife Management Area and Big Hammock Natural Area are located along the Altamaha at the Ohoopee confluence. Big Hammock Natural Area is a National Natural Landmark site, noted for its biodiversity and many rare plant species. Below Big Hammock, the tributary Beards Creek joins the Altamaha River from the north, the Altamaha passes through Griffin Ridge Wildlife Management Area before flowing by Doctortown, near Jesup. A wide and swampy floodplain surrounds the river in this area, several miles below Doctortown Wayne County gives way to McIntosh County on the north side of the river. From this point to the mouth there are numerous wildlife management areas. The Sansaville Wildlife Management Area lies on the side of the river, while the Altamaha Wildlife Management Area lies on the north. Wolf Island National Wildlife Refuge occupies Wolf Island on the Atlantic coast, in its last several miles, the Altamaha River marks the boundary between McIntosh County on the north and Glynn County on the south. The town of Darien lies just north of the Altamaha Rivers mouth, several miles to the south lies the larger city of Brunswick
29.
Satilla River
–
The Satilla River rises in Ben Hill County, Georgia, near the town of Fitzgerald, and flows in a mostly easterly direction to the Atlantic Ocean. Along its approximately 235-mile course are the cities of Waycross, Waynesville, the Satilla drains almost 4,000 square miles of land, all of it in the coastal plain of southeastern Georgia. It has white sandbars and is the largest blackwater river situated entirely within Georgia, the river derives its name from a Spanish officer named Saint Illa, and over a period of time the name was merged to form the word Satilla. The name St. Illa River was in use along side the name Satilla River in the nineteenth century. The Satilla enters the Atlantic Ocean about 10 miles south of Brunswick, Satilla River Marsh Island is one of the few places in Georgia for observing nesting sites of brown pelicans. In May 2010, the city of Waycross purchased the Bandalong Litter Trap and installed it in Tebeau Creek, the trap was invented in Australia, but is manufactured in the United States by Storm Water Systems. Governor Sonny Perdue said, “Water is one of Georgia’s most important, the litter trap installed by Waycross is a model of stewardship for the state and the nation. ”The Satilla River litter trap is the first in Georgia and only the second in the nation
30.
John Reynolds (Royal Navy officer)
–
John Reynolds was an officer of the Royal Navy. He served for a period as the governor of the Province of Georgia from 1754-1757. At the end of a life of service, he became admiral shortly before his death. Born about 1713, he entered the Navy in 1728 as a volunteer per order with Captain John Gascoigne on board the frigate HMS Aldborough and he passed his examination on 31 July 1734, being then, according to his certificate,21 years old. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant on 14 October 1736, in 1739–40 Reynolds was serving in the HMS Argyll on the home station. The War of the Austrian Succession broke out, and in June 1741 he was appointed to the fireship HMS Vulcan and she was paid off in November 1742, and Reynolds went on half-pay. On 23 April 1745 Reynolds was promoted to be commander of the fireship HMS Scipio on the home station, in the following December he was placed on half-pay. He was, however, not relieved from the Centurion till 22 November, during 1747 the Arundel was employed in the English Channel, cruising with some success against the enemys trade, and afterwards in convoy service in the North Sea. In May 1748 Reynolds, still in the Arundel, was sent out to Charles Town, in December he received orders to return to Charles Town, and patrol South Carolina, Georgia, and the Bahamas, an area then a resort of pirates. He continued on station for over two years, returning to England in 1751. Reynolds returned to England in 1751 in search of a new command, as did most appointed officials of the British empire in the eighteenth century, Reynolds obtained his various commands through patronage. Reynolds arrived at Savannah on October 29,1754, Georgians desired a more dependable government, territorial expansion, border protection, and a profitable economy. Reynolds, however, saw primarily a poor colony in which the high cost of living would drain, rather than supplement, following instructions from the Board of Trade, Reynolds established a structure of royal government, including courts, a council, and the Commons House of Assembly. Reynolds then directed the council to move into a new building when the structure collapsed during his first meeting with that body. He acted decisively when the assembly faced a challenge from Augusta legislator Edmund Gray, Gray excited fears among the people about the extent of royal authority and tried to maneuver elections and assembly support to control a significant voting bloc within the Georgia legislature. Reynolds refused to be intimidated, and his forceful leadership encouraged the assembly to expel the Gray faction in January 1755, Reynoldss military efforts, however, proved less than successful. His arrival in Georgia coincided with the first rumblings of the Seven Years War and his overall defense plans relied so heavily upon the British government to supply increasing numbers of troops, artillery, and forts that his London superiors refused to comply. Moreover, in November 1755 Reynolds abruptly returned to Savannah after waiting ten days for Creek chiefs to arrive at Augusta and he had called the meeting to renew friendly relations but left the negotiations and a contingency of disappointed Creek Indians in the hands of an associate, William Little
31.
James Oglethorpe
–
James Edward Oglethorpe was a British soldier, Member of Parliament, and philanthropist, as well as the founder of the colony of Georgia. As a social reformer, he hoped to resettle Britains worthy poor in the New World, James Oglethorpe was born in Surrey, the son of Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe of Westbrook Place, Godalming, and his wife Eleanor Lady Oglethorpe. He entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford in 1714, but in the year left to join the army of Prince Eugene of Savoy. After his return to England, he was elected Member of Parliament for Haslemere in 1722, in 1728 in Parliament, he advocated reform of the terrible conditions experienced by sailors in the British Royal Navy by publishing an anonymous pamphlet, The Sailors Advocate. In 1728, three years before conceiving the Georgia colony, Oglethorpe chaired a Parliamentary committee on prison reform, the committee documented horrendous abuses in three debtors prisons. As a result of the actions, many debtors were released from prison with no means of support. The petition was approved in 1732, and the first ship, led by Oglethorpe. Oglethorpe and the Trustees formulated a contractual, multi-tiered plan for the settlement of Georgia, the plan envisioned a system of agrarian equality, designed to support and perpetuate an economy based on family farming, and prevent social disintegration associated with unregulated urbanisation. Land ownership was limited to fifty acres, a grant that included a lot, a garden plot near town. Self-supporting colonists were able to obtain larger grants, but such grants were structured in fifty-acre increments tied to the number of indentured servants supported by the grantee, servants would receive a land grant of their own upon completing their term of service. No one was permitted to acquire land through purchase or inheritance. With Oglethorpe on that ship were cotton seeds provided by the Chelsea Medicinal Garden in London, the cotton seeds given to Oglethorpe were instrumental in establishing the cotton industry in the U. S. South. As discussed below, the plan for the colony was originally anti-slavery, but economic pressures eventually led to the lifting of the ban on slavery, as described below—and slavery was indispensable to the rise of large cotton-growing plantations throughout the Deep South. Oglethorpe and the first colonists arrived at South Carolina on the ship Anne in late 1732 and he negotiated with the Yamacraw tribe for land, and built a series of defensive forts, most notably Fort Frederica, of which substantial remains can still be visited. He then returned to England and arranged to have banned in Georgia after being emotionally moved by an intercepted letter from Ayuba Suleiman Diallo. Oglethorpe and his trustees were granted a royal charter for the Province of Georgia between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers on 9 June 1732. Georgia was a key contested area, lying in between the English Carolinas and Spanish Florida and it was Oglethorpes idea that British debtors should be released from prison and sent to Georgia. Although it is repeated that this would theoretically rid Britain of its so-called undesirable elements
32.
Cumberland Island
–
Cumberland Island is one of the Sea Islands of the southeastern United States and is the largest in terms of continuously exposed land. It is located on the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of the U. S. state of Georgia and is part of Camden County, Cumberland Island constitutes the westernmost point of shoreline on the Atlantic Ocean in the United States. The island is 17.5 miles long, with an area of 36,415 acres, including 16,850 acres of marsh, mudflats, there is no bridge to the island, most visitors reach the island by the Cumberland Ferry from St. Marys. The island has three major ecosystem regions, along the western edge of the island there are large areas of salt marshes. One will also see gnarled live oak trees covered with Spanish moss, Cumberland Islands most famous ecosystem is its beach, which stretches over 17 miles. The island is home to many interesting animals, as well as non-native species. There are white-tailed deer, squirrels, raccoons, nine-banded armadillos, wild boars, American alligators and it is also famous for its feral horses roaming free on the island. The first inhabitants were indigenous peoples who settled there as early as 4,000 years ago, later inhabitants participated in the Savannah archaeological culture and spoke the Timucua language. Its inhabitants were part of the Mocama, a Timucua group who spoke the Mocama dialect, in the 17th century the island and the adjacent coast were controlled by the Tacatacuru chiefdom. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Cumberland Island was part of the Mocama missionary province of Spanish Florida, when the Spanish arrived in the 1550s, they named the island San Pedro. They built a garrison and mission, San Pedro de Mocama and it was one of the main mission centers, situated at a major Mocama site. Another Spanish mission on Cumberland was Puturiba, which operated from 1595–1597, an additional mission, San Phelipe, was relocated from the North Newport River to the northern end of Cumberland from 1670–1684. Historical records indicate that until 1681, there were approximately 300 natives, in 1683, French pirates attacked Cumberland Island, looting and burning many of the buildings. Many of the natives and the Spanish missionaries fled the island, an attack in 1684 by the Spanish pirate Thomas Jingle led to the final abandonment of the island. The Tacatacuru relocated closer to St. Augustine, and Cumberland Island was thereafter occupied by the Yamasee, most of the Mocama had converted to Christianity before the island was abandoned. During the colonial years, many died of introduced infectious diseases. Survivors retreated to St. Augustine to the south, English General James Oglethorpe arrived at the Georgia coast in 1733. Oglethorpe established a lodge called Dungeness, named after a headland in Kent
33.
Great Britain
–
Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination
34.
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
35.
American Revolutionary War
–
From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
36.
Marquess Camden
–
Marquess Camden is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1812 for the politician John Pratt, 2nd Earl Camden, the Pratt family descends from Sir John Pratt, Lord Chief Justice from 1718 to 1725. His third son from his marriage, Sir Charles Pratt, was also a prominent lawyer and politician. These titles are also in the Peerage of Great Britain, Lord Camden was married to Elizabeth, daughter of Nicholas Jeffreys, of The Priory, Brecknockshire, in Wales. Their son, the second Earl, was a politician and notably served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, in 1812 he was created Earl of the County of Brecknock and Marquess Camden. His son, the second Marquess, represented Ludgershall, Bath and Dunwich in the House of Commons, in 1835 Lord Camden was called to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration in his fathers junior title of Baron Camden. His son, the third Marquess, briefly sat as a Member of Parliament for Brecon in 1866, before he succeeded his father, on his early death the titles passed to his three-month-old son, the fourth Marquess. He was notably Lord Lieutenant of Kent from 1905 to 1943, as of 2013 the peerages are held by his grandson, the sixth Marquess, who succeeded his father in 1983. Lord Michael Pratt was a son of the fifth Marquess. The family lives at Wherwell House near Andover in Hampshire, until the early 1980s the family also owned the Bayham Abbey Estate, near Lamberhurst, in Kent. New York, St Martins Press,1990, Leigh Rayments Peerage Pages The London Gazette,13 May 1786 The London Gazette,15 August,1812 David Pratt, 6th Marquess Camden Genealogics. org Geni. com
37.
James Wright (governor)
–
James Wright was an American colonial lawyer and jurist who was the last British Royal Governor of the Province of Georgia. He was the only Royal Governor of the Thirteen Colonies to regain control of his colony during the American Revolutionary War, James Wright was born in London to Robert Wright. In 1730 his father accompanied Robert Johnson to the Province of South Carolina, James followed soon after and began the practice of law in Charleston. In 1747 James was named colonial attorney-general and he also began amassing plantation lands. Wright returned to London as an agent for the South Carolina colony in 1757, then, in May 1760, he was named as Lieutenant Governor to Henry Ellis in Georgia. He returned to America and took up residence in Savannah, Georgia, when Ellis resigned he was appointed Governor in November 1760. He was the third, and arguably most popular, Royal Governor of the colony and he sold many of his holdings in South Carolina, acquired land in Georgia, and moved his financial operations as well. With peace temporarily established with the French and Spanish, he negotiated with the Indians. In his early administration, the new lands and economic improvement fostered the development of the Georgia colony and his first troubles came with the Stamp Act of 1765. But, in spite of efforts by the Sons of Liberty to block its implementation, Georgia was the colony to import. In 1768, Wright established the 12,000 acre settlement known as Wrightsboro, Georgia did not send delegates to the First Continental Congress in 1774. By 1775, the spirit had reached Georgia through the Committees of Correspondence. But a revolutionary congress met that summer in Savannah and elected delegates to the Second Continental Congress, then, in early 1776, following the arrival of a small British fleet, rebel forces entered his home and briefly took him prisoner. Wright escaped on February 11,1776 to the safety of the HMS Scarborough, the congress and the Council adjourned without answering him. For a time, Wright continued negotiations and he was even able to trade with the rebels to keep his offshore troops and ships supplied. But the differences continued to escalate, when his attempt to retake Savannah with naval forces failed, he returned to England. By 1778, Governor Wright convinced the government to lend him enough troops to once again attempt to take Savannah, after some short but sharp fights, he regained control of Savannah on December 29,1778. While never fully in control of the state, he did restore large areas within Georgia to colonial rule and he led a successful defense against several American and French attempts to capture the city
38.
Gossypium barbadense
–
Varieties of ELS cotton include WISICA Sea Island, American Pima, Egyptian ELS Gizas, Indian Suvin, Chinese xinjiang. It is a tropical, frost-sensitive perennial plant that produces flowers and has black seeds. It grows as a small, bushy tree and yields cotton with unusually long, to grow, it requires full sun and high humidity and rainfall. This plant contains the chemical gossypol, which reduces its susceptibility to insect, the name Pima was applied in honor of the Pima Indians, who helped raise the cotton on USDA experimental farms in Arizona in the early 1900s. According to other accounts, Real Alto cotton is dated to 3500-3000 BCE, by 1000 BCE, Peruvian cotton bolls were indistinguishable from modern cultivars of G. barbadense. Cotton growing became widespread in South America and spread to the West Indies, Cotton became a commercial plantation crop tended by slaves in the West Indies, so that by the 1650s, Barbados had become the first British West Indies colony to export cotton. Sea Island cotton commanded the highest price of all the cottons, due to its long staple and its texture, it was used for the finest cotton counts. The term Egyptian cotton is usually applied to the long staple cotton varieties produced in Egypt and used by luxury. Giza 45 has the highest thread count, ranging up to 1000 threads per square inch, however, the majority of Egyptian cotton export is long staple cotton, not ELS cotton. Egyptian ELS varieties amount to about 7% of annual global ELS/LS cotton exports, American Pima accounts for less than 5% of U. S. cotton production. It is grown chiefly in California, with small acreages in West Texas, New Mexico, for purposes of federal support, the 2002 farm bill defined ELS cotton. Extra long staple cotton is eligible for marketing assistance loans and loan deficiency payments, the national loan rate for ELS cotton under the 2002 farm bill was $0.7977 per pound. ELS cotton, in contrast to upland cotton, does not qualify for direct payments or counter-cyclical payments, supima Cotton Botany at Cotton Inc. History of Sea Island Cotton, West Indian Sea Island Cotton Association Organization of American Pima Cotton Growers EGYPTIAN COTTON and its Modern Origin and the Importance of the Supply
39.
Turpentine
–
Turpentine is a fluid obtained by the distillation of resin obtained from live trees, mainly pines. It is mainly used as a solvent and as a source of materials for organic synthesis, Turpentine is composed of terpenes, mainly the monoterpenes alpha-pinene and beta-pinene with lesser amounts of carene, camphene, dipentene, and terpinolene. The word turpentine derives from the Greek word τερεβινθίνη terebinthine, the name of a species of tree, mineral turpentine or other petroleum distillates are used to replace turpentine, but they are very different chemically. One of the earliest sources was the terebinth or turpentine tree, important pines for turpentine production include, maritime pine, Aleppo pine, Massons pine, Sumatran pine, longleaf pine, loblolly pine and ponderosa pine. Canada balsam, also called Canada turpentine or balsam of fir, is a turpentine which is made from the oleoresin of the balsam fir, venice turpentine is produced from the western larch Larix occidentalis. In order to tap into the sap producing layers of the tree, once debarked, pine trees secrete oleoresin onto the surface of the wound as a protective measure to seal the opening, resist exposure to micro-organisms and insects, and prevent vital sap loss. Turpentiners wounded trees in V-shaped streaks down the length of the trunks so as to channel the oleoresin into containers and it was then collected and processed into spirits of turpentine. Oleoresin yield may be increased by as much as 40% by applying herbicides to the exposed wood. The V-shaped cuts are called catfaces for their resemblance to a cat’s whiskers and these marks on a pine tree signify it was used to collect resin for turpentine production. Crude oleoresin collected from wounded trees may be evaporated by steam distillation in a copper still, molten rosin remains in the still bottoms after turpentine has been evaporated and recovered from a condenser. Turpentine may alternatively be condensed from destructive distillation of pine wood, oleoresin may also be extracted from shredded pine stumps, roots, and slash using the light end of the heavy naphtha fraction from a crude oil refinery. Leached wood is steamed for additional naphtha recovery prior to burning for energy recovery, when producing chemical wood pulp from pines or other coniferous trees, sulfate turpentine may be condensed from the gas generated in Kraft process pulp digesters. The average yield of crude sulfate turpentine is 5–10 kg/t pulp, unless burned at the mill for energy production, sulfate turpentine may require additional treatment measures to remove traces of sulfur compounds. The two primary uses of turpentine in industry are as a solvent and as a source of materials for organic synthesis, as a solvent, turpentine is used for thinning oil-based paints, for producing varnishes, and as a raw material for the chemical industry. Its industrial use as a solvent in industrialized nations has largely replaced by the much cheaper turpentine substitutes distilled from crude oil. Turpentine has long used as a solvent, mixed with beeswax or with carnauba wax. Turpentine is also used as a source of raw materials in the synthesis of fragrant chemical compounds, commercially used camphor, linalool, alpha-terpineol, and geraniol are all usually produced from alpha-pinene and beta-pinene, which are two of the chief chemical components of turpentine. These pinenes are separated and purified by distillation, the mixture of diterpenes and triterpenes that is left as residue after turpentine distillation is sold as rosin
40.
Muscogee (Creek) Nation
–
The Muscogee Nation is a federally recognized tribe of Muscogee people, also known as the Creek, based in the U. S. state of Oklahoma. Calling themselves Este Mvskokvlke, they are regarded as one of the historical Five Civilized Tribes of the American Southeast, the tribe is descended from the historic Creek Confederacy, a large, heterogeneous group of indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands. The Muscogee Nation is the largest of the federally recognized Muscogee tribes, the Muskogean-speaking Alabama, Hitchiti, and Natchez people, as well as Algonquian-speaking Shawnee and Yuchi are enrolled in the Muscogee Creek Nation. Historically the latter two groups were from different language families than the Muscogee, the Muscogee Nation is headquartered in Okmulgee, Oklahoma and serves as the seat of tribal government. Oklahoma Indian tribes do not have reservations, they have Tribal Jurisdictional Areas, the Muscogee Nation has jurisdiction over tribal members in Creek, Hughes, Okfuskee, Okmulgee, McIntosh, Muskogee, Tulsa, and Wagoner counties in Oklahoma. The government of the Muscogee Creek Nation is divided into three branches, executive, legislative, and judicial branches, Okmulgee is the capitol of the Muscogee Nation and also serves as the seat of government. The Executive branch is led by a Principal Chief, Second Chief, Tribal Administrator, the Principal Chief and Second Chief are democratically elected every four years. Citizens cast ballots for both the Principal Chief and Second Chief as they are elected individually, the Principal Chief then chooses staff, some of which must be confirmed by the legislative branch known as The National Council. National Council representatives draft and sponsor the laws and resolutions of the Nation, the 8 districts include, Creek, Tulsa, Wagoner, Okfuskee, Muskogee, Okmulgee, McIntosh, and Tukvpvtce. The Nation has two courts, the Muscogee Nation District Court and the Supreme Court, the Supreme Court has final authority over disputes about the Muscogee Creek Constitution and Laws. Of these,60,403 lived within the state of Oklahoma, since 1979, membership to the tribe is based on documented lineal descent from persons listed as Creek Indians by Blood on the Dawes Rolls. The tribe does not have a blood quantum requirement. The Nation operates its own division of housing and issues vehicle license plates, the Muscogee Nation operates the Lighthorse Tribal Police Department, with 43 active employees. The tribe has its own program for enforcing child support payments, the Mvskoke Food Sovereignty Initiative is sponsored by the nation. The Muscogee Nation also operates a Communications Department that produces a newspaper, the Muscogee Nation News, and a weekly television show. The tribe operates a budget in excess of million, has over 4,000 employees. The tribe has both gaming and non-gaming businesses, non-gaming business vetures include both Muscogee Nation Business Enterprise and Onefire. MNBE and Onefire oversee economic development as well as investigating, planning, organizing and operating business ventures projects for the related to non-gaming business
41.
Sir George Cockburn, 10th Baronet
–
Admiral of the Fleet Sir George Cockburn, 10th Baronet GCB was a Royal Navy officer. He also directed the capture and Burning of Washington on 24 August 1814 as an advisor to Major General Robert Ross during the War of 1812, Cockburn was born the second son of Sir James Cockburn, 8th Baronet and his second wife Augusta Anne Ayscough. He was educated at the Royal Navigational School and joined the Royal Navy in March 1781 as a Captains servant in the sixth-rate HMS Resource and he joined the fourth-rate HMS Romney in the Mediterranean Fleet later in 1791 and then became acting lieutenant in the fifth-rate HMS Pearl in 1792. He became commander of the sloop HMS Speedy in October 1793, Cockburn was promoted to the substantive rank of captain on 10 February 1794 and given command of the fifth-rate HMS Meleager in the Mediterranean Fleet later that month. He took part in the blockade of Livorno in March 1795 and he fought a gallant action with the Spanish frigate Santa Sabina in January 1797 and was present at the battle of Cape St Vincent in February 1797 during the French Revolutionary Wars. Cockburn was given command of the fifth-rate HMS Phaeton on the East Indies Station in July 1803, of the third-rate HMS Captain in July 1806, and of the third-rate HMS Pompée in March 1808. He commanded the support at the reduction of Martinique in February 1809 during the Napoleonic Wars. Cockburn commanded a squadron of warships for the landings in Walcheren in July 1809 during the Walcheren Campaign, the mission failed when Ferdinand refused to have anything to do with the British. Cockburn was promoted to commodore, hoisting his broad pennant in the fourth-rate HMS Grampus in November 1811, Cockburn was promoted to rear admiral on 12 August 1812, and hoisted his flag in the third-rate HMS Marlborough as commander of a squadron of ships off Cadiz. He cruised relentlessly up and down the Chesapeake Bay and other parts of the Atlantic coast in 1813 and 1814, seizing American shipping, disrupting commerce, and raiding the ports. The most important of Cockburns actions was the capture and burning of Washington on 24 August 1814 and he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 4 January 1815. In August 1815, Cockburn was given the job of conveying Napoleon I in the third-rate HMS Northumberland to Saint Helena, Cockburn remained there for some months as governor of the island and Commander-in-Chief of the Cape of Good Hope Station. He was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 20 February 1818 and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 21 December 1820. Entering politics, Cockburn was elected Tory Member of Parliament for Portsmouth at the 1818 general election and was appointed a Junior Naval Lord in the Liverpool ministry in April 1818. While serving as a Junior Naval Lord, he forced the resignation of the Duke of Clarence as Lord High Admiral in September 1828 for acting without the authority of the Board of the Admiralty. He resigned when the Government fell from power in November 1830, Cockburn became First Naval Lord briefly again in the First Peel ministry in December 1834 but resigned when the Government fell from power in April 1835. He then returned to his old post as Commander-in-Chief of the North America, as First Sea Lord he ensured that the Navy had latest steam and screw technology and put emphasis of the ability to manage seamen without the need to resort to physical punishment. He resigned when the Government fell from power in July 1846 and he inherited the family baronetcy from his elder brother in February 1852 and died at Leamington Spa on 19 August 1853
42.
Treaty of Ghent
–
The Treaty of Ghent was the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Both sides signed it on December 24,1814, in the city of Ghent, the treaty restored relations between the two nations to status quo ante bellum, restoring the borders of the two countries to the lines before the war started in June 1812. The Treaty was approved by the UK parliament and signed into law by the Prince Regent on December 30,1814. It took a month for news of the treaty to reach the United States. The Treaty of Ghent was not fully in effect until it was ratified by the U. S. Senate unanimously on February 17,1815. It began two centuries of peaceful relations between the U. S. and Britain, although there were a few tense moments such as the Trent Affair, after the abdication of Napoleon in April 1814 British public opinion demanded major gains in the war against the United States. The senior American representative in London told Secretary of State James Monroe and you will perceive by the newspapers that a very great force is to be sent from Bordeaux to the United States, and the order of the day is division of the States and conquest. Peace may be made with us, after rejecting Russian proposals to broker peace negotiations, Britain reversed course in 1814. With the defeat of Napoleon the main British goals of stopping American trade with France, Negotiations were held in Ghent, Southern Netherlands, starting in August 1814. The Americans sent five commissioners, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, James A. Bayard, the British sent minor officials who kept in close touch with their superiors in London. At last in August 1814, peace discussions began in the city of Ghent. As the peace talks opened American diplomats decided not to present President Madisons demands for the end of impressment and they were quiet and instead the British opened with their demands, chief of which was the creation of an Indian barrier state in the American Northwest Territory. It was understood the British would sponsor this Indian state, the British strategy for decades had been to create a buffer state to block American expansion. The Americans refused to consider a state and the proposal was dropped. Article IX of the treaty included provisions to restore to Natives, the U. S. rejected the demands and there was an impasse. American public opinion was so outraged when Madison published the demands that even the Federalists were willing to fight on, during the negotiations the British had four invasions underway. One force carried out a burning of Washington, but the mission failed in its goal of capturing Baltimore. The British fleet sailed away when the commander was killed
43.
Special Field Order No. 15
–
The orders were issued following Shermans March to the Sea. General Sherman issued his orders four days after meeting in Savannah, Georgia with twenty local black ministers and lay leaders and with U. S. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. Brig. Gen. Rufus Saxton, an abolitionist from Massachusetts who had organized the recruitment of black soldiers for the Union Army, was put in charge of implementing the orders. The orders had little effect, as they were revoked in the fall of that same year by President Andrew Johnson. This order is part of the Official Records of the American Civil War and it can be found in Series I — Military Operations, Volume XLVII, Part II, Pages 60–62. The volume was published in 1895
44.
Reconstruction Era
–
Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
45.
Florida Central and Peninsular Railroad
–
The Florida Central and Peninsular Railroad was the final name of a system of railroads throughout Florida, becoming part of the Seaboard Air Line Railway in 1900. The system, including some of the first railroads in Florida, stretched from Jacksonville west through Tallahassee, the Tallahassee Rail Road was first organized in 1832 as the Leon Railway, changing its name in 1834. It opened in 1837, connecting Tallahassee, Florida to the Gulf of Mexico port of St. Marks and this was the second steam railroad in Florida, opening just a year after the Lake Wimico and St. Joseph Canal and Railroad. The Florida, Atlantic and Gulf Central Railroad was chartered January 24,1851, to build west from Jacksonville, Florida, the Pensacola and Georgia Railroad was chartered in January 1853, to be built east from Pensacola, Florida, but started at Tallahassee. The two lines met at Lake City, Florida in 1860, and the latter also built from Tallahassee west to four short of Quincy, Florida. In 1855 the Pensacola and Georgia bought the Tallahassee, in 1882, Sir Edward Reed purchased the Jacksonville, Pensacola and Mobile, absorbing the Florida Central and reorganizing the two as the Florida Central and Western Railroad. The Florida Railroad was incorporated January 8,1853, to build a line across the state, from Fernandina, Florida southwest to Cedar Key, the first train ran in 1861, but the line failed and the company was reorganized in 1866. In 1872 it was reorganized again as the Atlantic, Gulf, in 1881, Sir Edward Reed purchased the railroad and reorganized it as the Florida Transit Company, which in 1883 was reorganized again as the Florida Transit and Peninsular Railroad. The new company was placed in receivership in October 1885, sold at foreclosure and reorganized as the Florida Central, the Seaboard Air Line Railway leased the FC&P on July 1,1900, and the latter was merged into the former on August 15,1903. The FC&P tracks from Charleston, South Carolina to Tampa, Florida via Jacksonville would become part of Seaboards main line, the Florida Central and Peninsular Railroad had two main lines, with one extending from Jacksonville to Chattahoochee and another from Fernandina to Cedar Key. The two main lines intersected at Baldwin Junction just west of Jacksonville, the Western Division also included the original line from Tallahassee to St. Marks. Though, the Southern Division from Archer to Cedar Key would only exist until 1932, the FC&P also had many other lines. The FC&P also bought the Santa Fe Canal in 1892, Tampa Division The Tampa Division ran from the Fernandina-Cedar Key line at Waldo south to Tampa. This had been chartered as the Peninsula Railroad north of and the Tropical Florida Railroad south of Ocala, after the Seaboard acquisition, this route became the southernmost segment of their main line. Northern Division The Fernandina and Jacksonville Railroad was organized in 1874 and opened in 1881 and it was consolidated into the Florida Railway and Navigation Company in 1885. The South Bound Railroad was organized in 1887 and completed in 1891, connecting Columbia, South Carolina to Savannah, the FC&P leased it in 1893. In 1892 the Florida Northern Railroad was chartered by the FC&P to continue the Fernandina and Jacksonville Railroad north into Georgia and this opened in 1894, forming a continuous line from Jacksonville to Columbia. In 1899 and 1900, the South Bound Railroad was extended north to Camden, South Carolina to meet the Seaboard Air Line Railways Chesterfield, at some point, a cutoff was built from the Northern Division near the Florida/Georgia state line southwest to the Southern Division at Callahan
Interstate 95
U.S. Route 17
State Route 25
State Route 25 Spur
State Route 40
State Route 40 Spur
State Route 110
State Route 252
State Route 405 (unsigned designation for I-95).svg){kind=small}
Camden County, Georgia
