1.
Corteno Golgi
–
Corteno Golgi is an Italian village and comune in the central Alps, in the province of Brescia, High Camonica Valley. There is a dedicated to Camillo Golgi who was born in Corteno in 1843. Golgi was the first Italian to be awarded with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906, in 1956 the name of the village was changed from just Córteno to Córteno Golgi in memory of the scientist. Corteno Golgi is twinned with, Petilla de Aragón, Spain Official website
Corteno Golgi
–
Corteno Golgi Còrten
Corteno Golgi
–
Location of Corteno Golgi in
Val Camonica
2.
Pavia
–
Pavia is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy,35 kilometres south of Milan on the lower Ticino river near its confluence with the Po. It has a population of c, the city was the capital of the Kingdom of the Lombards from 572 to 774. Pavia is the capital of the province of Pavia, known for agricultural products including wine, rice, cereals. Although there are a number of industries located in the suburbs, Pavia is the episcopal seat of the Roman Catholic Bishop of Pavia. The city possesses many artistic and cultural treasures, including several important churches and museums, dating back to pre-Roman times, the town of Pavia, then known as Ticinum, was a municipality and an important military site under the Roman Empire. It was said by Pliny the Elder to have founded by the Laevi and Marici. It was at Pavia in 476 AD that the reign of Romulus Augustulus, ten months after Romulus Augustulus’s reign began, Orestes’s soldiers under the command of one of his officers named Odoacer, rebelled and killed Orestes in the city of Pavia in 476. Without his father Romulus Augustulus was powerless, instead of killing Romulus Augustulus, Odoacer pensioned him off at 6,000 solidi a year before declaring the end of the Western Roman Empire and himself king of the new Kingdom of Italy. Odoacer’s reign as king of Italy did not last long, because in 488 the Ostrogothic peoples led by their king Theoderic invaded Italy and waged war against Odoacer. After fighting for 5 years Theoderic defeated Odoacer and on March 15,493 assassinated Odoacer at a banquet meant to negotiate a peace between the two rulers, with the establishment of the Ostrogoth kingdom based in northern Italy, Theoderic began his vast program of public building. Pavia was among several cities that Theodoric chose to restore and expand and he began the construction of the vast palace complex that would eventually become the residence of Lombard monarchs several decades later. Near the end of Theoderic’s reign the Christian philosopher Boethius was imprisoned in one of Pavia’s churches from 522 to 525 before his execution for treason and it was during Boethius’s captivity in Pavia that he wrote his seminal work the Consolation of Philosophy. Pavia played an important role in the war between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Ostrogoths that began in 535, after the capitulation of the Ostrogothic leadership in 540 more than a thousand men remained garrisoned in Pavia and Verona dedicated to opposing Eastern Roman rule. The resilience of Ostrogoth strongholds like Pavia against invading forces allowed pockets of Ostrogothic rule to limp along until finally being defeated in 561, Pavia and the peninsula of Italy didn’t remain long under the rule of the Eastern Roman Empire for in 568 a new people invaded Italy. This new invading people in 568 were the Lombards, in their invasion of Italy in 568, the Lombards were led by their king Alboin, who would become the first Lombard king of Italy. Alboin captured much of northern Italy in 568 but his progress was halted in 569 by the city of Pavia. Meanwhile Alboin, after driving out the soldiers, took possession of everything as far as Tuscany except Rome and Ravenna and some other fortified places which were situated on the shore of the sea. ”The Siege of Ticinum finally ended with the Lombards capturing the city of Pavia in 572. Pavia’s strategic location and the Ostrogoth palaces located within it would make Pavia by the 620s the main capital of the Lombards’ Kingdom of Pavia, under Lombard rule many monasteries, nunneries, and churches were built at Pavia by the devout Christian Lombard monarchs
Pavia
–
A view of the
city's Cathedral from the Piazza della Vittoria
Pavia
–
This painting by
Josse Lieferinxe depicts an outbreak of the plague in 7th-century Pavia, Italy. The Walters Art Museum.
Pavia
–
Collegio Borromeo
Pavia
–
The
University of Pavia 's Aula Magna
3.
Italian people
–
Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
Italian people
–
Amerigo Vespucci, the notable geographer and traveller from whose name the word
America is derived.
Italian people
Italian people
–
Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of the
New World.
Italian people
–
Laura Bassi, the first chairwoman of a university in a scientific field of studies.
4.
University of Pavia
–
The University of Pavia is a university located in Pavia, Lombardy, Italy. It was founded in 1361 and has thirteen faculties, an edict issued by the Frankish king of Italy Lothar I mentions the existence of a higher education institution at Pavia as early as AD825. This institution, mainly devoted to ecclesiastical and civil law as well as to divinity studies, was selected as the prime educational centre for northern Italy. In 1858, the University was the scene of student protests against Austrian rule in northern Italy. The authorities responded by ordering the universitys temporary closure, the incidents at Pavia were typical of the wave of nationalist demonstrations all over Italy that immediately preceded the Unification. During the following centuries, through periods of both adversity and prosperity, the fame of the University of Pavia grew over the last years due to the number of applicants. Three Nobel Prize winners also taught in Pavia, physician Camillo Golgi, chemist Giulio Natta, also critical to the universitys reputation was its distinguished record of public education, epitomised by the establishment of 5 private and public colleges. In 1997 the IUSS, was established, a Higher Learning Institution analogous to the Scuola Normale Superiore, the IUSS is the federal body that links the 5 colleges of Pavia which constitute the Pavia University System. Today, the University continues to offer a variety of disciplinary and inter-disciplinary teaching. Research is carried out in departments, institutes, clinics, centres and laboratories, in association with public and private institutions, enterprises. English - One single-cycle masters degree and seven masters degrees are offered in English
University of Pavia
–
Borromeo college
University of Pavia
–
University of Pavia
University of Pavia
–
Ghislieri college
5.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
Nobel was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own laboratories.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
Nikolaas Tinbergen (left),
Konrad Lorenz (right) was awarded (with
Karl von Frisch) for their discoveries concerning animal behavior.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
–
In 1947,
Gerty Cori was the first woman to be awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
6.
Neuroscience
–
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is a branch of biology, that deals with the anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology. It also draws upon fields including mathematics, pharmacology, physics, engineering, Neuroscience has also given rise to such other disciplines as neuroeducation, neuroethics, and neurolaw. The techniques used by neuroscientists have also expanded enormously, from molecular and cellular studies of neurons to imaging of sensory. Recent theoretical advances in neuroscience have also aided by the study of neural networks. As a result of the number of scientists who study the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists. The earliest study of the system dates to ancient Egypt. Manuscripts dating to 1700 BC indicate that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage, early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a cranial stuffing of sorts. In Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, the brain was removed in preparation for mummification. It was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence, the view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs are located in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence, plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul. Aristotle, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence, abulcasis, Averroes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In Renaissance Europe, Vesalius, René Descartes, and Thomas Willis also made contributions to neuroscience. Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope, the procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual neurons. His technique was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. In parallel with this research, work with brain-damaged patients by Paul Broca suggested that regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific structures in language comprehension and production. During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as an academic discipline in its own right
Neuroscience
–
Drawing by
Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1899) of
neurons in the pigeon cerebellum
Neuroscience
–
The
Golgi stain first allowed for the visualization of individual neurons.
Neuroscience
–
Photograph of a
stained neuron in a chicken embryo
7.
Italians
–
Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
Italians
–
Amerigo Vespucci, the notable geographer and traveller from whose name the word
America is derived.
Italians
Italians
–
Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of the
New World.
Italians
–
Laura Bassi, the first chairwoman of a university in a scientific field of studies.
8.
Physician
–
Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion. Around the world the term refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties. This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications and this term is at least nine hundred years old in English, physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. Henry VIII granted a charter to the London Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and it was not until 1540 that he granted the Company of Barber/Surgeons its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established the Regius Professorship of Physic at the University of Cambridge, newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor of internal medicine. Hence, in the 16th century, physic meant roughly what internal medicine does now, currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals, such hospitalists now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, in Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Around the world, the term physician and surgeon is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, in modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing and these meanings and variations are explained below. In the United States and Canada, the term physician describes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree, the American Medical Association, established in 1847, as well as the American Osteopathic Association, founded in 1897, both currently use the term physician to describe members. However, the American College of Physicians, established in 1915, does not, its title uses physician in its original sense. A physician trained in the United States has either a Doctor of Medicine degree, all boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years, graduates of osteopathic medical schools in the United States should not be confused with osteopaths, who are trained in the European and Commonwealth nations. Their training is similar to physical therapy and they are not licensed to prescribe medications or perform surgeries, also in the United States, the American Podiatric Medical Association defines podiatrists as physicians and surgeons that fall under the department of surgery in hospitals
Physician
–
"The Doctor" by
Luke Fildes (detail).
Physician
–
The
Italian Francesco Redi, considered to be the founder of experimental biology, he was the first to recognize and correctly describe details of many important
parasites.
Physician
–
Elizabeth Blackwell, the first female physician to receive a medical degree in the United States
9.
Biologist
–
A biologist, is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology, the scientific study of life. Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter. Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve more specific processes and understanding, in such as medicine, industry. While biologist can apply to any scientist studying biology, most biologists research, in this way, biologists investigate large-scale organism interactions, whole multicellular organisms, organs, tissues, cells, and small-scale cellular and molecular processes. Other biologists study less direct aspects of life, such as phylogeny, Biologists conduct research based on the scientific method, to test the validity of a theory, with hypothesis formation, experimentation and documentation of methods and data. There are many types of biologists, some work on microorganisms, while others study multicellular organisms. Many jobs in biology as a field require an academic degree, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally required to direct independent research, and involves a specialization in a specific area of biology. Many biological scientists work in research and development, some conduct fundamental research to advance our knowledge of living organisms, including bacteria and other pathogens. This research enhances understanding and adds to the database of literature. Furthermore, it aids the development of solutions to problems in areas such as human health. These biological scientists work in government, university, and private industry laboratories. Many expand on specialized research that started in post-graduate qualifications. Biological scientists who work in applied research or product development often use knowledge gained by research to further knowledge in particular fields or applications. For example, this research may be used to develop new pharmaceutical drugs, treatments, and medical diagnostic tests, increase crop yields. These scientists must consider the effects of their work. Some biologists conduct laboratory experiments involving animals, plants or microorganisms, however, some biological research also occurs outside the laboratory and may involve natural observation rather than experimentation. For example, a botanist may investigate the plant species present in a particular environment, swift advances in knowledge of genetics and organic molecules spurred growth in the field of biotechnology, transforming the industries in which biological scientists work. Biological scientists can now manipulate the genetic material of animals and plants, basic and applied research on biotechnological processes, such as recombining DNA, has led to the production of important substances, including human insulin and growth hormone
Biologist
–
Francesco Redi, the founder of the experimental biology, is recognized to be one of the greatest biologists of all time.
Biologist
–
Martinus Willem Beijerinck, a botanist and microbiologist.
10.
Pathologist
–
Pathology is a significant component of the causal study of disease and a major field in modern medicine and diagnosis. Similarly, a condition is one caused by disease, rather than occurring physiologically. A physician practicing pathology is called a pathologist, as a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses four components of disease, cause, mechanisms of development, structural alterations of cells, and the consequences of changes. Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types, organs, the sense of the word pathology as a synonym of disease or pathosis is very common in health care. The persistence of this usage despite attempted proscription is discussed elsewhere, the study of pathology, including the detailed examination of the body, including dissection and inquiry into specific maladies, dates back to antiquity. Notably, many advances were made in the era of Islam, during which numerous texts of complex pathologies were developed. By the 17th century, the study of microscopy was underway and examination of tissues had led British Royal Society member Robert Hooke to coin the word cell, setting the stage for later germ theory. However, pathology as an area of specialty was not fully developed until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This realization led to the understanding that diseases are able to replicate themselves. To determine causes of diseases, medical experts used the most common and widely accepted assumptions or symptoms of their times, by the late 1920s to early 1930s pathology was deemed a medical specialty. The modern practice of pathology is divided into a number of subdisciplines within the discrete but deeply interconnected aims of biological research, anatomical pathology is itself divided into subfields, the main divisions being surgical pathology, cytopathology, and forensic pathology. Sometimes, pathologists practice both anatomical and clinical pathology, a known as general pathology. Cytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level, however, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation. Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of pathology that focuses on the skin. It is unique, in there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. The completion of this allows one to take a subspecialty board examination. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope, more than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions and neoplasms
Pathologist
–
A pathologist examines a tissue section for evidence of cancerous cells while a surgeon observes.
Pathologist
–
The advent of the microscope was one of the major developments in the history of pathology. Here researchers at the
Centers for Disease Control in 1978 examine cultures containing Legionella pneumophila, the pathogen responsible for
Legionaire's disease.
Pathologist
–
A
bone marrow smear from a case of
erythroleukemia showing a
multinucleated erythroblast with megaloblastoid
nuclear chromatin
Pathologist
–
A
malignant melanoma can often be suspected from sight, but confirmation of the diagnosis or outright removal requires an
excisional biopsy.
11.
Scientist
–
A scientist is a person engaging in a systematic activity to acquire knowledge that describes and predicts the natural world. In a more restricted sense, a scientist may refer to an individual who uses the scientific method, the person may be an expert in one or more areas of science. The term scientist was coined by the theologian, philosopher and historian of science William Whewell and this article focuses on the more restricted use of the word. Scientists perform research toward a comprehensive understanding of nature, including physical, mathematical and social realms. Philosophers aim to provide an understanding of fundamental aspects of reality and experience, often pursuing inquiries with conceptual, rather than empirical. When science is done with a goal toward practical utility, it is called applied science, an applied scientist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is conducting research with the aim of developing new technologies and practical methods. When science seeks to answer questions about aspects of reality it is sometimes called natural philosophy. Science and technology have continually modified human existence through the engineering process, as a profession the scientist of today is widely recognized. Jurisprudence and mathematics are often grouped with the sciences, some of the greatest physicists have also been creative mathematicians and lawyers. There is a continuum from the most theoretical to the most empirical scientists with no distinct boundaries, in terms of personality, interests, training and professional activity, there is little difference between applied mathematicians and theoretical physicists. Scientists can be motivated in several ways, many have a desire to understand why the world is as we see it and how it came to be. They exhibit a strong curiosity about reality, other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige, or the desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of peoples health, the nations, the world, nature or industries. Scientists tend to be motivated by direct financial reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often accept lower average salaries when compared with other professions which require a similar amount of training. The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country, for instance, there are only 4 full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India while this number is 79 for the United Kingdom and the United States. According to the US National Science Foundation 4.7 million people with science degrees worked in the United States in 2015, across all disciplines, the figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, 5% of scientists worked for the federal government and about 3. 5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men, 59% of US scientists were employed in industry or business, and another 6% worked in non-profit positions
Scientist
Scientist
–
Chemical scientists in a laboratory of the
University of La Rioja
Scientist
–
"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist
Aristotle (384-322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two thousand years" —Gary B. Ferngren
Scientist
–
Alessandro Volta, the inventor of the
electrical battery and discoverer of
methane, is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history.
12.
Anatomy
–
Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is inherently tied to embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, Human anatomy is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy, macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animals body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy, microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. The history of anatomy is characterized by an understanding of the functions of the organs. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts, make a pair of related disciplines. Derived from the Greek ἀνατομή anatomē dissection, anatomy is the study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs. It includes the appearance and position of the parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts, the discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a scale, including histology. Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs, angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels. The term anatomy is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy, however, substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also used to specifically refer to animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature, the kingdom Animalia or metazoa, contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile. Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are known as eumetazoans. They have a digestive chamber, with one or two openings, the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undifferentiated cells, unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts
Anatomy
–
One of the large, detailed illustrations in
Andreas Vesalius 's
De humani corporis fabrica 16th century, marking the rebirth of anatomy
Anatomy
–
Human compared to elephant frame.
Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins, 1860
Anatomy
–
Hyaline cartilage at high magnification (
H&E stain)
Anatomy
–
Gastric mucosa at low magnification (
H&E stain)
13.
Physiology
–
Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli
Physiology
–
Oil painting depicting Claude Bernard, the father of modern physiology, with his pupils
Physiology
–
Animals
14.
Golgi apparatus
–
The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1897 by the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi, part of the cellular endomembrane system, the Golgi apparatus packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination. The Golgi apparatus resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, owing to its large size and distinctive structure, the Golgi apparatus was one of the first organelles to be discovered and observed in detail. It was discovered in 1898 by Italian physician Camillo Golgi during an investigation of the nervous system, after first observing it under his microscope, he termed the structure the internal reticular apparatus. Some doubted the discovery at first, arguing that the appearance of the structure was merely an illusion created by the observation technique used by Golgi. With the development of modern microscopes in the 20th century, the discovery was confirmed, early references to the Golgi referred to it by various names including the Golgi–Holmgren apparatus, Golgi–Holmgren ducts, and Golgi–Kopsch apparatus. The term Golgi apparatus was used in 1910 and first appeared in the literature in 1913. Among eukaryotes, the localization of the Golgi apparatus differs. In mammals, a single Golgi apparatus complex is located near the cell nucleus. Tubular connections are responsible for linking the stacks together, localization and tubular connections of the Golgi apparatus are dependent on microtubules. If microtubules are experimentally depolymerized, then the Golgi apparatus loses connections, in yeast, multiple Golgi apparatuses are scattered throughout the cytoplasm. In plants, Golgi stacks are not concentrated at the centrosomal region, organization of the plant Golgi depends on actin cables and not microtubules. The common feature among Golgi is that they are adjacent to endoplasmic reticulum exit sites, in most eukaryotes, the Golgi apparatus is made up of a series of compartments consisting of two main networks, the cis Golgi network and the trans Golgi network. The CGN is a collection of fused, flattened membrane-enclosed disks known as cisternae, a mammalian cell typically contains 40 to 100 stacks. Between four and eight cisternae are usually present in a stack, however and this collection of cisternae is broken down into cis, medial, and trans compartments. The TGN is the final structure, from which proteins are packaged into vesicles destined to lysosomes, secretory vesicles. The TGN is usually positioned adjacent to the stacks of the Golgi apparatus, the TGN may act as an early endosome in yeast and plants. There are structural and organizational differences in the Golgi apparatus among eukaryotes, in some yeasts, Golgi stacking is not observed
Golgi apparatus
–
Micrograph of Golgi apparatus, visible as a stack of semicircular black rings near the bottom. Numerous circular
vesicles can be seen in proximity to the
organelle.
Golgi apparatus
–
Nucleolus
Golgi apparatus
–
The Golgi apparatus (salmon pink) in context of the secretory pathway.
Golgi apparatus
–
Diagram of two of the five current models of vesicular transport and trafficking: the cisternae maturation model, and the anterograde vesicular transport between stable compartments model (vesicular shuttle model).
15.
Golgi tendon organ
–
The Golgi organ is a proprioceptive sensory receptor organ that senses changes in muscle tension. It lies at the origins and insertion of skeletal muscle fibers into the tendons of skeletal muscle and it provides the sensory component of the Golgi tendon reflex. The Golgi organ should not be confused with the Golgi apparatus, which is an organelle in the cell, or the Golgi stain. All of these are named after the Italian physician Camillo Golgi, the body of the organ is made up of strands of collagen that are connected at one end to the muscle fibers and at the other merge into the tendon proper. Each tendon organ is innervated by a single afferent type Ib sensory nerve fiber that branches and terminates as spiral endings around the collagen strands, the Ib afferent axon is a large diameter, myelinated axon. Each neurotendinous spindle is enclosed in a capsule which contains a number of enlarged tendon fasciculi. One or more nerve fibres perforate the side of the capsule and lose their medullary sheaths, when the muscle generates force, the sensory terminals are compressed. This stretching deforms the terminals of the Ib afferent axon, opening stretch-sensitive cation channels, as a result, the Ib axon is depolarized and fires nerve impulses that are propagated to the spinal cord. The action potential frequency signals the force being developed by 10 to 20 of the motor units within the muscle. This is representative of whole muscle force, the Ib sensory feedback generates spinal reflexes and supraspinal responses which control muscle contraction. Ib afferents synapse with interneurons that are within the spinal cord that also project to the brain cerebellum, the autogenic inhibition reflex assists in regulating muscle contraction force. It is associated with the Ib, tendon organs signal muscle force through the entire physiological range, not only at high strain. During locomotion, Ib input excites rather than inhibits motoneurons of the receptor-bearing muscles, the switch to autogenic excitation is a form of positive feedback. The ascending or afferent pathways to the cerebellum are the dorsal and ventral spinocerebellar tracts and they are involved in the cerebellar regulation of movement. Until 1967 it was believed that Golgi tendon organs had a high threshold, consequently it was thought that tendon organ input caused weightlifting failure through the clasp-knife reflex, which protected the muscle and tendons from excessive force. However, the premise was shown to be incorrect by James Houk
Golgi tendon organ
–
Mammalian tendon organ showing typical position in a muscle (left), neuronal connections in spinal cord (middle) and expanded schematic (right). The tendon organ is a stretch receptor that signals the force developed by the muscle. The sensory endings of the Ib afferent are entwined amongst the musculotendinous strands of 10 to 20 motor units. See an animated version.
16.
Province of Brescia
–
The Province of Brescia is a Province in Lombardy, northern Italy. It has a population of some 1,200,000 As of 2016, the province of Brescia stretches between Lake Iseo in the west, Lake Garda in the east, the Southern Rhaetian Alps in the north and the Lombardian plains in the south. The main rivers of the province are the Oglio, the Mella, rock Drawings in Valcamonica, Brescia, one of the places of Longobard power, Prehistoric settlements of Lavagnone, Lugana Vecchia, Lucone, San Sivino and Gabbiano. Communes of the province of Brescia Official website
Province of Brescia
–
Map highlighting the location of the province of Brescia in Italy
17.
Lombardy
–
Lombardy is one of the twenty administrative regions of Italy, in the northwest of the country, with an area of 23,844 square kilometres. Milan, Lombardys capital, is the second-largest city and the largest metropolitan area in Italy, the word Lombardy comes from Lombard, which in turn is derived from Late Latin Longobardus, Langobardus, derived from the Proto-Germanic elements *langaz + *bardaz, equivalent to long beard. Some sources derive the second element instead from Proto-Germanic *bardǭ, *barduz, Lombardy referred during the early Middle Ages to the entire territory of Italy ruled by the Lombards, a Germanic tribe who conquered much of the Italian peninsula beginning in the 6th century. During the late Middle Ages, the term shifted meaning and was used to identify the whole of Northern Italy, with a surface of 23,861 km2, Lombardy is the 4th largest region of Italy. It is bordered by Switzerland and by the Italian regions of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, three distinct natural zones can be fairly easily distinguished in the Lombardy region, mountains, hills and plains – the latter being divided in Alta and Bassa. Inconsistent with the three distinctions above made is the subregion of Oltrepò Pavese, formed by the Apennine foothills beyond the Po River. The mighty Po river marks the border of the region for a length of about 210 km. In its progress it receives the waters of the Ticino River, the other streams which contribute to the great river are, the Olona, the Lambro, the Adda, the Oglio and the Mincio. The numerous lakes of Lombardy, all of glacial origin, lie in the northern highlands, from west to east these are Lake Maggiore, Lake Lugano, Lake Como, Lake Iseo, Lake Idro, then Lake Garda, the largest in Italy. A minor mountainous area, the Oltrepò Pavese, lies south of the Po, in the plains, intensively cultivated for centuries, little of the original environment remains. The most commons trees are elm, alder, sycamore, poplar, willow, in the area of the foothills lakes, however, grow olive trees, cypresses and larches, as well as varieties of subtropical flora such as magnolias, azaleas, acacias. Numerous species of flora in the Prealpine area include some kinds of saxifrage, the Lombard garlic, groundsels bellflowers. The highlands are characterized by the vegetation of the whole range of the Italian Alps. At a lower levels oak woods or broadleafed trees grow, on the slopes beech trees grow at the lowest limits. Shrubs such as rhododendron, dwarf pine and juniper are native to the summital zone, Lombardy has a wide array of climates, due to local variances in elevation, proximity to inland water basins, and large metropolitan areas. In addition, there is a seasonal temperature variation. A peculiarity of the climate is the thick fog that covers the plains between October and February. In the Alpine foothills, characterised by an Oceanic climate, numerous lakes exercise a mitigating influence, in the hills and mountains, the climate is humid continental
Lombardy
–
Mount Adamello
Lombardy
–
Lombardy Lombardia
Lombardy
–
Bridge over the
Ticino river
Lombardy
–
The
Alpine ibex (Capra ibex)
18.
Pathology
–
Pathology is a significant component of the causal study of disease and a major field in modern medicine and diagnosis. Similarly, a condition is one caused by disease, rather than occurring physiologically. A physician practicing pathology is called a pathologist, as a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses four components of disease, cause, mechanisms of development, structural alterations of cells, and the consequences of changes. Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types, organs, the sense of the word pathology as a synonym of disease or pathosis is very common in health care. The persistence of this usage despite attempted proscription is discussed elsewhere, the study of pathology, including the detailed examination of the body, including dissection and inquiry into specific maladies, dates back to antiquity. Notably, many advances were made in the era of Islam, during which numerous texts of complex pathologies were developed. By the 17th century, the study of microscopy was underway and examination of tissues had led British Royal Society member Robert Hooke to coin the word cell, setting the stage for later germ theory. However, pathology as an area of specialty was not fully developed until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This realization led to the understanding that diseases are able to replicate themselves. To determine causes of diseases, medical experts used the most common and widely accepted assumptions or symptoms of their times, by the late 1920s to early 1930s pathology was deemed a medical specialty. The modern practice of pathology is divided into a number of subdisciplines within the discrete but deeply interconnected aims of biological research, anatomical pathology is itself divided into subfields, the main divisions being surgical pathology, cytopathology, and forensic pathology. Sometimes, pathologists practice both anatomical and clinical pathology, a known as general pathology. Cytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level, however, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation. Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of pathology that focuses on the skin. It is unique, in there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. The completion of this allows one to take a subspecialty board examination. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope, more than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions and neoplasms
Pathology
–
A pathologist examines a tissue section for evidence of cancerous cells while a surgeon observes.
Pathology
–
The advent of the microscope was one of the major developments in the history of pathology. Here researchers at the
Centers for Disease Control in 1978 examine cultures containing Legionella pneumophila, the pathogen responsible for
Legionaire's disease.
Pathology
–
A
bone marrow smear from a case of
erythroleukemia showing a
multinucleated erythroblast with megaloblastoid
nuclear chromatin
Pathology
–
A
malignant melanoma can often be suspected from sight, but confirmation of the diagnosis or outright removal requires an
excisional biopsy.
19.
Giulio Bizzozero
–
Giulio Bizzozero was an Italian doctor and medical researcher. Bizzozero was born in Varese, Lombardy and he studied medicine at the University of Pavia, where he performed histological and histopathological research under the guidance of Paolo Mantegazza. In 1866 he graduated from Pavia at the age of 20, in 1867, he was chosen as the chief of general pathology and histology at the University of Pavia. This institute trained many important Italian researchers, such as Camillo Golgi, in 1872, at the age of 26, he moved to the University of Turin, and founded the Institute of General Pathology. While at Turin he worked to improve hygiene and water supply, among the physicians who worked and studied in his laboratory at Turin were Edoardo Bassini and Carlo Forlanini. In April 1901, he died of pneumonia, for his scientific achievements, Bizzozero was named by king Humbert I, a life senator in 1890. He was one of the pioneers of histography, and, more generally and he is known for his early description of Helicobacter pylori, the bacteria that is responsible for peptic ulcer disease. He is credited with the discovery of the function of platelets in the coagulation of blood, in the early 1880s he described platelet functionality in blood flow conditions and the relationship between platelet adhesion, aggregation and subsequent formation and deposition of fibrin. Timeline of peptic ulcer disease and Helicobacter pylori Pathology List of pathologists Figura, Natale, Helicobacters were discovered in Italy in 1892, An episode in the scientific life of an eclectic pathologist, Giulio Bizzozero. Helicobacter Pioneers, Firsthand Accounts from the Scientists Who Discovered Helicobacters, vigliani, R. Giulio Bizzozero, Remenbrance 100 years after his death. Max Schultze, G. Bizzozero and the discovery of the platelet, from Italian Senate website] Works by Giulio Bizzozero at Open Library
Giulio Bizzozero
–
Giulio Bizzozero
20.
Staining (biology)
–
Staining is an auxiliary technique used in microscopy to enhance contrast in the microscopic image. Stains and dyes are used in biology and medicine to highlight structures in biological tissues for viewing. Stains may be used to define and examine bulk tissues, cell populations, in biochemistry it involves adding a class-specific dye to a substrate to qualify or quantify the presence of a specific compound. Staining and fluorescent tagging can serve similar purposes, biological staining is also used to mark cells in flow cytometry, and to flag proteins or nucleic acids in gel electrophoresis. Simple staining is staining with only one stain/dye, there are various kinds of multiple staining, many of which are examples of counterstaining, differential staining, or both, including double staining and triple staining. In vivo staining is the process of dyeing living tissues—in vivo means in life, by causing certain cells or structures to take on contrasting colour, their form or position within a cell or tissue can be readily seen and studied. In vitro staining involves colouring cells or structures that have removed from their biological context. Certain stains are often combined to reveal more details and features than a single stain alone, combined with specific protocols for fixation and sample preparation, scientists and physicians can use these standard techniques as consistent, repeatable diagnostic tools. A counterstain is stain that makes cells or structures more visible, for example, crystal violet stains only Gram-positive bacteria in Gram staining. A safranin counterstain is applied that stains all cells, allowing identification of Gram-negative bacteria, while ex vivo, many cells continue to live and metabolize until they are fixed. Some staining methods are based on this property and those stains excluded by the living cells but taken up by the already dead cells are called vital stains. Those that enter and stain living cells are called supravital stains, however, these stains are eventually toxic to the organism, some more so than others. To achieve desired effects, the stains are used in very dilute solutions ranging from 1,5000 to 1,500000, note that many stains may be used in both living and fixed cells. The preparatory steps involved depend on the type of analysis planned, fixation–which may itself consist of several steps–aims to preserve the shape of the cells or tissue involved as much as possible. Sometimes heat fixation is used to kill, adhere, and alter the specimen so it accepts stains, most chemical fixatives generate chemical bonds between proteins and other substances within the sample, increasing their rigidity. Common fixatives include formaldehyde, ethanol, methanol, and/or picric acid, pieces of tissue may be embedded in paraffin wax to increase their mechanical strength and stability and to make them easier to cut into thin slices. Permeabilization involves treatment of cells with a mild surfactant and this treatment dissolves cell membranes, and allows larger dye molecules into the cells interior. Mounting usually involves attaching the samples to a microscope slide for observation
Staining (biology)
–
A stained histologic specimen, sandwiched between a glass
microscope slide and coverslip, mounted on the stage of a light microscope.
Staining (biology)
–
Microscopic view of a histologic specimen of human
lung tissue stained with
hematoxylin and
eosin.
Staining (biology)
–
PAS diastase showing the fungus
Histoplasma.
Staining (biology)
–
Gömöri methenamine silver stain demonstrating
histoplasma (black round balls).
21.
Nervous tissue
–
Nervous tissue is responsible for sending signals to the brain about suicidal thoughts. Nervous tissue is made up of different types of cells, all of which have an axon. Bundles of axons make up the nerves, functions of the nervous system are sensory input, integration, control of muscles and glands, homeostasis, and mental activity. Nervous tissue is composed of neurons, also called nerve cells, typically, nervous tissue is categorized into four types of tissue. In the central system, the tissue types found are grey matter. In the peripheral nervous system, the types are nerves. The tissue is categorized by its neuronal and neuroglial components, neurons are cells with specialized features that allow them to receive and facilitate nerve impulses, or action potentials, across their membrane to the next neuron. They possess a cell body, with cell projections called dendrites. Dendrites are thin, branching projections that receive electrochemical signaling to create a change in voltage in the cell, axons are long projections that carry the action potential away from the cell body toward the next neuron. The bulb-like end of the axon, called the terminal, is separated from the dendrite of the following neuron by a small gap called a synaptic cleft. When the action potential travels to the terminal, neurotransmitters are released across the synapse and bind to the post-synaptic receptors. Neurons are classified both functionally and structurally and they are the major neuron type in the CNS and include interneurons and motor neurons. These are found in the layer of the cerebellum. Neuroglia encompasses the non-neural cells in tissue that provide various crucial supportive functions for neurons. They are smaller than neurons, and vary in structure according to their function, neuroglial cells are classified as follows, Microglial cells, Microglia are macrophage cells that make up the primary immune system for the CNS. They are the smallest neuroglial cell, astrocytes, Star-shaped macroglial cells with many processes found in the CNS. They are the most abundant cell type in the brain, and are intrinsic to a healthy CNS, oligodendrocytes, CNS cells with very few processes. They form myelin sheaths on the axons of a neuron, which are lipid-based insulation that increases the speed at which the action potential, can travel down the axon
Nervous tissue
–
Example of nervous tissue.
22.
Psychiatric hospital
–
Psychiatric hospitals vary widely in their size and grading. Some hospitals may specialize only in short-term or outpatient therapy for low-risk patients, others may specialize in the temporary or permanent care of residents who, as a result of a psychological disorder, require routine assistance, treatment, or a specialized and controlled environment. Patients are often admitted on a basis, but people whom psychiatrists believe may pose a significant danger to themselves or others may be subject to involuntary commitment. Psychiatric hospitals may also be referred to as psychiatric wards when they are a subunit of a regular hospital, modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylums. The treatment of inmates in early lunatic asylums was sometimes brutal, a crisis stabilization unit is in effect an emergency room for psychiatry, frequently dealing with suicidal, violent, or otherwise critical individuals. Open units are units that are not as secure as crisis stabilization units. Another type of hospital is medium term, which provides care lasting several weeks. In the United Kingdom, both admissions and medium term care is usually provided on acute admissions wards. Juvenile or adolescent wards are sections of psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric wards set aside for children or adolescents with mental illness, long-term care facilities have the goal of treatment and rehabilitation back into society within a short time-frame. Another institution for the mentally ill is a halfway house. Modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylums, the development of the modern psychiatric hospital is also the story of the rise of organized, institutional psychiatry. It greatly differed from the view in which the insane were viewed as under the influence of the Devil therefore needing to be isolated from society. The first psychiatric hospital was built by the Muslims in Baghdad in 705 AD, others would rapidly follow, with some of the more famous ones being built in Cairo in 800 AD and in Damascus in 1270 AD. The physicians of the Islamic world would invent and use a variety of treatments, including occupational therapy, music therapy, as well as medication. Western Europe would adopt these views later on with the advances of physicians like Philippe Pinel at the Bicêtre Hospital in France and they advocated the viewing of mental illness as a disorder that required compassionate treatment that would aid in the rehabilitation of the victim. The arrival in the Western world of institutionalisation as a solution to the problem of madness was very much an event of the nineteenth century, nine counties first applied, the first public asylum opening in 1812 in Nottinghamshire. In 1828, the newly appointed Commissioners in Lunacy were empowered to license and supervise private asylums, the Lunacy Act 1845 made the construction of asylums in every country compulsory with regular inspections on behalf of the Home Secretary. The Act required asylums to have written regulations and to have a resident physician, at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were a few thousand sick people housed in a variety of disparate institutions throughout England, but by 1900 that figure had grown to about 100,000
Psychiatric hospital
–
Traverse City State Hospital,
Traverse City, Michigan
Psychiatric hospital
–
The
York Retreat (c.1796) was built by
William Tuke, a pioneer of moral treatment for the insane.
Psychiatric hospital
–
Vienna 's
Narrenturm —
German for "fools' tower"—was one of the earliest buildings specifically designed for mentally ill people. It was built in 1784.
23.
Silver
–
Silver is a metallic element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. The symbol Ag stems from Latin argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς, a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earths crust in the pure, free form, as an alloy with gold and other metals. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, Silver is more abundant than gold, but it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is measured on a per mille basis, a 94%-pure alloy is described as 0.940 fine. As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had a role in most human cultures. Silver has long valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many premodern monetary systems in bullion coins, Silver is used in numerous applications other than currency, such as solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils, and as an investment medium. Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, Silver compounds are used in photographic film and X-rays. Dilute silver nitrate solutions and other compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides, added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters. Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. This distinctive electron configuration, with an electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell. Silver is a soft, ductile and malleable transition metal. Silver crystallizes in a cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak and this observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a polish. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm, at wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silvers reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, during World War II in the US,13540 tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper
Silver
–
Electrolytically refined silver
Silver
–
Silver 1000
oz t (~31 kg) bullion bar
Silver
–
Cessna 210 equipped with a silver iodide generator for
cloud seeding
Silver
–
A Canadian 50 cent piece from 1951, with King George the 6th on the obverse and Canada's (now former) coat of arms on the reverse. It is made of 80% silver and 20% copper.
24.
Silver staining
–
Silver staining is the use of silver to selectively alter the appearance of a target in microscopy of histological sections, in temperature gradient gel electrophoresis, and in polyacrylamide gels. Camillo Golgi perfected silver staining for the study of the nervous system, although the exact chemical mechanism by which this occurs is unknown, Golgis method stains a limited number of cells at random in their entirety. Silver staining was introduced by Kerenyi and Gallyas as a procedure to detect trace amounts of proteins in gels. The technique has been extended to the study of biological macromolecules that have been separated in a variety of supports. Classical Coomassie Brilliant Blue staining can usually detect a 50 ng protein band and these reduce silver solution to metallic silver after formalin fixation. These reduce silver solution to metallic silver after being exposed to the stain that contains a reductant, silver nitrate forms insoluble silver phosphate with phosphate ions, this method is known as the Von Kossa Stain. When subjected to an agent, usually hydroquinone, it forms black elementary silver. This is used for study of formation of calcium phosphate particles during bone growth, pseudomonas, Legionella, Leptospira, H. pylori, and fungi such as Pneumocystis and Candida are organisms that are stained with silver. Silver staining is used in karyotyping, silver nitrate stains the nucleolar organization region -associated protein, producing a dark region wherein the silver is deposited and denoting the activity of rRNA genes within the NOR. Human chromosomes 13,14,15,21, and 22 have NORs, silver staining is used to stain gels. Silver staining is also a technique in traditional stained glass to produce the yellow, brown and it is a technique that is often used for realistic hair colors. It was discovered in the 14th Century but was not originally used very frequently, there are several silver stains incorporating methenamine, including, Grocotts methenamine silver stain, used widely as a screen for fungal organisms. Jones stain, a methenamine silver-Periodic acid-Schiff that stains for basement membrane, medEd at Loyola Histo/practical/stains/hp2-55. html Hempelmann E. SDS-Protein PAGE and protein detection by silverstaining and immunoblotting of Plasmodium falciparum proteins. In, Moll K, Ljungström J, Perlmann H, Scherf A, Wahlgren M Methods in Malaria Research, 5th edition,2008, 263-266
Silver staining
–
A silver stain (
GMS) demonstrating the fungus
Histoplasma (black round balls) in a liver biopsy.
Silver staining
–
A number of DNA samples from specimens of Littorina plena amplified using
PCR with primers targeting a variable
simple sequence repeat (SSR, a.k.a. microsatellite) locus. Samples have been run on a 5% polyacrylamide gel and visualized using silver staining.
Silver staining
–
RBC membrane proteins separated by
SDS-PAGE and silver-stained.
25.
Silver nitrate
–
Silver nitrate is an inorganic compound with chemical formula AgNO3. This compound is a precursor to many other silver compounds. It is far less sensitive to light than the halides and it was once called lunar caustic because silver was called luna by the ancient alchemists, who believed that silver was associated with the moon. In solid silver nitrate, the ions are three-coordinated in a trigonal planar arrangement. Albertus Magnus, in the 13th century, documented the ability of nitric acid to separate gold, Magnus noted that the resulting solution of silver nitrate could blacken skin. Silver nitrate can be prepared by reacting silver, such as a silver bullion or silver foil, with acid, resulting in silver nitrate, water. Reaction byproducts depend upon the concentration of acid used. 3 Ag +4 HNO3 →3 AgNO3 +2 H2O + NO Ag +2 HNO3 → AgNO3 + H2O + NO2 This is performed under a fume hood because of nitrogen oxide evolved during the reaction. A typical reaction with silver nitrate is to suspend a rod of copper in a solution of silver nitrate, silver nitrate is the least expensive salt of silver, it offers several other advantages as well. It is non-hygroscopic, in contrast to silver fluoroborate and silver perchlorate and it is relatively stable to light. Finally, it dissolves in solvents, including water. The nitrate can be replaced by other ligands, rendering AgNO3 versatile. Treatment with solutions of halide ions gives a precipitate of AgX, similarly, silver nitrate is used to prepare some silver-based explosives, such as the fulminate, azide, or acetylide, through a precipitation reaction. This reaction is used in inorganic chemistry to abstract halides, Ag+ + X− → AgX where X− = Cl−, Br−. Other silver salts with non-coordinating anions, namely silver tetrafluoroborate and silver hexafluorophosphate are used for demanding applications. Similarly, this reaction is used in chemistry to confirm the presence of chloride, bromide. Samples are typically acidified with nitric acid to remove interfering ions, e. g. carbonate ions. This step avoids confusion of silver sulfide or silver carbonate precipitates with that of silver halides, the color of precipitate varies with the halide, white, pale yellow/cream, yellow
Silver nitrate
Silver nitrate
–
Silver nitrate
Silver nitrate
–
Micrograph showing a silver nitrate (brown) marked
surgical margin.
Silver nitrate
–
Skin on hand stained by silver nitrate
26.
Potassium dichromate
–
Potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7, is a common inorganic chemical reagent, most commonly used as an oxidizing agent in various laboratory and industrial applications. As with all hexavalent chromium compounds, it is acutely and chronically harmful to health and it is a crystalline ionic solid with a very bright, red-orange color. The salt is popular in the laboratory because it is not deliquescent, potassium dichromate is usually prepared by the reaction of potassium chloride on sodium dichromate. Alternatively, it can be obtained from potassium chromate by roasting chrome ore with potassium hydroxide and it is used to oxidize alcohols. It converts primary alcohols into aldehydes and, under more forcing conditions, in contrast, potassium permanganate tends to give carboxylic acids as the sole products. Secondary alcohols are converted into ketones, for example, menthone may be prepared by oxidation of menthol with acidified dichromate. In an aqueous solution the color change exhibited can be used to test for distinguishing aldehydes from ketones, aldehydes reduce dichromate from the +6 to the +3 oxidation state, changing color from orange to green. This color change arises because the aldehyde can be oxidized to the carboxylic acid. A ketone will show no such change because it cannot be oxidized further, when heated strongly, it decomposes with the evolution of oxygen. 4K2Cr2O7 → 4K2CrO4 + 2Cr2O3 + 3O2 When an alkali is added to a red solution containing dichromate ions. For example, potassium chromate is produced industrially using potash, K2Cr2O7 + K2CO3 →2 K2CrO4 + CO2 The reaction is reversible, the main use is as a precursor to potassium chrome alum, used in leather tanning. Like other chromium compounds, potassium dichromate has been used to prepare chromic acid for cleaning glassware, because of safety concerns associated with hexavalent chromium, this practice has been largely discontinued. It is used as an ingredient in cement in which it retards the setting of the mixture and improves its density and this usage commonly causes contact dermatitis in construction workers. Potassium dichromate has uses in photography and in screen printing. In 1852, Henry Fox Talbot discovered that exposure to light in the presence of potassium dichromate hardened organic colloids such as gelatin and gum arabic. These discoveries soon led to the print, gum bichromate. Some processes depended on the only, in combination with the differential absorption of certain dyes by the hardened or unhardened areas. Dichromated colloids were also used as photoresists in various industrial applications and this solution reconverts the elemental silver particles in the film to silver chloride
Potassium dichromate
–
Potassium dichromate
Potassium dichromate
–
A ~10 mm crystal of potassium dichromate in the same form as the mineral lopezite
Potassium dichromate
–
Patch test
27.
Soma (biology)
–
The soma, perikaryon, cyton, or cell body is the bulbous, non-process portion of a neuron or other brain cell type, containing the cell nucleus. The word soma comes from the Greek σῶμα, meaning body, although it is often used to refer to neurons, it can also refer to other cell types as well, including astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia. The soma of a neuron contains many organelles, including granules called Nissl granules, the cell nucleus is a key feature of the soma. The nucleus is the source of most of the RNA that is produced in neurons, in general, most proteins are produced from mRNAs that do not travel far from the cell nucleus. This creates a challenge for supplying new proteins to axon endings that can be a meter or more away from the soma, axons contain microtubule-associated motor proteins that transport protein-containing vesicles between the soma and the synapses at the axon terminals. Such transport of molecules towards and away from the soma maintains critical cell functions, the axon hillock is a specialized domain of the neuronal cell body from which the axon originates. A high amount of protein synthesis occurs in this region, as it contains a number of Nissl granules and polyribosomes. Within the axon hillock, materials are sorted as either items that will enter the axon or will remain in the soma. In addition, the axon hillock also has a plasma membrane that contains large numbers of voltage-gated ion channels. The survival of some sensory neurons depends on axon terminals making contact with sources of survival factors that prevent apoptosis, the survival factors are neurotrophic factors, including molecules such as nerve growth factor. NGF interacts with receptors at axon terminals, and this produces a signal that must be transported up the length of the axon to the nucleus, histology image, 3_09 at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center - Slide 3 Spinal cord
Soma (biology)
–
Dendrite
28.
Axon
–
An axon, is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that typically conducts electrical impulses away from the neurons cell body. Axons are also known as nerve fibers, the function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles and glands. Axon dysfunction has caused many inherited and acquired neurological disorders which can affect both the peripheral and central neurons, nerve fibers are classed into three types – A delta fibers, B fibers, and C fibres. A and B are myelinated and C are unmyelinated, an axon is one of two types of protoplasmic protrusions that extrude from the cell body of a neuron, the other type being dendrites. Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features, including shape, length, all of these rules have exceptions, however. Axons are covered by a known as axolemma, the cytoplasm of axon is called axoplasm. Some types of neurons have no axon and transmit signals from their dendrites, no neuron ever has more than one axon, however in invertebrates such as insects or leeches the axon sometimes consists of several regions that function more or less independently of each other. Most axons branch, in cases very profusely. Axons make contact with other cells—usually other neurons but sometimes muscle or gland cells—at junctions called synapses, at a synapse, the membrane of the axon closely adjoins the membrane of the target cell, and special molecular structures serve to transmit electrical or electrochemical signals across the gap. Some synaptic junctions appear partway along an axon as it extends—these are called en passant synapses, other synapses appear as terminals at the ends of axonal branches. A single axon, with all its branches together, can innervate multiple parts of the brain. Axons are the transmission lines of the nervous system. Some axons can extend up to one meter or more while others extend as little as one millimeter, the longest axons in the human body are those of the sciatic nerve, which run from the base of the spinal cord to the big toe of each foot. The diameter of axons is also variable, most individual axons are microscopic in diameter. The largest mammalian axons can reach a diameter of up to 20 µm, the squid giant axon, which is specialized to conduct signals very rapidly, is close to 1 millimetre in diameter, the size of a small pencil lead. Axonal arborization also differs from one nerve fiber to the next, axons in the central nervous system typically show complex trees with many branch points. In comparison, the granule cell axon is characterized by a single T-shaped branch node from which two parallel fibers extend. Elaborate arborization allows for the transmission of messages to a large number of target neurons within a single region of the brain
Axon
–
A dissected human brain, showing
grey matter and
white matter
Axon
–
Dendrite
Axon
–
A)pyramidal cell,interneuron,and short durationwaveform (Axon). (B) overlay of the three average waveforms; (C) average and standard error of peak-trough time for pyramidal cells interneurons, and putative axons.(D)Scatter plot of signal to noise ratios for individual units againstpeak-trough time for axons, pyramidal cells (PYR) and interneurons (INT).
Axon
–
Axon of 9 day old mouse with growth cone visible
29.
Dendrites
–
Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto dendrites by upstream neurons via synapses which are located at various points throughout the dendritic tree. Dendrites play a role in integrating these synaptic inputs and in determining the extent to which action potentials are produced by the neuron. Dendritic arborization, also known as branching, is a multi-step biological process by which neurons form new dendritic trees and branches to create new synapses. The morphology of such as branch density and grouping patterns are highly correlated to the function of the neuron. Malformation of dendrites is also correlated to impaired nervous system function. Certain classes of dendrites contain small projections referred to as dendritic spines that increase receptive properties of dendrites to isolate signal specificity, increased neural activity and the establishment of long-term potentiation at dendritic spines change the size, shape, and conduction. This ability for growth is thought to play a role in learning. There can be as many as 15,000 spines per cell, dendritic branching can be extensive and in some cases is sufficient to receive as many as 100,000 inputs to a single neuron. Dendrites are one of two types of protrusions that extrude from the cell body of a neuron, the other type being an axon. Axons can be distinguished from dendrites by several features including shape, length, dendrites often taper off in shape and are shorter, while axons tend to maintain a constant radius and be relatively long. Typically, when an electrochemical signal stimulates a neuron, it occurs at a dendrite and this change in the membrane potential will passively spread across the dendrite but becomes weaker with distance without an action potential. However, synapses involving dendrites can also be axodendritic, involving an axon signaling to a dendrite, or dendrodendritic, there are three main types of neurons, multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar. Multipolar neurons, such as the one shown in the image, are composed of one axon, pyramidal cells are multipolar cortical neurons with pyramid shaped cell bodies and large dendrites called apical dendrites that extend to the surface of the cortex. Bipolar neurons have one axon and one dendritic tree at opposing ends of the cell body, unipolar neurons have a stalk that extends from the cell body that separates into two branches with one containing the dendrites and the other with the terminal buttons. Unipolar dendrites are used to detect sensory stimuli such as touch or temperature, the term dendrites was first used in 1889 by Wilhelm His to describe the number of smaller protoplasmic processes that were attached to a nerve cell. German anatomist Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites, some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930s by Kenneth S. Cole and Howard J. Curtis. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker and German Robert Remak were the first to identify, hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963. The formulas detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations, louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the Nodes of Ranvier
Dendrites
–
Dendrite
30.
Neuron doctrine
–
The term neuron was itself coined by Waldeyer as a way of identifying the cells in question. The neuron doctrine, as it known, served to position neurons as special cases under the broader cell theory evolved some decades earlier. Theodor Schwann proposed in 1839 that the tissues of all organisms are composed of cells, Schwann was expanding on the proposal of his good friend Matthias Jakob Schleiden the previous year that all plant tissues were composed of cells. The nervous system stood as an exception, technical limitations of microscopy and tissue preparation were largely responsible. Chromatic aberration, spherical aberration and the dependence on natural light all played a role in limiting microscope performance in the early 19th century, tissue was typically lightly mashed in water and pressed between a glass slide and cover slip. There was also a number of dyes and fixatives available prior to the middle of the 19th century. Using this technique nerve cells with their highly branched dendrites and axon could be clearly visualised against a yellow background, unfortunately Golgi described the nervous system as a continuous single network, in support of a notion called reticular theory. It was reasonable at the time because under light microscope the nerve cells are merely a mesh of single thread, santiago Ramón y Cajal started investigating nervous system in 1887 using Golgi stain. In the first issue of the Revista Trimestral de Histología Normal y Patológica Cajal reported that the cells were not continuous in the brain of birds. Cajals discovery was the evidence for the discontinuity of nervous system. Golgi and Cajal were jointly awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, neuron theory is an example of consilience where low level theories are absorbed into higher level theories that explain the base data as part of higher order structure. As a result the neuron doctrine has multiple elements, each of which were the subject of low level theories, debate, neural units The brain is made up of individual units that contain specialized features such as dendrites, a cell body, and an axon. Neurons are cells These individual units are cells as understood from other tissues in the body, specialization These units may differ in size, shape, and structure according to their location or functional specialization. Nucleus is key The nucleus is the center for the cell. If the cell is divided only the portion containing the nucleus will survive, Nerve fibers are cell processes Nerve fibers are outgrowths of nerve cells. Cell division Nerve cells are generated by cell division, contact Nerve cells are connected by sites of contact and not cytoplasmic continuity. Waldeyer himself was neutral on this point, and strictly speaking the neuron doctrine does not depend upon this element, the heart is an example of excitable tissue where the cells connect via cytoplasmic continuity and yet is perfectly consistent with cell theory. This is true of other such as connections between horizontal cells of the retina, or the Mauthner cell synapse in goldfish
Neuron doctrine
–
Ramón y Cajal's drawing of the cells of the chick
cerebellum, from Estructura de los centros nerviosos de las aves, Madrid, 1905
31.
Reticular theory
–
Reticular theory is an obsolete scientific theory in neurobiology that stated that everything in the nervous system, such as brain, is a single continuous network. The concept was postulated by a German anatomist Joseph von Gerlach in 1871 and this neuron doctrine turned out to be the correct description of the nervous system, whereas the reticular theory was discredited. In 1871 Gerlach proposed that the brain is composed of protoplasmic network, according to Gerlach, the nervous system simply consisted of a single continuous network called the reticulum. In 1873 Golgi invented a method for microscopic research based on a specific technique for staining nerve cells. He was able to provide a description of nerve cells in various regions of the cerebro-spinal axis. He drew up a new classification of cells on the basis of the structure of their nervous prolongation, Golgi claimed to observe in the gray matter an extremely dense and intricate network, composed of a web of intertwined branches of axons coming from different cell layers. This was due to his conviction in the reticular theory. In 1877 an English physiologist Edward Schäfer described the absence of connections between the elements in the mantles of the jellyfish. The Norwegian zoologist Fridtjof Nansen also reported in 1887 that he found no connections between the processes of the cells of aquatic animals in his doctoral research. By the late 1880s, serious opposition to the theory began to emerge. In 1891, another German anatomist Wilhelm Waldeyer also supported the theory by stating that the system, as other tissues, was composed of cells. Using the very same Golgis technique, Ramón y Cajal confirmed that discrete neurons did exist, Golgi, however, never accepted these new findings, and a controversy and rivalry between the two scientists lasted even after they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906. The Nobel award is even dubbed as creating the center of histological controversy. Ramón y Cajal even commented that, What a cruel irony of fate of pair, like Siamese twins united by the shoulders, scientific adversaries of such contrasting character. In the 1950s electron microscopy finally confirmed the existence of individual neurons in the nervous system. The reticular theory was put to rest. SOME HISTORICAL LANDMARKS IN CELL THEORY OF THE BRAIN NEURON DOCTRINE VS. RETICULAR THEORY Who Is Camillo Golgi
Reticular theory
–
Ramón y Cajal's illustration of the neuronal morphologies in the auditory cortex
32.
Obsolete scientific theory
–
This label does not cover protoscientific or fringe science theories with limited support in the scientific community. Also, it does not mean theories that were never widely accepted, some theories that were only supported under specific political authorities, such as Lysenkoism, may also be described as obsolete or superseded. In some cases a theory or idea is found baseless and is simply discarded, for example, the phlogiston theory was entirely replaced by the quite different concept of energy and related laws. An example of this is the use of Newtonian physics, which differs from the currently accepted relativistic physics by a factor that is small at velocities much lower than that of light. Transmutation of species, Lamarckism, inheritance of acquired characteristics - first theories of evolution, not supported by experiment, and rendered obsolete by Darwinian evolution and Mendelian genetics, although some elements of Lamarckian evolution are coming back in the area of epigenetics. Mendelian genetics, classical genetics, Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory - first genetical theories, not invalidated as such, but subsumed into molecular genetics. Maternal impression – the theory that the mothers thoughts created birth defects, no experimental support, and rendered obsolete by genetic theory Miasma theory of disease – the theory that diseases are caused by bad air. No experimental support, and rendered obsolete by the theory of disease. Preformationism – the theory that all organisms have existed since the beginning of life, and that contain a miniature but complete preformed individual, in the case of humans. No support when microscopy became available, rendered obsolete by cytology, discovery of DNA, and atomic theory. Recapitulation theory – the theory that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, telegony – the theory that an offspring can inherit characteristics from a previous mate of its mothers as well as its actual parents, often associated with racism. Vitalism – the theory that living things are alive because of vital force independent of nonliving matter. It was gradually discredited by the rise of chemistry, biochemistry. Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea from ammonium cyanate was only one step in a long road, disproven in 1850 with the discovery of Rhizocrinus lofotensis. Caloric theory - the theory that a fluid called caloric was the substance of heat. Rendered obsolete by the theory of heat. Classical elements - All matter was thought to be composed of various combinations of classical elements. This was finally refuted by Antoine Lavoisiers publication of Elements of Chemistry, phlogiston theory – The theory that combustible goods contain a substance called phlogiston which entered air upon combustion
Obsolete scientific theory
–
The obsolete
Geocentric model of the universe places the Earth at the centre.
Obsolete scientific theory
33.
Tendon
–
A tendon or sinew is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments, both are made of collagen, ligaments join one bone to another bone, while tendons connect muscle to bone. Histologically, tendons consist of dense connective tissue fascicles encased in dense irregular connective tissue sheaths. Normal healthy tendons are composed mostly of parallel arrays of collagen fibers closely packed together, the collagen portion is made up of 97–98% type I collagen, with small amounts of other types of collagen. After secretion from the cell, the peptides are cleaved by procollagen N- and C-proteinases. A collagen molecule is about 300 nm long and 1–2 nm wide, and the diameter of the fibrils that are formed can range from 50–500 nm. In tendons, the fibrils then assemble further to form fascicles, which are about 10 mm in length with a diameter of 50–300 μm, fascicles are bound by the endotendineum, which is a delicate loose connective tissue containing thin collagen fibrils. and elastic fibres. Groups of fascicles are bounded by the epitenon, filling the interstitia within the fascia where the tendon is located is the paratenon a fatty areolar tissue. The major GAG components of the tendon are dermatan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate, the dermatan sulfate side chains of decorin aggregate in solution, and this behavior can assist with the assembly of the collagen fibrils. The tenocytes produce the collagen molecules, which aggregate end-to-end and side-to-side to produce collagen fibrils, fibril bundles are organized to form fibres with the elongated tenocytes closely packed between them. There is a network of cell processes associated with collagen in the tendon. The cells communicate with other through gap junctions, and this signalling gives them the ability to detect. Blood vessels may be visualized within the endotendon running parallel to collagen fibres, the internal tendon bulk is thought to contain no nerve fibres, but the epitenon and paratenon contain nerve endings, while Golgi tendon organs are present at the junction between tendon and muscle. Tendon length varies in all groups and from person to person. Tendon length is, in practice, the deciding factor regarding actual and potential muscle size, successful bodybuilders will generally have shorter tendons. Conversely, in sports requiring athletes to excel in such as running or jumping, it is beneficial to have longer than average Achilles tendon. Traditionally, tendons have been considered to be a mechanism by which muscles connect to bone and this connection allows tendons to passively modulate forces during locomotion, providing additional stability with no active work. However, over the past two decades, much research focused on the properties of some tendons and their ability to function as springs
Tendon
–
The
Achilles tendon, one of the tendons in the
human body.
Tendon
–
Micrograph of a piece of tendon.
H&E stain.
Tendon
–
Ossified tendon from an Edmontosaurus bone bed in Wyoming (Lance Formation)
34.
Sensory organ
–
The sensory nervous system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of neurons, neural pathways. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell, in short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind where we interpret the information, creating our perception of the world around us. The receptive field is the area of the body or environment to which a receptor organ, for instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field, the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field. Receptive fields have been identified for the system, auditory system. Sensory systems code for four aspects of a stimulus, type, intensity, location, arrival time of a sound pulse and phase differences of continuous sound are used for sound localization. Certain receptors are sensitive to certain types of stimuli, Receptors send impulses in certain patterns to send information about the intensity of a stimulus. The location of the receptor that is stimulated gives the information about the location of the stimulus. The duration of the stimulus is conveyed by firing patterns of receptors and these impulses are transmitted to the brain through afferent neurons. Other senses that have been well-accepted in most mammals, including humans, include nociception, equilibrioception, kinaesthesia, furthermore, some non-human animals have been shown to possess alternate senses, including magnetoception and electroreception. The initialization of sensation stems from the response of a receptor to a physical stimulus. All receptors receive distinct physical stimuli and transduce the signal into an action potential. This action potential then travels along afferent neurons to specific brain regions where it is processed and interpreted, chemoreceptors, or chemosensors, detect certain chemical stimuli and transduce that signal into an electrical action potential. Direct chemoreceptors include the taste buds in the system as well as receptors in the aortic bodies which detect changes in oxygen concentration. Photoreceptors are capable of phototransduction, a process which converts light into, among other types of energy, there are three primary types of photoreceptors, Cones are photoreceptors which respond significantly to color. In humans the three different types of cones correspond with a response to short wavelength, medium wavelength. Rods are photoreceptors which are sensitive to the intensity of light. The concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly correlated with whether an animal is diurnal or nocturnal, in humans rods outnumber cones by approximately 20,1, while in nocturnal animals, such as the tawny owl, the ratio is closer to 1000,1
Sensory organ
–
The
visual system and the
somatosensory system are active even during
resting state fMRI.
Sensory organ
–
Typical sensory system: the
visual system, illustrated by the classic
Gray's FIG. 722– This scheme shows the flow of information from the
eyes to the central connections of the
optic nerves and optic tracts, to the
visual cortex. Area V1 is the region of the
brain which is engaged in
vision.
Sensory organ
–
The
human eye is the first element of a sensory system: in this case,
vision, for the
visual system.
Sensory organ
–
ear
35.
Golgi receptor
–
The Golgi organ is a proprioceptive sensory receptor organ that senses changes in muscle tension. It lies at the origins and insertion of skeletal muscle fibers into the tendons of skeletal muscle and it provides the sensory component of the Golgi tendon reflex. The Golgi organ should not be confused with the Golgi apparatus, which is an organelle in the cell, or the Golgi stain. All of these are named after the Italian physician Camillo Golgi, the body of the organ is made up of strands of collagen that are connected at one end to the muscle fibers and at the other merge into the tendon proper. Each tendon organ is innervated by a single afferent type Ib sensory nerve fiber that branches and terminates as spiral endings around the collagen strands, the Ib afferent axon is a large diameter, myelinated axon. Each neurotendinous spindle is enclosed in a capsule which contains a number of enlarged tendon fasciculi. One or more nerve fibres perforate the side of the capsule and lose their medullary sheaths, when the muscle generates force, the sensory terminals are compressed. This stretching deforms the terminals of the Ib afferent axon, opening stretch-sensitive cation channels, as a result, the Ib axon is depolarized and fires nerve impulses that are propagated to the spinal cord. The action potential frequency signals the force being developed by 10 to 20 of the motor units within the muscle. This is representative of whole muscle force, the Ib sensory feedback generates spinal reflexes and supraspinal responses which control muscle contraction. Ib afferents synapse with interneurons that are within the spinal cord that also project to the brain cerebellum, the autogenic inhibition reflex assists in regulating muscle contraction force. It is associated with the Ib, tendon organs signal muscle force through the entire physiological range, not only at high strain. During locomotion, Ib input excites rather than inhibits motoneurons of the receptor-bearing muscles, the switch to autogenic excitation is a form of positive feedback. The ascending or afferent pathways to the cerebellum are the dorsal and ventral spinocerebellar tracts and they are involved in the cerebellar regulation of movement. Until 1967 it was believed that Golgi tendon organs had a high threshold, consequently it was thought that tendon organ input caused weightlifting failure through the clasp-knife reflex, which protected the muscle and tendons from excessive force. However, the premise was shown to be incorrect by James Houk
Golgi receptor
–
Mammalian tendon organ showing typical position in a muscle (left), neuronal connections in spinal cord (middle) and expanded schematic (right). The tendon organ is a stretch receptor that signals the force developed by the muscle. The sensory endings of the Ib afferent are entwined amongst the musculotendinous strands of 10 to 20 motor units. See an animated version.
Golgi receptor
–
Organ of Golgi (neurotendinous spindle) from the human tendo calcaneus.
36.
Plasmodium
–
Plasmodium is a genus of parasitic alveolates, many of which cause malaria in their hosts. The parasite always has two hosts in its cycle, a Dipteran insect host and a vertebrate host. Sexual reproduction always occurs in the insect, making it the definitive host, the life-cycles of Plasmodium species involve several different stages both in the insect and the vertebrate host. These stages include sporozoites, which are injected by the vector into the vertebrate hosts blood. Sporozoites infect the host liver, giving rise to merozoites and hypnozoites and these move into the blood where they infect red blood cells. In the red cells, the parasites can either form more merozoites to infect more red blood cells. In the insect host, gametocytes merge to sexually reproduce, after sexual reproduction, parasites grow into new sporozoites, which move to the insects salivary glands, from which they can infect a vertebrate host bitten by the insect. The genus Plasmodium was first described in 1885 and it now contains about 200 species, which are spread across the world where both the insect and vertebrate hosts are present. Five species regularly infect humans, while many others infect birds, reptiles, rodents, Plasmodium was first identified when Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran described parasites in the blood of malaria patients in 1880. He named the parasite Oscillaria malariae, the fact that several species may be involved in causing different forms of malaria was first recognized by Camillo Golgi in 1886. Soon thereafter, Giovanni Batista Grassi and Raimondo Filetti named the parasites causing two different types of human malaria Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium malariae, in 1897, William Welch identified and named Plasmodium falciparum. This was followed by the recognition of the two species of Plasmodium which infect humans, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium knowlesi. The contribution of insect hosts to the Plasmodium life cycle was described in 1897 by Ronald Ross and in 1899 by Giovanni Batista Grassi, Amico Bignami, the life cycle of Plasmodium involves several distinct stages in the insect and vertebrate hosts. In infected mosquitoes, parasites in the gland are called sporozoites. When the mosquito bites a vertebrate host, sporozoites are injected into the host with the saliva, from there, the sporozoites enter the bloodstream and are transported to the liver, where they invade and replicate within hepatocytes. At this point, some species of Plasmodium can form a dormant stage called a hypnozoite which can remain in the liver for many years. The parasites that emerge from infected hepatocytes are called merozoites, within the red blood cells, the merozoites grow first to a ring-shaped form and then to a larger form called a trophozoite. Trophozoites then mature to schizonts which divide several times to produce new merozoites, the infected red blood cell eventually bursts, allowing the new merozoites to travel within the bloodstream to infect new red blood cells
Plasmodium
–
Plasmodium
Plasmodium
Plasmodium
–
Trophozoites of the
Plasmodium vivax parasite among human red blood cells
Plasmodium
–
Species of Plasmodium infect many primates across the world, such as the
brown lemur, Eulemur fulvus, of Madagascar.
37.
Italian senate
–
The Senate of the Republic is a house of the bicameral Italian Parliament. The two houses form a perfect bicameral system, meaning they perform identical functions, but do so separately. Members of the Senate are styled Senator or The Honourable Senator and they meet at Palazzo Madama, the Senate consists of 315 elected members, and as of 2016 five senators for life. The elected senators must be over 40 years of age and are elected by Italian citizens aged 25 or older, the Senate is elected on a regional basis. The 309 senators are assigned to each region according to their population. However, Article 57 of the Constitution provides that no region can have fewer than seven senators representing it, except for the Aosta Valley and Molise. The five current life senators are, The current term of the Senate is five years, until a Constitutional change on February 9,1963, the Senate was elected for six-year terms. The Senate may be dissolved before the expiration of its normal term by the President of the Republic, in 2016, Italian Parliament passed a constitutional law that effectively abolishes the Senate as an elected chamber and sharply restricts its ability to veto legislation. The law was rejected on December 4,2016 by a referendum, the election of the Senate is still regulated by Law no. 270, December 21,2005, which however was judged to be partly unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court in December 2013, in each Region, except for three, at least 55% of the seats are assigned to the coalition or list which received the most votes. The Aosta Valley elects one senator, so it uses a first past the post system, Molise elects two senators with a proportional system. Trentino-South Tyrol uses a mixed member system, it elects 6 senators in first past the post constituencies. That session, presided by the oldest senator, proceeds to elect the President of the Senate for the parliamentary period. On the first two attempts at voting, a majority of all senators is needed, if a third round is needed. If this third round fails to produce a winner, a ballot is held between the two senators with the highest votes in the previous ballot. In the case of a tie, the senator is deemed the winner. The current President of the Senate is Pietro Grasso, recent Presidents of the Italian Senate, Since 1871, the Senate has met in Palazzo Madama in Rome, an old patrician palace completed in 1505 for the Medici family. The palace takes its name from Madama Margherita of Austria, daughter of Charles V, after the extinction of the Medici, the palace was handed over to the House of Lorraine
Italian senate
Italian senate
–
Senate of the Republic Senato della Repubblica
Italian senate
–
Palazzo Madama as it appeared in 17th century
Italian senate
–
Palazzo Madama today
38.
Umberto I of Italy
–
It can also refer to Humbert I, Count of Savoy and to Humbert I of Viennois, Dauphin of the Viennois. Umberto I, nicknamed the Good, was the King of Italy from 9 January 1878 until his assassination on 29 July 1900. Umbertos reign saw Italy attempt colonial expansion into the Horn of Africa, successfully gaining Eritrea, in 1882, he approved the Triple Alliance with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. He was deeply loathed in leftist circles because of his conservatism and he was especially hated by anarchists, who attempted an assassination on him during the first year of his reign. He was killed by another anarchist, Gaetano Bresci, two years after the Bava-Beccaris massacre. The son of Victor Emmanuel II and Archduchess Adelaide of Austria, Umberto was born in Turin and his education was entrusted to, amongst others, Massimo Taparelli, marquis dAzeglio and Pasquale Stanislao Mancini. From March 1858 he had a career in the Sardinian army. It proved difficult to find any royal bride for either of the sons of king Victor Emmanuel II and their conflict with the papacy did not help these matters. Not many eligible Catholic royal brides were easily available for young Umberto. At first, Umberto was to marry Archduchess Mathilde of Austria, on 21 April 1868 Umberto married his first cousin, Margherita Teresa Giovanna, Princess of Savoy. Their only son was Victor Emmanuel, prince of Naples, the King warded off the blow with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting to defend him, was severely wounded in the thigh. The would-be assassin was condemned to death, even though the law allowed the death penalty if the King was killed. The King commuted the sentence to one of penal servitude for life, passanante would later die in a psychiatric institution. In foreign policy Umberto I approved the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany, repeatedly visiting Vienna, many in Italy, however, viewed with hostility an alliance with their former Austrian enemies, who were still occupying areas claimed by Italy. Umberto was also favorably disposed towards the policy of colonial expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the occupation of Massawa in Eritrea, Italy expanded into Somalia in the 1880s as well. In the summer of 1900, Italian forces were part of the Eight-Nation Alliance which participated in the Boxer Rebellion in Imperial China, through the Boxer Protocol, signed after Umbertos death, the Kingdom of Italy gained a concession territory in Tientsin. Umbertos attitude towards the Holy See was uncompromising, in an 1886 telegram, he declared Rome untouchable and affirmed the permanence of the Italian possession of the Eternal City. The reign of Umberto I was a time of social upheaval, the protesters included the young Benito Mussolini, then a member of the socialist party
Umberto I of Italy
–
Portrait in 1878
Umberto I of Italy
–
Signature
Umberto I of Italy
–
Umberto I.
Umberto I of Italy
–
Umberto I depicted on a 100 lira gold coin (1891)
39.
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
–
The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences is an organization dedicated to the advancement of science and literature in the Netherlands. The Academy is housed in the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam, the Academy advises the Dutch government on scientific matters. The Academy offers solicited and unsolicited advice to parliament, ministries, universities and research institutes, funding agencies, nominations for candidate membership by persons or organizations outside the Academy are accepted. The acceptance criterion is delivered scientific achievements, Academy membership is therefore regarded as a great honor, and prestigious. Besides regular members, there are members and corresponding members. Since a new system was introduced in 2011 there will be no new corresponding members. Each year a maximum of sixteen members is appointed to the Academy, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences has long embraced the entire field of learning. The Royal Academy comprises two departments, consisting of around 500 members, Science Humanities and Social Sciences Both departments have their own board, the departments, in turn, are divided into sections. The highest organ in the Academy is the meeting of members. The president was Frits van Oostrom until 1 May 2008, after which he was succeeded by Robbert Dijkgraaf, in March 2012, Hans Clevers was elected president and took office in June 2012. In 2015 he was succeeded by José van Dijck, during the French occupation of the Dutch Republic, it was founded as the Koninklijk Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letterkunde en Schoone Kunsten by Lodewijk Napoleon on May 4,1808. In 1816, after the occupation had ended, it was renamed to Koninklijk-Nederlandsch Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schoone Kunsten, in 1851 it was disbanded and re-established as the Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen and in 1938 obtained its present name. Since 1812 the Academy has resided in the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam, the institute was awarded the Gouden Ganzenveer in 1955. De Jonge Akademie is a society of younger researchers, founded in 2005 as part of the KNAW. Ten members are elected each year for a term of five years, members are scientists between 25 and 45 years old and are selected for a record of excellence in their research. It was modelled after the similar German Junge Akademie, and both of these academies in turn were used as models for the Global Young Academy, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, official website
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
–
The
Trippenhuis is the seat of the academy
40.
Bartolomeo Panizza
–
Bartolomeo Panizza was an Italian anatomist born in Vicenza. He received a degree in surgery from Padua, and furthered his studies at Bologna. In 1809 he became a professor at the University of Pavia, Panizza was a student and associate to famed anatomist Antonio Scarpa. He was the first physician to attribute the vision function to the posterior cortex and he published his findings in an 1855 treatise titled Osservazioni sul nervo ottico. At the time, his discovery was ignored, and it would be several years until the importance of Panizzas findings were realized. In 1833 he described the foramen of Panizza, defined as a hole with a valve that connects the left and he is also remembered for studies involving the lymphatic system of reptiles. The eponymous Panizzas plexuses are defined as two plexuses of lymph vessels located in the lateral fossae of the frenulum of the prepuce, Panizza died in 1867 in Pavia. In Pavia some landmarks stand as Panizzas memory, a marble statue, in a yard of the old buildings of the University of Pavia, at N.65 of the central Strada Nuova. On the basament, there is the inscription in Italian language. Panizzas tomb in the Monumental Cemetery of Pavia and this article incorporates translated text from an equivalent article at the Italian Wikipedia, whose sources include Panizza, Bartolomeo Treccani. it Sandrone, Stefano, Riva, Marco. Dorlands Medical Dictionary Some places and memories related to Bartolomeo Panizza Extrastriate cortex in primates By Kathleen S. Rockland, et al
Bartolomeo Panizza
–
Bartolomeo Panizza
Bartolomeo Panizza
–
the statue
Bartolomeo Panizza
–
the tomb
41.
Adelchi Negri
–
Adelchi Negri was an Italian pathologist and microbiologist born in Perugia. He studied medicine and surgery at the University of Pavia, where he was a pupil of Camillo Golgi, after graduation in 1900, he became an assistant to Golgi at his pathological institute. In 1909 Negri became a professor of bacteriology, and the first official instructor of bacteriology in Pavia, on February 19,1912 he died of tuberculosis at age 35. Negri performed extensive research in the fields of histology, hematology, cytology, protozoology, in 1903 he discovered the eponymous Negri bodies, defined as cytoplasmatic inclusion bodies located in the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum in cases of rabies in animals and humans. He documented his findings in an article titled Contributo allo studio delleziologia della rabia, at the time, Negri mistakenly described the pathological agent of rabies as a parasitic protozoa. A few months later, Paul Remlinger at the Constantinople Imperial Bacteriology Institute correctly demonstrated that the agent of rabies was not a protozoan. Negri went on, however, to demonstrate in 1906 that the vaccine, then known as vaccine virus. During the latter part of his career, he interested in malaria and was at the forefront in efforts to eradicate it from Lombardy. Adelchi Negri Some places and memories related to Adelchi Negri
Adelchi Negri
–
Adelchi Negri
Adelchi Negri
–
Negri's tomb in the Monumental Cemetery in Pavia
42.
Golgi complex
–
The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1897 by the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi, part of the cellular endomembrane system, the Golgi apparatus packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination. The Golgi apparatus resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, owing to its large size and distinctive structure, the Golgi apparatus was one of the first organelles to be discovered and observed in detail. It was discovered in 1898 by Italian physician Camillo Golgi during an investigation of the nervous system, after first observing it under his microscope, he termed the structure the internal reticular apparatus. Some doubted the discovery at first, arguing that the appearance of the structure was merely an illusion created by the observation technique used by Golgi. With the development of modern microscopes in the 20th century, the discovery was confirmed, early references to the Golgi referred to it by various names including the Golgi–Holmgren apparatus, Golgi–Holmgren ducts, and Golgi–Kopsch apparatus. The term Golgi apparatus was used in 1910 and first appeared in the literature in 1913. Among eukaryotes, the localization of the Golgi apparatus differs. In mammals, a single Golgi apparatus complex is located near the cell nucleus. Tubular connections are responsible for linking the stacks together, localization and tubular connections of the Golgi apparatus are dependent on microtubules. If microtubules are experimentally depolymerized, then the Golgi apparatus loses connections, in yeast, multiple Golgi apparatuses are scattered throughout the cytoplasm. In plants, Golgi stacks are not concentrated at the centrosomal region, organization of the plant Golgi depends on actin cables and not microtubules. The common feature among Golgi is that they are adjacent to endoplasmic reticulum exit sites, in most eukaryotes, the Golgi apparatus is made up of a series of compartments consisting of two main networks, the cis Golgi network and the trans Golgi network. The CGN is a collection of fused, flattened membrane-enclosed disks known as cisternae, a mammalian cell typically contains 40 to 100 stacks. Between four and eight cisternae are usually present in a stack, however and this collection of cisternae is broken down into cis, medial, and trans compartments. The TGN is the final structure, from which proteins are packaged into vesicles destined to lysosomes, secretory vesicles. The TGN is usually positioned adjacent to the stacks of the Golgi apparatus, the TGN may act as an early endosome in yeast and plants. There are structural and organizational differences in the Golgi apparatus among eukaryotes, in some yeasts, Golgi stacking is not observed
Golgi complex
–
Micrograph of Golgi apparatus, visible as a stack of semicircular black rings near the bottom. Numerous circular
vesicles can be seen in proximity to the
organelle.
Golgi complex
–
Nucleolus
Golgi complex
–
The Golgi apparatus (salmon pink) in context of the secretory pathway.
Golgi complex
–
Diagram of two of the five current models of vesicular transport and trafficking: the cisternae maturation model, and the anterograde vesicular transport between stable compartments model (vesicular shuttle model).
43.
Golgi cell
–
In neuroscience, Golgi cells are inhibitory interneurons found within the granular layer of the cerebellum. They were first identified as inhibitory by Eccles et al. in 1964 and it was also the first example of an inhibitory feed back network, where the inhibitory interneuron was identified anatomically. These cells synapse onto the dendrite of granule cells and unipolar brush cells and they receive excitatory input from mossy fibres, also synapsing on granule cells, and parallel fibers, which are long granule cell axons. Thereby this circuitry allows for feed-forward and feed-back inhibition of granule cells, the main synapse made by these cells is a synapse onto the mossy fibre - granule cell excitatory synapse in a glomerulus. The glomerulus is made up of the mossy fibre terminal, granule cell dendrites, the Golgi cell acts by altering the mossy fibre - granule cell synapse. The Golgi cells use GABA as their transmitter, the basal level of GABA produces a postsynaptic leak conductance by tonically activating alpha 6-containing GABA-A receptors on the granule cell. These high-affinity receptors are located both synaptically and extrasynaptically on the granule cell, the synaptic receptors mediate phasic contraction, duration of around 20-30ms whereas the extrasynapatic receptors mediate tonic inhibition of around 200ms, and are activated by synapse spill over. Additionally the GABA acts on GABA-B receptors which are located presynaptically on the mossy fibre terminal and these inhibit the mossy fibre evoked EPSCs of the granule cell in a temperature and frequency dependent manner. At high mossy firing frequency there is no effect of GABA acting on presynaptic GABA-B receptors on evoked EPSCs, however, at low firing the GABA does have an effect on the EPSCs mediated via these presynaptic GABA-B receptors. NIF Search - Golgi Cell via the Neuroscience Information Framework
Golgi cell
–
Microcircuitry of the cerebellum.
Excitatory synapses are denoted by (+) and
inhibitory synapses by (-). MF:
Mossy fiber. DCN:
Deep cerebellar nuclei. IO:
Inferior olive. CF:
Climbing fiber. GC:
Granule cell. PF:
Parallel fiber. PC:
Purkinje cell. GgC: Golgi cell. SC:
Stellate cell. BC:
Basket cell.
44.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
45.
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed
46.
Oxford University Press
–
Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
Oxford University Press
–
Oxford University Press on
Walton Street.
Oxford University Press
–
2008 conference booth
47.
List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
–
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded annually by the Swedish Karolinska Institute to scientists and doctors in the various fields of physiology or medicine. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. As dictated by Nobels will, the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by a committee that consists of five members, while commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine, Nobel specifically stated that the prize be awarded for physiology or medicine in his will. Because of this, the prize can be awarded in a range of fields. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to Emil Adolf von Behring, each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award that has varied throughout the years. In 1901, von Behring received 150,782 SEK, which is equal to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2008, in 2013, the prize was awarded to James E. Rothman, Randy W. Schekman and Thomas C. Südhof, they were recognised after discovering how cells precisely transport material, the award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Laureates have won the Nobel Prize in a range of fields that relate to physiology or medicine. Gerhard Domagk, a German, was not allowed by his government to accept the prize and he later received a medal and diploma, but not the money. Twelve women have won the prize, Gerty Cori, Rosalyn Yalow, Barbara McClintock, Rita Levi-Montalcini, buck, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider, May-Britt Moser and Tu Youyou. As of 2016, the prize has been awarded to 211 individuals, there have been nine years in which the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was not awarded. The form and spelling of the names in the column is according to nobelprize. org. Alternative spellings and name forms, where they exist, are given at the articles linked from this column, where available, an image of each Nobel laureate is provided. For the official pictures provided by the Nobel Foundation, see the pages for each Nobel laureate at nobelprize. org, the information in the country column is according to nobelprize. org, the official website of the Nobel Foundation. This information may not necessarily reflect the recipients birthplace or citizenship, the citation for each award is quoted from nobelprize. org, the official website of the Nobel Foundation. The links in this column are to articles on the history and areas of physiology, the links are intended only as a guide and explanation. For a full account of the work done by each Nobel laureate, general Specific Official website of the Nobel Foundation
List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
–
Front side (obverse) of the Nobel Prize Medal for Physiology or Medicine
List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
48.
Emil von Behring
–
Emil von Behring, as Emil Adolf Behring born was a German physiologist who received the 1901 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the first one awarded, for his discovery of a diphtheria antitoxin. He was widely known as a saviour of children, as used to be a major cause of child death. He was ennobled in 1901 for services to medicine, Behring was born Adolf Emil Behring in Hansdorf, Province of Prussia, now Poland. Between 1874 and 1878, he studied medicine at the Akademie für das militärärztliche Bildungswesen and he was mainly a military doctor and then became Professor of Hygienics within the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Marburg, a position he would hold for the rest of his life. He and the pharmacologist Hans Horst Meyer had their laboratories in the same building, Behring was the discoverer of diphtheria antitoxin in 1890 and attained a great reputation by that means and by his contributions to the study of immunity. He won the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1901 for the development of serum therapies against diphtheria, the former had been a scourge of the population, especially children, whereas the other was a leading cause of death in wars, killing the wounded. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts, at the International Tuberculosis Congress in 1905 he announced that he had discovered a substance proceeding from the virus of tuberculosis. This substance, which he designated T C, plays the important part in the action of Professor Behrings bovivaccine. He tried unsuccessfully to obtain a protective and therapeutic agent for humans and he created an antitoxin, which upon demonstration via injection was able to be transmitted to another animal by injections of a treated animals blood serum and used as a means of effecting a cure. Behring died at Marburg, Hessen-Nassau, on 31 March 1917 and his Nobel Prize medal is now kept on display at the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva. Von Behring is believed to have cheated Paul Ehrlich out of recognition, the two men developed a diphtheria serum by repeatedly injecting the deadly toxin into a horse. The serum was used effectively during an epidemic in Germany, to add insult to injury, only Behring received the first Nobel Prize in Medicine, in 1901, for his contributions. They held their honeymoon at villa Behring on Capri 1897, where Behring owned a vacation home, in 1909–1911, the Russian writer Maxim Gorky lived at this villa. Emil von Behring, The founder of serum therapy and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed, ulrike Enke, Salvatore dellInfanzia Behring and Capri www. uni-marburg. de/behring-digital
Emil von Behring
–
Emil Adolf von Behring
Emil von Behring
–
Villa Behring (burgundy) on Capri
Emil von Behring
–
Behring mausoleum in Marburg
49.
Ronald Ross
–
His discovery of the malarial parasite in the gastrointestinal tract of a mosquito proved that malaria was transmitted by mosquitoes, and laid the foundation for the method of combating the disease. He was a polymath, writing a number of poems, published several novels and he was also an amateur artist and natural mathematician. He worked in the Indian Medical Service for 25 years and it was during his service that he made the groundbreaking medical discovery. After resigning from his service in India, he joined the faculty of Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, in 1926 he became Director-in-Chief of the Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases, which was established in honour of his works. He remained there until his death, Ronald Ross was born in Almora, India, the eldest of ten children of Sir Campbell Claye Grant Ross, General in the British Indian Army, and Matilda Charlotte Elderton. At age eight he was sent to England to live with his aunt and he attended Primary schools at Ryde, and for secondary education he was sent to a boarding school at Springhill, near Southampton, in 1869. From his early childhood he developed passion for poetry, music, literature, at fourteen years of age he won a prize for mathematics, a book titled Orbs of Heaven which sparked his interest in mathematics. In 1873, at sixteen, he secured first position in the Oxford, although he wanted to become a writer, his father arranged enrollment at St Bartholomews Hospital Medical College in London, in 1874. Not fully committed, he spent most of his composing music. He qualified on second attempt in 1881, and after a training at Army Medical School. Ronald Ross embarked for India on 22 September 1881 on the troopship Jumma, between 1881 and 1894 he was variously posted in Madras, Burma, Baluchistan, Andaman Islands, Bangalore and Secunderabad. In 1883, he was posted as the Acting Garrison Surgeon at Bangalore during which he noticed the possibility of controlling mosquitoes by limiting their access to water, in March 1894 he had his home leave and went to London with his family. On 10 April 1894 he met Sir Patrick Manson for the first time, Manson who became Rosss mentor, introduced him to the real problems in malaria research. Manson always had a belief that India was the best place for the study. Ross returned to India on P&O Ferries Ballaarat on 20 March 1895, even before his luggage was cleared in the custom office, he went straight for Bombay Civil Hospital, looking for malarial patients and started making blood films. Ross made his first important step in May 1895 when he observed the early stages of malarial parasite inside a mosquito stomach, however, his enthusiasm was interrupted as he was deployed to Bangalore to investigate an outbreak of cholera. Bangalore had no cases of malaria. He confided to Manson stating, I am thrown out of employment and have no work to do, in May 1896, he was given a short leave that enabled him to visit a malaria-endemic region around Ooty
Ronald Ross
–
Sir Ronald Ross
Ronald Ross
–
The page in Ross' notebook where he recorded the "pigmented bodies" in mosquitoes that he later identified as malaria parasites
Ronald Ross
–
Ross, Mrs Ross, Mahomed Bux, and two other assistants at Cunningham’s laboratory of Presidency Hospital in Calcutta
Ronald Ross
–
Ronald Ross Memorial,
SSKM Hospital,
Kolkata
50.
Niels Ryberg Finsen
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Niels Ryberg Finsen was a Faroese-Danish physician and scientist of Icelandic descent. Niels Finsen was born in Tórshavn, Faroe Islands, as the second-oldest of four children and his parents were Hannes Finsen, who belonged to an Icelandic family with traditions reaching back to the 10th century, and Johanne Fröman, who was born and raised in Iceland. The family moved to Tórshavn from Iceland in 1858 when his father was given the position of Landfoged, when Niels was four years old his mother died, and his father married her cousin Birgitte Kirstine Formann, with whom he had six children. In 1871 his father was made Amtmand of the Faroe Islands, Finsen got his early education in Tórshavn, but in 1874 was sent to the Danish boarding school Herlufsholm, where his older brother Olaf was also a student. Unlike Olaf, Niels had a stay at Herlufsholm, culminating with a statement from the principal which claimed Niels was a boy of good heart but low skills. As a consequence of his low grades, he was enrolled in his fathers old school, Lærði skólinn, while studying there, his grades improved greatly. In 1882, Finsen moved to Copenhagen to study medicine at the University of Copenhagen, following graduation, he became a prosector of anatomy at the university. After three years, he quit the post to devote fully to his scientific studies. In 1898 Finsen was given a professorship and in 1899 he became a Knight of the Order of Dannebrog, the Finsen Institute was founded in 1896, with Finsen serving as its first director. It was later merged into Copenhagen University Hospital and currently serves as a research laboratory that specializes in proteolysis. Finsen suffered from Niemann–Pick disease, which inspired him to sunbathe, as a result, Finsen is best known for his theory of phototherapy, in which certain wavelengths of light can have beneficial medical effects. His most notable writings were Finsen Om Lysets Indvirkninger paa Huden, published in 1893 and Om Anvendelse i Medicinen af koncentrerede kemiske Lysstraaler, the papers were rapidly translated and published in both German and French. In his late work he researched the effects of sodium chloride, observing the results of a low sodium diet, Finsen won the Nobel Prize in Physiology in 1903 for his work on phototherapy. He was the first Scandinavian to win the prize and is the only Faroese Nobel Laureate to date, Finsen married Ingeborg Balslev on December 29,1892. Finsens health began to fail in the mid-1880s and he had symptoms of heart trouble and suffered from ascites and general weakness. The sickness disabled his body but not his mind, and he continued to work from his wheelchair and he died in Copenhagen on September 24,1904. Accounts of his funeral can be found at the National Library of Medicine, the Finsen Laboratory at Copenhagen University Hospital is named in his honor. Finsensvej in Frederiksberg is also named in his honor and so way the Finsen Power Station, a large memorial to Finsen designed by Rudolph Tegner was installed next to Rigshospitalet in Copenhagen in 1909
Niels Ryberg Finsen
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Niels Ryberg Finsen
