1.
Advertising campaign
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An advertising campaign is a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme which make up an integrated marketing communication. Advertising campaigns utilize diverse media channels over a time frame and are often mandated to be rationally defined. Advertising campaigns are built to accomplish an objective or a set of objectives. Such objectives usually include establishing a brand, raising brand awareness, the rate of success or failure in accomplishing these goals is reckoned via effectiveness measures. There are 5 key points at which an advertising campaign must consider to ensure an effective campaign and these points are, integrated marketing communications, media channels, positioning, the communications process diagram and touch points. Integrated marketing communication is an approach used by majority of organisations to develop a strategic plan on how they are going to broadcast their marketing and advertising campaigns. Nowadays there has been a shift in the way marketers and advertisers interact with their consumers, IMC has emerged as a key strategy for organisations to manage customer experiences in the digital age. The more traditional advertising practices such as newspapers, billboards and magazines are still used, advantages of using IMC are that it has the ability to communicate the same message down several channels to create brand awareness. IMC is the most cost effective solution when compared to media advertising to interact with target consumers on a personal level. In store sales promotions are tactics such as ‘30% off’ sales or offering loyalty cards to consumers to build a relationship, Television and radio advertisement are also a form of advertising strategy derived from IMC. Traditional methods of communication with the consumer include newspapers, magazines, Radio, television, billboards, telephone, post, some of these traditional methods are still very effective for some industries and not so for others. With advancements in digital channels, marketing communications allow for the possibility of two-way communications where an immediate consumer response can be elicited. Digital communications tools include, websites, blogs, social media, email, mobile and it is important for an advertising campaign to carefully select channels based on where their target consumer spends time to ensure market and advertising efforts are maximised. In the rapidly changing marketing and advertising environment, exposure to certain consumer groups and these traditional media channels are defined as print, broadcast, out-of-home and direct mail. The introduction of various new media channels has altered their traditional advantages and disadvantages. Print media is mainly defined as newspapers and magazines, with the transition in last decade to digital information on phones, computers and tablets, the demographic that still are exposed to traditional print media is going to be older. It is also estimated that there will be a reduction of print material in coming years and this has to be taken into account by the advertisers and in some cases they could use this to their advantage. Newspapers advantages would be that it is low cost, timely, disadvantages would obviously be the aging demographic, short life, clutter and low attention-getting capabilities
2.
Political campaign
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A political campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making process within a specific group. In democracies, political campaigns often refer to campaigns, by which representatives are chosen or referendums are decided. In modern politics, the most high-profile political campaigns are focused on elections and candidates for head of state or head of government. The message of the campaign contains the ideas that the wants to share with the voters. It is to get those who agree with their ideas to them when running for a political position. The message often consists of talking points about policy issues. The points summarize the ideas of the campaign and are repeated frequently in order to create a lasting impression with the voters. In many elections, the party will try to get the candidate off message by bringing up policy or personal questions that are not related to the talking points. Most campaigns prefer to keep the message broad in order to attract the most potential voters, a message that is too narrow can alienate voters or slow the candidate down with explaining details. Barack Obama ran on a consistent, simple message of change throughout his campaign, however, even if the message is crafted carefully, it does not assure the candidate a victory at the polls. For a winning candidate, the message is refined and then becomes his or her in office, in a modern political campaign, the campaign organization will have a coherent structure of personnel in the same manner as any business of similar size. Successful campaigns usually require a campaign manager to coordinate the campaigns operations, apart from a candidate, they are often a campaigns most visible leader. Political consultants advise campaigns on all of their activities, from research to field strategy. Consultants conduct candidate research, voter research, and opposition research for their clients, activists are the foot soldiers loyal to the cause, the true believers who will carry the run by volunteer activists. Such volunteers and interns may take part in such as canvassing door-to-door. Modern political campaigns have set new standards for how successful campaigns are conducted day-to-day. The daily schedule of a campaign is hyperextended, and often has no definite beginning or end, only a series of tasks to be completed by certain benchmark times, or, most often. COB for political campaigns is generally defined as the time at night at which your supervisor is required to report his/her numbers, only a very small fraction of campaign workers do the bulk of their work during traditional business hours
3.
Campaign finance
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Campaign finance refers to all funds raised to promote candidates, political parties, or policy initiatives and referenda. Political parties, charitable organizations, and political committees are vehicles used in aggregating funds to keep campaigns alive. Political finance is also popular terminology, and is used internationally for its comprehensiveness, Campaign finance deals with the costs of democracy, a term coined by G. Alexander Heard for his famous analysis of campaign finance in the U. S. Political campaigns have many expenditures, such as the cost of travel of candidates and staff, political consulting, Campaign spending depends on the region. For instance, in the United States, television advertising time must be purchased by campaigns, whereas in other countries, the need to raise money to maintain expensive political campaigns diminishes ties to a representative democracy because of the influence large contributors have over politicians. So some have come to equate campaign finance with political corruption and these views have led governments to reform campaign financing in the hope of eliminating big money influence. The causes and effects of campaign finance rules are studied in science, economics. Some countries rely heavily on donors to finance political campaigns. In these countries, fundraising is often a significant activity for the campaign staff, for example, one survey in the United States found that 23% of candidates for statewide office surveyed say that they spent more than half of their scheduled time raising money. Over half of all candidates surveyed spent at least 1/4 of their time on fundraising, one study finds that political donations gives donors significantly greater access to policy makers. Most countries that rely on donations to fund campaigns require extensive disclosure of donations, frequently including information such as the name, employer. These kind of donations can come from individuals, as well as groups such as trade unions. However, critics of this claim that it leads to votes being bought. Other countries choose to use government funding to run campaigns, funding campaigns from the government budget is widespread in South America and Europe. Not all government subsidies take the form of money, some systems require campaign materials to be provided at low rates to the candidates. Critics sometimes complain of the expense of the government financing systems, conservative and libertarian critics of the system argue that government should not subsidize political speech. Other critics argue that government financing, with its emphasis on equalizing money resources, in many countries, such as Germany and the United States, campaigns can be funded by a combination of private and public money. In some electoral systems, candidates who win an election or secure a number of ballots are allowed to apply for a rebate to the government
4.
Canvassing
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Canvassing is the systematic initiation of direct contact with individuals, commonly used during political campaigns. Campaigners will knock on doors or make calls to engage in personalized contact with an individual. It is the element of what political campaigns call the ground game or field. It is less common in campaigns of Continental Europe and East Asian democracies, canvassing can also refer to a neighborhood canvass performed by law enforcement in the course of an investigation. A neighborhood canvas is an approach to interviewing residents, merchants. A modern election canvass is conducted either by a candidate, volunteers, the canvassers are given lists known as canvass sheets or in the UK as reading pads. These are a list of households to be contacted, generated from a voter database, some campaigns today have replaced paper sheets with tablet or smartphone apps. The canvasser will attempt to reach each of the households on their list, almost all election canvassing includes asking how a person plans to vote. Supporters will then be asked themselves to volunteer, or to take a lawn sign and those who are wavering or undecided may be given a message of persuasion. If foot canvassing, the canvasser will also distribute flyers, upon completing the canvass, the results will be entered into the voter database. This will update the campaigns list of voters, removing those who have moved or are deceased and adding new residents who may have been found. The data on the questions will be used for further contact, the origin of the term is an older spelling of “canvas”, to sift by shaking in a sheet of canvas, hence to discuss thoroughly. An organized canvass can be seen as early as the elections of the Roman Republic, in those campaigns candidates would shake the hands of all eligible voters in the Forum. Whispering into the ear of some candidates would be a nomenclator, modern canvassing traces back to the rise of contested elections in England. For the first centuries of the English Parliament elections were rarely contested, losing an election was considered a dishonor to oneself, and to friends and family. Campaigning thus involved quiet sounding out of the pool of voters. Only once this process had convinced a candidate that he had enough votes to win would he declare his interest in the seat, beginning in the Elizabethan Era, and expanding during the conflicts under the Stuarts, elections began to be openly contested. In both 1604 and 1626 canvassing for votes was banned and it was seen as a violation to free elections, as votes would be won by persuasion rather than a voter making up his own mind
5.
Get out the vote
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Get out the vote describes two types of political campaigns, both aimed at increasing the voter turnout in one or more elections. In countries that do not have or enforce compulsory voting, voter turnout can be low, campaigns typically attempt to register voters, then get them to vote, either by absentee ballot, early voting or election day voting. A GOTV effort is not required for elections when there are effective compulsory voting systems in place. Typically GOTV is distinct phase of the overall campaign, canvassing for the purpose of voter registration usually ceases when GOTV begins. Other GOTV activities include literature drops early on day or the evening before. The importance of get out the vote efforts increases as the percentage of the population voting decreases. This situation often leads to polarized electoral politics, a 90% turnout from a partys radical base is often better than a 50 percent turnout from both radical and moderate supporters. GOTV can also be important in high turn-out elections when the margin of victory is expected to be close, in many countries, the task of electoral authorities includes the promotion of and assisting in the registration of potential voters, and in the exercise of the right to vote. However, such efforts are not uniformly successful, and at times are partisan, a number of nonpartisan voter turnout organizations have formed in an effort to get out the vote. The effort of these organizations is in getting people to vote and not to particular candidates or political view. The traditional GOTV method used in the UK is the Reading system, developed by the Reading Constituency Labour Party, on election day these lists, with identical copies underneath, were torn off and given to GOTV campaigners. Lists of this type are referred to as Shuttleworths. At each polling station, tellers for each party will collect the poll numbers of voters from their polling cards. These numbers are collected from the polling stations and collated in a campaign headquarters for each ward. Promised voters who have already voted are then crossed off the list of voters canvassed as supporting Labour and this enables campaigners to then focus more efficiently on the remainder of their supporters who have not voted. Computerisation has heralded further increases in efficiency, but nearly all subsequent methodologies can be traced back in form to the Reading system. The terminology reflects a distinction of GOTV from the strategy of suppressing turnout among likely opposition voters. The side going negative has an advantage in its supporters being steadier voters than those of its opponent, political scientists have conducted hundreds of field experiments to learn which get out the vote tactics are effective, when, and on which types of voters
6.
Lawn sign
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Lawn signs are small advertising signs that can be placed on a street-facing lawn or elsewhere on a property to express the support for an election candidate by the property owner. They are popular in political campaigns in the United States and Canada, lawn signs are often also placed near polling places on election day, although in most jurisdictions, there are legal restrictions on campaigning within a certain distance from a voting facility. In most states, there are restrictions on where these signs can be placed. There are some areas that have ordinances prohibiting any posting of yard signs. The signs are placed close to the road for greater visibility. In most highways a sign may not be erected so that the part of the sign face nearest a highway is within five feet of the right of way line. Signs come in shapes and sizes, but are most often rectangular. They are usually produced in packages that include lawn sign wires since most of these lawn signs need to be placed on a grass or dirt surface, a common type of yard sign frame is the H-frame. The wire frames usually have at least two tines that can be inserted into the flutes of corrugated plastic signs, the tines on the other end of the frame can be inserted into the ground. A single or double crossbar between the two tines adds strength and makes the entire frame one single unit and it also prevents the sign face from sliding down the tines. The I-frame is essentially an H-frame without a crossbar linking the two legs, each leg may have an abutment that acts as a stop to prevent the sign from sliding down. Political scientist Mel Kahn states that lawn signs help build name recognition for candidates, supposedly, each sign represents 6-10 votes for the candidate. One randomized field trial found yard signs simply reminding people to vote were able to increase overall voter turnout. In addition, it gives the requester a placebo effect of doing something substantive, critics charge that lawn signs dont vote and dismiss their importance. Theft of lawn signs is treated like any other instance of petty theft, however, signs on the rights of way in many states are considered litter and can be picked up by anyone as a public service. On several occasions, citizens who removed lawn signs on the pretext of cleaning up the clutter and eliminating driver distraction were arrested, sparking a public controversy. The Wall Street Journal reported on a new type of yard sign designed for improved effectiveness by being cut into shapes or people to deliver a political message, the article suggests that such signs can expose 25,000 drivers per day to messages at a low cost. Sign size calculator – a sign vendor tool suggests the size for outdoor signs based on the speed of passing traffic
7.
Negative campaigning
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Negative campaigning or mudslinging in United States politics has been called as American as Mississippi mud and as American as apple pie. Some research suggests negative campaigning is the norm in all political venues, There are a number of techniques used in negative campaigning. Among the most effective is running advertisements attacking an opponents personality, record, There are two main types of ads used in negative campaigning, attack and contrast. Attack ads focus exclusively on the aspects of the opponent. There is no content in an attack ad, whether it is about the candidate or the opponent. Attack ads usually identify the risks associated with the opponent, often exploiting people’s fears to manipulate, because attack ads have no positive content, they have the potential to be more influential than contrast ads in shaping voters’ views of the sponsoring candidate’s opponent. Unlike attack ads, contrast ads contain information about both the candidate and the opponent, the information about the candidate is positive, while the information about the opponent is negative. Contrast ads compare and contrast the candidate with the opponent, juxtaposing the positive information about the candidate with the information of the opponent. Because contrast ads must contain information, contrast ads are seen as less damaging to the political process than attack ads. One of the most famous such ads was Daisy Girl by the campaign of Lyndon B. Johnson that successfully portrayed Republican Barry Goldwater as threatening nuclear war. Common negative campaign techniques include painting an opponent as soft on criminals, dishonest, corrupt, one common negative campaigning tactic is attacking the other side for running a negative campaign. Dirty tricks are also common in political campaigns. These generally involve secretly leaking damaging information to the media and this isolates a candidate from backlash and also does not cost any money. The material must be enough to attract media interest, however. Other dirty tricks include trying to feed an opponents team false information hoping they will use it, often a campaign will use outside organizations, such as lobby groups, to launch attacks. These can be claimed to be coming from a neutral source, Negative campaigning can be conducted by proxy. For instance, highly partisan ads were placed in the 2004 U. S. presidential election by independent bodies like MoveOn. org. Push polls are attacks disguised as telephone polls and they might ask a question like How would you react if Candidate A was revealed to beat his wife
8.
Attack ad
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Attack ads often form part of negative campaigning or smear campaigns, and in large or well-financed campaigns, may be disseminated via mass media. An attack ad will generally unfairly criticize an opponents political platform, often the ad will simply make use of innuendo, based on opposition research. Although cable television and the internet are not required to air such ads, the use of attack ads has gradually spread to other democratic countries as well, most notably Canada. One of the earliest and most famous television attack ads, known as Daisy Girl, was used by Lyndon Johnson against Barry Goldwater in the 1964 presidential election. The ad opened with a young girl picking petals from a daisy. It then zoomed in to a close up to her eye. The ad was shocking and disturbing, but also very effective and it convinced many that Goldwaters more aggressive approach to fighting the Cold War could result in a nuclear conflict. Attack ads were used again by the campaign of George H. W. Bush against Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis in the 1988 presidential election, the two most famous were the Willie Horton and Tank Ride ads. The Willie Horton ad began with a statement of Vice President Bushs support of the death penalty, then it described the case of Willie Horton, who was convicted of murder. The ad state that Governor Dukakiss prison furlough program released Horton ten times, in one of those furloughs, he kidnapped a young couple, stabbed the boy, the ad ended with, Weekend prison passes. The Tank Ride ad from 1988 was an attack on Dukakis by the GOP, though the ad was inaccurate, it created a lasting negative impression and helped guarantee Dukakiss defeat. The ad suggested that Bush was more supportive of military spending, the footage, pulled from the news media, showed Dukakis riding a tank in his attempt to counter the claim that he was weak on defense. He wore a large, oversized helmet and a wide smile, the GOP also added gear sounds from an 18-wheeler truck to imply that Dukakis could not run the tank smoothly – although tanks do not have gears that grind. The 2008 Democratic presidential primaries featured an ad by Hillary Clinton directed at her rival at the time, Barack Obama. The ad began by showing children asleep in bed while phone rang in the background, a voice-over stated that it was 3 a. m. the phone was ringing in the White House, and that something’s happening in the world. The voice-over then asked if they wanted someone who already knows the world’s leaders, knows the military and is tested. Later in the campaign, after Obama had become the Democratic nominee, in a controversial ad called Celebrity, McCains campaign asked, is the biggest celebrity in the world. But, is he ready to lead, the ad juxtaposed Obama supporters with photos of Britney Spears and Paris Hilton
9.
Fearmongering
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Fearmongering or scaremongering is the spreading of frightening and exaggerated rumors of an impending danger or the habit or tactic of purposely and needlessly arousing public fear about an issue. This can take the form of manipulation that uses fear-based tactics including exaggeration. It is a used to scare or put fear into those viewing a campaign/advertisement. There is no doubt that fear can be a medium at relaying a message. Research shows that the effects of using fear marketing can both be facilitating and inhibiting to whether the audience accepts the message, fear marketing is especially effective with certain markets, while others are much less affected. In our world the population is oversaturated with vast quantities of advertising, the effectiveness of fear in marketing comes from the ability to establish a need. If a marketing campaign uses fear to people who do not have life insurance, it can awake a desire for the product. To go along with this, if a person who sees this advert already has life insurance, they can act in a negative way, fear truly is, a double edged sword. The effectiveness of fear is subject to several variables, the audience watching, the way it has been encoded, the transmission form and the degree of fear that is used. Fear is an emotion that is exploited, yet it is rarely used. Probably due to the ethical responsibilities that come with this form of advertising, the marketplace where fear-based appeals are usually found is the television, which is a very broad platform that is observed by many different types of users. If this message were to reach children, there is the potential to have an influence on the child’s mind. Hence, why discretion is advised when using fear-based marketing, using fear marketing upon the elderly is a critical area filled with debate at the moment. Another issue with fear in marketing is one of the reasons it is so effective is that it makes individuals anxious. There is an argument as to whether it is right for marketer to give people anxiety about topics, while they are in the safety of their homes or elsewhere. When people are so vulnerable to this type of stimuli, is it right that they are exploited when they did not consent to being targeted in this way and when it can be difficult to draw away from it. A lot of research says no, it is not appropriate, yet many still use this method. Fear in marketing is not frequently used, however when it is, some key industries are the anti-smoking movement, healthcare and safe-driving campaigns
10.
Smear campaign
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A smear campaign, smear tactic or simply smear is an effort to damage or call into question someones reputation, by propounding negative propaganda. It can be applied to individuals or groups, common targets are public officials, politicians, political candidates, activists and ex-spouses. The term also applies in other such as the workplace. The phrase smear campaign became popular from around 1936, a smear campaign is an intentional, premeditated effort to undermine an individuals or groups reputation, credibility, and character. Like negative campaigning, most often smear campaigns target government officials, politicians, political candidates, however, private persons or groups may also become targets of smear campaigns perpetrated in companies, institutions, the legal system, and other formal groups. Smear tactics differ from normal discourse or debate in that they do not bear upon the issues or arguments in question, a smear is a simple attempt to malign a group or an individual with the aim of undermining their credibility. Smears often consist of ad hominem attacks in the form of unverifiable rumors and distortions, half-truths, or even outright lies, smear campaigns are often propagated by gossip magazines. Even when the facts behind a campaign are demonstrated to lack proper foundation. Smears are also effective in diverting attention away from the matter in question, the target of the smear typically must focus on correcting the false information rather than on the original issue. Deflection has been described as a smear, You make up something. Then you have the press write about it, and then you say, everybody is writing about this charge. Smear tactics are considered by many to be a low, disingenuous form of discourse, smear campaigns have been identified as a common weapon of psychopaths and narcissists. In many countries, the law recognizes the value of reputation, both libel and slander are often punishable by law and may result in imprisonment or compensation or fees for damages done. Smear tactics are used to undermine effective arguments or critiques. During the 1856 presidential election, John C, frémont was the target of a smear campaign alleging that he was a Catholic. The campaign was designed to support for Fremont from those who were suspicious of Catholics. Ralph Nader was the victim of a campaign during the 1960s. In order to smear Nader and deflect attention from his campaign
11.
Voter suppression
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Voter suppression is a strategy to influence the outcome of an election by discouraging or preventing people from voting. It is distinguished from political campaigning in that campaigning attempts to change likely voting behavior by changing the opinions of voters through persuasion and organization. Voter suppression, instead, attempts to reduce the number of voters who vote against a candidate or proposition. The tactics of voter suppression range from minor changes to make voting less convenient, to physically intimidating prospective voters, Voter suppression can be effective if a significant amount of voters are intimidated or disenfranchised. In Australia, it is mandatory for citizens to enroll to vote, even so, it is estimated that about 6% of eligible Australian voters are not enrolled, or are enrolled incorrectly. These are disproportionately younger voters, many of whom might neglect to enroll when they attain voting age, in 2006, the Howard Government legislated to close the electoral roll much earlier once an election was called. In Australia, the Prime Minister effectively has the right to determine the date of the election, in July 2010, the left-leaning lobby group GetUp. launched a challenge to this law. The High Court of Australia expedited the hearing so that a ruling could be made in time for the 2010 Federal Election, the majority ruling struck down early closing of the roll, reinstating the old rule allowing voters seven days grace to arrange or update their enrollment. Australian citizens of the ages 16 or 17 can enroll online so that when they turn 18 they are able to vote, shortly before the Canadian 2011 Federal Election, vote suppression tactics were exercised by issuing robocalls and live calls to notify voters that their polling station had changed. The court stated that the evidence did not prove that the Conservative Party or its successful candidates were directly involved and it did, however, criticize the Conservative Party for making “little effort to assist with the investigation”. The court did not annul the result in any of six ridings where the fraud had occurred, lutfur Rahman was the directly elected mayor of Tower Hamlets, in London until he was removed from office for breaching electoral rules. His supporters allegedly intimidated voters at polling stations, because elections are locally administered in the United States, voter suppression varies among jurisdictions. At the founding of the country, most states limited the right to vote to property-owning white males, over time, the right to vote was formally granted to racial minorities, women, and youth. Most of these voter suppression tactics were made illegal after the enactment of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, electoral fraud Caging list American Center for Voting Rights Political corruption Voter turnout Voter Suppression is the Real Election Scandal, The Intercept, October 2016
12.
Campaign manager
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Apart from the candidate, they are often a campaigns most visible leader. However, modern campaign managers, particularly at the level, are mostly concerned with executing strategy. The senior strategists are typically outside political consultants, primarily pollsters, in the US, increasingly, campaign management has been a speciality occupation. The top-tier of managers will move throughout the working on a different campaign each election cycle. The challenges of building a successful operation from scratch in less than 2 years makes experienced professionals increasingly valuable, in addition to their past experience, experienced campaign managers also bring with them knowledge of campaign management tools and relationships with political consultants. The pay ranges for a campaign manager differ depending on the scale of the political race
13.
Political campaign staff
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Political campaign staff are the people who formulate and implement the strategy needed to win an election. Many people have made out of working full-time for campaigns and groups that support them. These differ from political consultants who do not work for the campaign full-time but still provide assistance in the form of advice and this article provides a generic description of a campaigns staff and organization. Campaigns are usually overseen by a campaign manager, the campaign manager coordinates the campaign making sure that the rest of the staff and the campaigns consultants are focused effectively on winning the election. In small local campaigns, the manager will often be the only paid staff member. In larger campaigns, such as a United States presidential campaign, campaign managers will often have deputies who oversee various aspects of the campaign at a closer level. Directly below the campaign manager on the chart is the deputy campaign manager. These staff members often have deputies as well, below the department level, campaigns vary widely in their structure. On larger campaigns, there will be various coordinators for certain functions within each department, for example, within the fundraising department, there might be a staff member who focuses only on direct mail fundraising. The foundation of the structure are the interns and volunteers. Their tasks can include addressing envelopes, entering data into databases, the field department focuses on the on-the-ground organizing that is required in order to personally contact voters through canvassing, phone calls, and building local events. Voter contact helps construct and clean the campaigns voter file in order to better target voter persuasion. Field is generally tasked with running local storefront campaign offices as well as organizing phone banks and staging locations for canvasses. In addition to persuasion and voter identification, field staff will often provide information for the campaign headquarters as to what is going on in the communities they work in. Field staffers are the primary liaison between the campaign and local influentials such as interest group leaders and prominent community activists, field departments are also often primarily responsible for the local distribution of swag i. e. lawn signs, bumper stickers, buttons, and other such materials. The communications department oversees both the press relations and advertising involved in promoting the campaign in the media and they are responsible for the campaigns message and image among the electorate. Press releases, advertisements, phone scripts, and other forms of communication must be approved by this department before they can be released to the public, the staffers within this office vary widely from campaign to campaign. However they generally include, A press secretary who monitors the media, press secretaries set up interviews between the candidate and reporters, brief the press at press conferences, and perform other tasks involved in press relations
14.
Politics
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
15.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
16.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
17.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
18.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
19.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
20.
Social media
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Social media are computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, career interests and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks. User-generated content, such as posts or comments, digital photos or videos. Users create service-specific profiles for the website or app that are designed and maintained by the media organization. Social media facilitate the development of social networks by connecting a users profile with those of other individuals or groups. They introduce substantial and pervasive changes to communication between businesses, organizations, communities and individuals, Social media changes the way individuals and large organizations communicate. These changes are the focus of the field of technoself studies. In America, a reported that 84 percent of adolescents in America have a Facebook account. Over 60% of 13 to 17-year-olds have at least one profile on social media, according to Nielsen, Internet users continue to spend more time on social media sites than on any other type of site. For content contributors, the benefits of participating in social media have gone beyond simply social sharing to building a reputation and bringing in career opportunities and monetary income. Social media differ from paper-based or traditional media such as TV broadcasting in many ways, including quality, reach, frequency, usability, immediacy. Social media operate in a Dialogic transmission system and this is in contrast to traditional media which operates under a monologic transmission model, such as a paper newspaper which is delivered to many subscribers. Some of the most popular social media websites are Baidu Tieba, Facebook, Gab, Google+, Instagram, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Reddit, Snapchat, Tumblr, Twitter, Viber, WeChat, Weibo, WhatsApp, and YouTube. These social media websites have more than 100,000,000 registered users, observers have noted a range of positive and negative impacts of social media use. At the same time, concerns have been raised about possible links between social media use and depression, and even the issues of cyberbullying, online harassment. Currently, about half of adults have been cyberbullied and of those,20 percent said that they have been cyberbullied on a regular basis. Another survey was carried out among 7th grade students in America which is known as the Precaution Process Adoption Model, according to this study,69 percent of 7th grade students claim to have experienced cyberbullying and they also said that it is worse than face to face bullying. The variety and evolving stand-alone and built-in social media services introduces a challenge of definition, the terminology is unclear, with some referring to social media as social networks. A2015 paper reviewed the prominent literature in the area and identified four commonalities unique to then-current social media services, in 2016, Merriam-Webster defined social media as Forms of electronic communication through which people create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, etc
21.
United States presidential election, 1948
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The United States presidential election of 1948 was the 41st quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 2,1948. Trumans victory is considered to be one of the greatest election upsets in American history, virtually every prediction indicated that he would be defeated by Dewey. The Democratic Party had a severe three-way ideological split, with both the far left and far right of the Party running third-party campaigns, with simultaneous success in the 1948 congressional elections, the Democrats regained control of both houses of Congress, which they had lost in 1946. Thus, Trumans election confirmed the Democratic Partys status as the majority party. As would be experienced by the Democrats, there was a boom for General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the most popular general of World War II, unlike the latter movement within the Democratic party, however, the Republican draft movement came largely from the grassroots of the party. With the first state primary approaching, Eisenhower was forced to make a quick decision, stating that soldiers should keep out of politics, Eisenhower declined to run and requested that the grassroots draft movement cease its activities. Dewey, who had been the Republican nominee in 1944, was regarded as the frontrunner when the primaries began, Dewey was the acknowledged leader of the Republican Partys Eastern Establishment. In 1946 he had been re-elected governor of New York by the largest margin in state history, Deweys handicap was that many Republicans disliked him on a personal level, he often struck observers as cold, stiff, and calculating. Taft was the leader of the Republican Partys conservative wing, which was strongest in the Midwest, Taft had two major weaknesses, He was a plodding, dull campaigner, and he was viewed by most party leaders as being too conservative and controversial to win a presidential election. Both Vandenberg and Warren were highly popular in their states, but each refused to campaign in the primaries. Their supporters, however, hoped that in the event of a Dewey-Taft-Stassen deadlock, General MacArthur, the famous war hero, was especially popular among conservatives. Since he was serving in Japan as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers occupying that nation and they chose to enter his name in the Wisconsin primary. The surprise candidate of 1948 was Stassen, a liberal from Minnesota, in 1938, Stassen had been elected governor of Minnesota at the age of 31, he resigned as governor in 1943 to serve in the wartime Navy. In 1945 he served on the committee created the United Nations. Stassen was widely regarded as the most liberal of the Republican candidates, Stassen stunned Dewey and MacArthur in the Wisconsin primary, Stassens surprise victory virtually eliminated General MacArthur, whose supporters had made a major effort on his behalf. Stassen defeated Dewey again in the Nebraska primary, thus making him the new frontrunner and he then made the strategic mistake of trying to beat Taft in Ohio, Tafts home state. Stassen believed that if he could defeat Taft in his state, Taft would be forced to quit the race. Taft defeated Stassen in his native Ohio, however, and Stassen earned the hostility of the partys conservatives, even so, Stassen was still leading Dewey in the polls for the upcoming Oregon primary
22.
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
23.
United States presidential election, 1952
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The United States presidential election of 1952 was that nations 42nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 4,1952. Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower was the winner, ending a string of Democratic wins that stretched back to 1932. He carried the Republican Party to narrow control of the House, during this time, Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union was at a high level, as was fear of communism in the US, epitomized by the campaign of McCarthyism. Foreign policy was an issue in the race for the Republican nomination. The nation was polarized over the stalemated Korean War, and the extent of corruption in the government became a major issue as well. The economy was prosperous and economic and social issues played little role in the campaign, incumbent President Harry S. Truman, knocked out of the race by a poor showing in the early primaries, decided to back Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson. Stevenson had gained a reputation in Illinois as a reformer and intellectual, however, President Truman had several meetings with Stevenson about the Presidents desire for Stevenson to become the standard-bearer for the party. Truman became very frustrated with Stevenson and his level of indecision before Stevenson actually committed to running. The Republican Party saw a battle for its nomination contest between Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio and Eisenhower. The issue was foreign policy, with Eisenhower supporters attacking Taft as too isolationist, Taft saw little role for the United States in the Cold War. Eisenhower, the former NATO commander and war hero, narrowly defeated Taft. Eisenhower then crusaded against the Truman policies he blasted as Korea, Communism, Eisenhower did well in all major demographic and regional groups outside the Deep South. Republican candidates, The fight for the Republican nomination was between General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who became the candidate of the partys eastern establishment. The moderate Eastern Republicans were led by New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey, the moderates were also concerned with ending the Republicans losing streak in presidential elections, they felt that the personally popular Eisenhower had the best chance of beating the Democrats. For this reason, Dewey himself declined the notion of a run for president. The conservative Republicans led by Taft were based in the Midwest, the conservatives wanted to abolish many of the New Deal welfare programs, in foreign policy they were often non-interventionists who believed that America should avoid alliances with foreign powers. Taft had been a candidate for the Republican nomination in 1940 and 1948, Taft, who was 62 when the campaign began, freely admitted that 1952 was his last chance to win the nomination, and this led his supporters to work hard for him. Tafts weakness, which he was never able to overcome, was the fear of many party bosses that he was too conservative, Warren, although highly popular in California, refused to campaign in the presidential primaries and thus limited his chances of winning the nomination. He did retain the support of the California delegation, and his supporters hoped that, in the event of an Eisenhower-Taft deadlock, Warren might emerge as a compromise candidate
24.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
25.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
26.
Radio City Music Hall
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Radio City Music Hall is an entertainment venue located in Rockefeller Center in New York City. Its nickname is the Showplace of the Nation, and it was for a time the leading tourist destination in the city and its interior was declared a city landmark in 1978. It is notable as being the headquarters for the dance company. The 12-acre complex in Midtown Manhattan known as Rockefeller Center was developed between 1929 and 1940 by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. on land leased from Columbia University. The Radio City Music Hall was designed by architect Edward Durell Stone and its originally planned name was International Music Hall. The names Radio City and Radio City Music Hall derive from one of the complexs first tenants, Radio City Music Hall was a project of Rockefeller, Samuel Roxy Rothafel, who previously opened the Roxy Theatre in 1927, and RCA chairman David Sarnoff. The Music Hall opened to the public on December 27,1932 with a stage show featuring Ray Bolger, Doc Rockwell. The opening was meant to be a return to high-class variety entertainment, the new format was not a success. The program was long, and individual acts were lost in the cavernous hall. On January 11,1933, the Music Hall converted to the format of a feature film. The film-plus-stage-spectacle format continued at the Music Hall until 1979, with four complete performances presented every day, plans for alternate uses for the structure included converting the theater into tennis courts, a shopping mall or the American Stock Exchange. Joining forces with the media and political allies, including New York Lt. Gov. Mary Anne Krupsak, they challenged the Rockefeller establishment, against all odds, to save The Showplace of the Nation. On March 28,1978 New York Citys Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the interior of Radio City Music Hall a landmark guaranteeing that the building would remain a theatre, on May 12,1978, Radio City Music Hall was placed on The National Register of Historic Places. Regular film showings at Radio City ended in 1979 and in 1980, after a renovation, Radio City Music Hall is currently leased to and managed by The Madison Square Garden Company. Movie premieres and feature runs have occasionally taken place such as the Harry Potter film series. The Radio City Christmas Spectacular continues to be an important annual event, starting in 2013, however, the Tony Awards will be the only major televised awards ceremony at Radio City, as the Video Music Awards relocated permanently to the Barclays Center that year. Radio City has 5,933 seats for spectators, and additional seating can be placed on the pit elevator during events that do not require that space bringing the capacity to over 6,000. Designed by Edward Durell Stone, the interior of the theater with its austere Art Deco lines represented a break with the ornate rococo ornament associated with movie palaces at the time
27.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
28.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
29.
United States presidential election, 1960
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The United States presidential election of 1960 was the 44th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8,1960. The Republican Party nominated incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon, while the Democratic Party nominated John F. Kennedy, the incumbent President, Republican Dwight D. This was the first presidential election in which voters in Alaska and Hawaii were able to participate, Kennedy received 112,827 more votes than Nixon nationwide and although Nixon won the popular vote contest in more individual states, Kennedy won a 303 to 219 Electoral College victory. The 1960 presidential election was the closest election since 1916, which can be explained by a number of factors. Kennedy benefited from the recession of 1957–58, which hurt the standing of the incumbent Republican Party. Furthermore, the new votes that Kennedy, the first Roman Catholic president, Kennedys campaigning skills decisively outmatched Nixons. In the end, Nixons emphasis on his experience carried little weight, Kennedy used his large, well-funded campaign organization to win the nomination, secure endorsements, and, with the aid of the last of the big-city bosses, get out the vote in the big cities. Kennedy relied on running mate Lyndon B. Johnson to hold the South, following the election, Nixon unsuccessfully ran for governor of California in 1962, before making a successful campaign for the presidency in 1968, winning re-election by a landslide in 1972. He was later the first United States President to resign, following the Watergate Scandal and this election also features the last time the state of Ohio was on the losing end of the presidential election. From 1964 onward, the candidate who won Ohio won the election nationwide, several other candidates sought support in their home state or region as favorite son candidates without any realistic chance of winning the nomination. Symington, Stevenson, and Johnson all declined to campaign in the presidential primaries, realizing that this was a strategy touted by his opponents to keep the public from taking him seriously, Kennedy stated frankly, Im not running for vice-president, Im running for president. The next step was the primaries, Kennedys Roman Catholic religion was an issue. Kennedy first challenged Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey in the Wisconsin primary, Kennedys attractive sisters, brothers, and wife Jacqueline combed the state looking for votes, leading Humphrey to complain that he felt like an independent merchant competing against a chain store. The first televised debate of 1960 was held in West Virginia, humphreys campaign was low on funds and could not compete for advertising and other get-out-the-vote drives with Kennedys well-financed and well-organized campaign. In the end, Kennedy defeated Humphrey with over 60% of the vote, West Virginia showed that Kennedy, a Catholic, could win in a heavily Protestant state. Although Kennedy had only competed in nine primaries, Kennedys rivals, Johnson and Symington. Following the primaries, Kennedy traveled around the nation speaking to state delegations, as the Democratic Convention opened, Kennedy was far in the lead, but was still seen as being just short of the delegate total he needed to win. The 1960 Democratic National Convention was held in Los Angeles, California, in the week before the convention opened, Kennedy received two new challengers when Lyndon B
30.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
31.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
32.
Toleration
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Toleration is the acceptance of an action, object or person which one dislikes or disagrees with, where one is in a position to disallow it but chooses not to. Differ from ones own, freedom from bigotry too, there is only one verb to tolerate and one adjective tolerant, but the two nouns tolerance and toleration have evolved slightly different meanings. Tolerance is an attitude of mind that implies non-judgmental acceptance of different lifestyles or beliefs, historically, most incidents and writings pertaining to toleration involve the status of minority and dissenting viewpoints in relation to a dominant state religion. The word tolerance was first used in the 15th century, the word is derived from endurance and fortitude, used in the 14th century. According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word was first used to describe having permission from authorities in the 1530s. As reported in the Old Testament, the Persian king Cyrus the Great was believed to have released the Jews from captivity in 539–530 BCE, and permitted their return to their homeland. The Hellenistic city of Alexandria, founded 331 BCE, contained a large Jewish community which lived in peace with equivalently sized Greek, according to Michael Walzer, the city provided a useful example of what we might think of as the imperial version of multiculturalism. The Roman Empire encouraged conquered peoples to continue worshipping their own gods, an important part of Roman propaganda was its invitation to the gods of conquered territories to enjoy the benefits of worship within the imperium. Christians were singled out for persecution because of their own rejection of Roman pantheism, in 311 CE, Roman Emperor Galerius issued a general edict of toleration of Christianity, in his own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine I. In the Old Testament, the books of Exodus, Leviticus, julia Kristeva elucidated a philosophy of political and religious toleration based on all of our mutual identities as strangers. The New Testament Parable of the Tares, which speaks of the difficulty of distinguishing wheat from weeds before harvest time, has also been invoked in support of religious toleration. In his Letter to Bishop Roger of Chalons, Bishop Wazo of Liege relied on the parable to argue that the church should let dissent grow with orthodoxy until the Lord comes to separate, instead, Williams believed it was Gods duty to judge in the end, not mans. This parable lent further support to Williams Biblical philosophy of a wall of separation between church and state as described in his 1644 book, The Bloody Tenent of Persecution, in the Middle Ages, there were instances of toleration of particular groups. The Latin concept tolerantia was a political and judicial concept in mediaeval scholastic theology. Tolerantia was used to denote the self-restraint of a power in the face of outsiders, like infidels, Muslims or Jews. Heretics such as the Cathari, Waldensians, Jan Hus, and his followers, later theologians belonging or reacting to the Protestant Reformation began discussion of the circumstances under which dissenting religious thought should be permitted. Toleration as a practice in Christian countries, the sense on which most discussion of the phenomenon relies—is not attested before the sixteenth century. In Poland in 1264, the Statute of Kalisz was issued, in 1348, Pope Clement VI issued a bull pleading with Catholics not to murder Jews, whom they blamed for the Black Death
33.
Catholicism
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
34.
United States presidential election, 1964
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The United States presidential election of 1964 was the 45th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 3,1964, Democratic candidate and incumbent President Lyndon B. Johnson had come to office less than a year earlier following the assassination of his predecessor John F. Kennedy. Johnson, who had associated himself with Kennedy’s popularity, won 61. 1% of the popular vote. It was the most lopsided US presidential election in terms of votes. The Republican candidate, Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, suffered from a lack of support from his own party, Johnson’s campaign advocated a series of anti-poverty programs collectively known as the Great Society, and successfully portrayed Goldwater as being a dangerous extremist. Johnson easily won the Presidency, carrying 44 of the 50 states and the District of Columbia, Goldwater carried the remaining six states in what would be the first election to see a total of fifty states carried by presidential candidates. Goldwater’s unsuccessful bid influenced the modern movement and the long-time realignment within the Republican Party. His campaign received support from former Democratic strongholds in the Deep South and was the first Republican campaign to win Georgia in a presidential election. Conversely, Johnson won Alaska for the Democrats for the first time, as well as Maine, since 1992, Vermont and Maine have rested solidly in the Democratic column for presidential elections, and Georgia has remained in the Republican presidential fold since 1996. As of 2017, this is the last time Alaska, Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Utah, while on the first campaign swing of his re-election effort, President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22,1963 in Dallas, Texas. During the following period of mourning, Republican leaders called for a political moratorium, as such, little politicking was done by the candidates of either major party until January 1964, when the primary season officially began. At the time, most political pundits saw Kennedy’s assassination as a way of leaving the nation politically unsettled, President Lyndon B. Johnson Governor George Wallace The nomination of Johnson was assured, but he wanted to control the convention and to avoid a public fight over civil rights. Nonetheless, Johnson faced challenges from two sides over civil rights issues over the course of the nomination season, all favorite sons, however, won their primaries. In California, Yorty lost to Brown, many white delegates from Mississippi and Alabama refused to sign any pledge, and left the convention, and many young civil rights workers were offended by any compromise. Johnson biographers Rowland Evans and Robert Novak claim that the MFDP fell under the influence of black radicals, Johnson lost Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia and South Carolina. Johnson also faced trouble from Robert F. Kennedy, President Kennedy’s younger brother, Kennedy and Johnson’s relationship was troubled from the time Robert Kennedy was a Senate staffer. According to his recounting, Johnson and President Franklin D, in early 1964, despite his personal animosity for the president, Kennedy had tried to force Johnson to accept him as his running mate. Johnson eliminated this threat by announcing that none of his members would be considered for second place on the Democratic ticket
35.
Lyndon B. Johnson
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A Democrat from Texas, he previously served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and then as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two more as Senate Majority Whip, Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1960 presidential election. Although unsuccessful, he was chosen by then-Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts to be his running mate and they went on to win a close election over Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Johnson was sworn in as Vice President on January 20,1961. Two years and ten months later, on November 22,1963 and he successfully ran for a full term in the 1964 election, winning by a landslide over Republican opponent Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. He is one of four people who have served as President, Vice President, Senator. Johnson was renowned for his personality and the Johnson treatment. Assisted in part by an economy, the War on Poverty helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to use force in Southeast Asia without having to ask for an official declaration of war. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, from 16,000 advisors in non-combat roles in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968, American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. Growing unease with the war stimulated a large, angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U. S. and abroad. Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, while he began his presidency with widespread approval, support for Johnson declined as the public became upset with both the war and the growing violence at home. In 1968, the Democratic Party factionalized as antiwar elements denounced Johnson, Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him, as the New Deal coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years collapsed. After he left office in January 1969, Johnson returned to his Texas ranch, historians argue that Johnsons presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his policies and the passage of many major laws, affecting civil rights, gun control, wilderness preservation. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27,1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a farmhouse on the Pedernales River. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia, the nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas, was named after LBJs cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia. Johnson had English, German, and Ulster Scots ancestry and he was maternally descended from pioneer Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines, who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana
36.
Daisy (advertisement)
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Though only aired once, it is considered to be an important factor in Johnsons landslide victory over Barry Goldwater and an important turning point in political and advertising history. It remains one of the most controversial political advertisements ever made, after she reaches nine, she pauses, as if trying to remember the next number, and a male voice is then heard saying ten, at the start of a missile launch countdown. Seemingly in response to the countdown, the girl turns her head toward a point off-screen, as the countdown continues, a zoom of the video still focuses on the girls right eye until her pupil fills the screen, eventually blacking it out as the countdown simultaneously reaches zero. The scene then cuts to footage of a cloud from a different nuclear explosion. A voiceover from Johnson plays over all three pieces of nuclear detonation footage, stating emphatically, These are the stakes, to make a world in which all of Gods children can live, or to go into the dark. We must either love each other, or we must die, though regarded as a negative ad against Johnsons opponent, Barry Goldwater, Goldwater is never mentioned in the ad. In the 1964 election, Republican Barry Goldwater campaigned on a message of cutting social programs. Goldwaters campaign suggested a willingness to use weapons in situations when others would find that unacceptable. In turn, Goldwater defended himself by accusing Johnson of making the accusation indirectly, while Johnson wished to de-escalate the Vietnam War, Goldwater was a supporter and even suggested the use of nuclear weapons if necessary. The attack ad was designed to capitalize on these comments and it was not the only ad developed at this time, though it is the best-remembered. One was called Girl with Ice Cream Cone, and it talked about the risk of nuclear proliferation. The Daisy ad was created by a partnership between the Doyle Dane Bernbach advertising agency and Tony Schwartz, a designer and media consultant whom they hired to work on the project. The DDB team consisted of Art Director Sid Myers, Producer Aaron Ehrlich, Senior Copywriter Stan Lee, the casting and filming were done by DDB without Schwartz. The credit for the elements of the ad is disputed. Daisy aired only once, during a September 7,1964, telecast of David, Johnsons campaign was widely criticized for using the prospect of nuclear war, as well as for the implication that Goldwater would start one, to frighten voters. The ad was pulled, but the point was made, appearing on the nightly news. Johnsons line We must either love each other, or we must die echoes W. H. Audens poem September 1,1939 in which line 88 reads, the words children and the dark also occur in Audens poem. Johnsons majority in the 1964 election was the largest since James Monroes, in 1984, Walter Mondales unsuccessful presidential campaign used ads with a similar theme to Daisy
37.
Barry Goldwater
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Despite losing the election by a landslide, Goldwater is the politician most often credited for sparking the resurgence of the American conservative political movement in the 1960s. He also had a impact on the libertarian movement. Goldwater rejected the legacy of the New Deal and fought through the coalition against the New Deal coalition. He mobilized a large conservative constituency to win the hard-fought Republican primaries, though raised an Episcopalian, he was the first candidate with ethnically Jewish heritage to be nominated for President by a major American party. Goldwaters conservative campaign platform ultimately failed to gain the support of the electorate, Johnson, bringing down many conservative Republican office-holders as well. Jeff Fishel says, The conservative faction of the party was on the defensive as a result of the magnitude of the election losses. Goldwater returned to the Senate in 1969, and specialized in defense policy, after narrowly winning re-election to the Senate in 1980, he chose not to run for a sixth term in 1986, and was succeeded by fellow Republican John McCain. Goldwater was born in Phoenix, in what was then the Arizona Territory and his fathers family had founded Goldwaters, a leading upscale department store in Phoenix. Goldwaters paternal grandfather, Michel Goldwasser, a Polish Jew, was born in 1821 in Poland, soon after arriving in London, he anglicized his name from Goldwasser to Goldwater. Michel married Sarah Nathan, a member of a Jewish English family and his father was Jewish and his mother, who was Episcopalian, came from a New England family that included the theologian, Roger Williams of Rhode Island. Goldwaters parents were married in an Episcopal church in Phoenix, for his life, Goldwater was an Episcopalian. The family department store made the Goldwaters comfortably wealthy, Goldwater graduated from Staunton Military Academy, an elite private school in Virginia, and attended the University of Arizona for one year, where he joined the Sigma Chi fraternity. Barry had never been close to his father, but he took over the business after Barons death in 1930. He became a Republican, promoted innovative business practices, and opposed the New Deal, Goldwater came to know former President Herbert Hoover, whose conservative politics he admired greatly. In 1934, he married Margaret Peggy Johnson, wealthy daughter of a prominent industrialist from Muncie and they had four children, Joanne, Barry, Michael, and Peggy. Goldwater became a widower in 1985, and in 1992 he married Susan Wechsler, Goldwaters son Barry Goldwater Jr. served as a United States House of Representatives member from California from 1969 to 1983. Goldwaters grandson, Ty Ross, a former Zoli model, is gay and HIV positive. With the American entry into World War II, Goldwater received a commission in the United States Army Air Forces
38.
United States presidential election, 1972
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The United States presidential election of 1972, the 47th quadrennial presidential election was held on Tuesday, November 7,1972. Overall, he won 60. 7% of the popular vote, Johnson’s in 1964, but with a larger margin of victory in the popular vote, thus becoming the fourth largest in presidential election history. He received almost 18 million more votes than McGovern, the widest margin of any United States presidential election. McGovern only won the votes in Massachusetts and the District of Columbia. It was also the first time that Hawaii was carried by a Republican, together with the House and Senate elections of 1972, it was the first electoral event in which people aged 18 to 20 could vote in every state, according to the provisions of the 26th Amendment. It was also the first election in which California had the most votes in the electoral college, furthermore, the presidential term of 1973–1977 is notable for being the only one in American history in which both the original President and Vice President fail to complete the term. Ultimately, the 1973–77 term would see two different Presidents and three different Vice Presidents, as of 2016, this is the last time Minnesota voted for the Republican candidate. Overall, fifteen people declared their candidacy for the Democratic Party nomination, mcCarthy, former Senator from Minnesota Henry M. C. The favorite for the Democratic nomination then became Senator Ed Muskie, Muskie’s momentum collapsed just prior to the New Hampshire primary, when the so-called Canuck letter was published in the Manchester Union-Leader. Subsequently, the published an attack on the character of Muskie’s wife Jane, reporting that she drank. Muskie made a defense of his wife in a speech outside the newspaper’s offices during a snowstorm. Nearly two years before the election, South Dakota Senator George McGovern entered the race as an anti-war, McGovern was able to pull together support from the anti-war movement and other grassroots support to win the nomination in a primary system he had played a significant part in designing. On January 25,1972, New York Representative Shirley Chisholm announced she would run, Hawaii Representative Patsy Mink also announced she would run and became the first Asian American to run for the Democratic presidential nomination. On April 25, George McGovern won the Massachusetts primary, once middle America – Catholic middle America, in particular – finds this out, he’s dead. ”The label stuck and McGovern became known as the candidate of amnesty, abortion, and acid. It became Humphrey’s battle cry to stop McGovern—especially in the Nebraska primary, alabama Governor George Wallace, an anti-integrationist, did well in the South and among alienated and dissatisfied voters in the North. What might have become a campaign was cut short when Wallace was shot in an assassination attempt by Arthur Bremer on May 15. Wallace was struck by five bullets and left paralyzed from the waist down, the day after the assassination attempt, Wallace won the Michigan and Maryland primaries, but the shooting effectively ended his campaign and he pulled out in July. In the end, McGovern won the nomination by winning primaries through grassroots support in spite of establishment opposition, McGovern had led a commission to re-design the Democratic nomination system after the divisive nomination struggle and convention of 1968
39.
George McGovern
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George Stanley McGovern was an American historian, author, U. S. Representative, U. S. Senator, and the Democratic Party presidential nominee in the 1972 presidential election. McGovern grew up in Mitchell, South Dakota, where he was a renowned debater and he volunteered for the U. S. Army Air Forces upon the countrys entry into World War II and as a B-24 Liberator pilot flew 35 missions over German-occupied Europe. Among the medals bestowed upon him was a Distinguished Flying Cross for making an emergency landing of his damaged plane. After the war he gained degrees from Dakota Wesleyan University and Northwestern University, culminating in a PhD and he was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1956 and re-elected in 1958. After a failed bid for the U. S. Senate in 1960, as a senator, McGovern was an exemplar of modern American liberalism. He became most known for his opposition to the growing U. S. involvement in the Vietnam War. He staged a brief run in the 1968 presidential election as a stand-in for the assassinated Robert F. Kennedy. The McGovern–Hatfield Amendment sought to end the Vietnam War by legislative means but was defeated in 1970 and 1971, in the general election McGovern lost to incumbent Richard Nixon in one of the biggest landslides in American electoral history. Re-elected Senator in 1968 and 1974, McGovern was defeated in a bid for a term in 1980. Throughout his career, McGovern was involved in related to agriculture, food, nutrition. McGovern was born in the 600‑person farming community of Avon, South Dakota, McGovern, born in 1868, was pastor of the local Wesleyan Methodist Church there. Joseph – the son of an alcoholic who had immigrated from Ireland – had grown up in states, working in coal mines from the age of nine. He had been a baseball player in the minor leagues, but had given it up due to his teammates heavy drinking, gambling and womanizing. George was the second oldest of four children, Joseph McGoverns salary never reached $100 per month, and he often received compensation in the form of potatoes, cabbages, or other food items. Joseph and Frances McGovern were both firm Republicans, but were not politically active or doctrinaire, when George was about three years old, the family moved to Calgary for a while to be near Frances ailing mother, and he formed memories of events such as the Calgary Stampede. When George was six, the returned to the United States and moved to Mitchell, South Dakota. McGovern attended public schools there and was an average student and he was painfully shy as a child and was afraid to speak in class during first grade. His only reproachable behavior was going to see movies, which were among the worldly amusements forbidden to good Wesleyan Methodists
