1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
3.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
4.
States of Brazil
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The Federative Republic of Brazil is a union of 27 Federative Units,26 states and one federal district, where the federal capital, Brasília, is located. The states are based on historical, conventional borders which have developed over time. The Federal District is not formally a state, but shares some characteristics of a state as well as some of a municipality, the codes given below are defined in ISO 3166-2, BR. The first administrative divisions of Brazil were the hereditary captaincies, stretches of land granted by the Portuguese Crown to noblemen or merchants with a charter to colonize the land, as the map shows, these divisions generally followed lines of latitude. Each of the holders of these captaincies was referred to as a captain donatary and these captaincies were to be passed from father to son, but the Crown retained the power to revoke them, which the King indeed did in the 16th century. In 1549, the Portuguese Crown appointed Tomé de Sousa as the first governor-general of the vast Portuguese dominion in South America and this dominion overall became known as the State of Brazil. In several periods of history, the half of the dominion was detached from the State of Brazil. Unlike Spanish America, the territory remained united under a single governor-general. This arrangement later helped to keep Brazil as a unified nation-state, in 1759, the heritability of the captaincies was totally abolished by the government of the Marquis of Pombal, with all captains becoming appointed by the Crown. The captaincies were officially renamed provinces on 28 February 1821, with independence, in 1822, the former captaincies became provinces of the Empire of Brazil. Most internal boundaries were unchanged from the colonial period, generally following natural features such as rivers. Minor changes were made to domestic politics, as well as additions resulting from diplomatic settlement of territorial disputes by the end of the 19th century. When Brazil became a republic in 1889, all provinces immediately became states, after the war, the first four territories became states, with Rio Branco and Guaporé being renamed Roraima and Rondônia, respectively, whilst Ponta Porã and Iguaçu remained as territories. In 1960, the square-shaped Distrito Federal was carved out of Goiás in preparation for the new capital, Brasília. The previous federal district became Guanabara State, but in 1975 it was merged with Rio de Janeiro State, retaining its name, in 1977, Mato Grosso was split into two states. The northern area retained the name Mato Grosso while the area became the state of Mato Grosso do Sul. The new Mato Grosso do Sul incorporated the territory of Ponta Porã, central Iguaçu went to Paraná, and southern Iguaçu went to Santa Catarina. In 1988, the portion of Goiás became the state of Tocantins
5.
Mato Grosso do Sul
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Mato Grosso do Sul is one of the Central-Western states of Brazil. Its total area of 357,125 square kilometers, or 137,891 square miles, is roughly the size as Germany. Neighboring Brazilian states are Mato Grosso, Goiás, Minas Gerais, São Paulo and it also borders the countries of Paraguay, to the southwest, and Bolivia, to the west. The economy of the state is based on agriculture and cattle-raising. Crossed in the south by the Tropic of Capricorn, Mato Grosso do Sul generally has a warm, sometimes hot, and humid climate, the state is also famous for its natural beauty, and is a major destination for domestic and international tourism. The Pantanal lowlands cover 12 municipalities and presents a variety of flora and fauna, with forests, natural sand banks, savannahs, open pasture, fields. The city Bonito, in the mountain of Bodoquena, has prehistoric caves, natural rivers, waterfalls, swimming pools and the Blue Lake cave. The name Mato Grosso do Sul literally means Thick Bushes of the South in Portuguese and it is not uncommon for people to mistakenly refer to Mato Grosso do Sul as simply Mato Grosso. Other names that were proposed, at the time of the split and afterwards, include Pantanal, Mato Grosso do Sul has humid subtropical and tropical climates. The average annual rainfall is 1471.1 mm. January is the warmest month, with maximum of 34 °C and minimum of 24 °C and more rain, July experiences the coldest temperatures, with mean maximum of 25 °C and minimum of -2,0 °C. The cerrado landscape is characterized by extensive savanna formations crossed by gallery forests, Cerrado includes various types of vegetation. Humid fields and buriti palm paths are found where the table is near the surface. Alpine pastures occur at higher altitudes and mesophytic forests on more fertile soils, the cerrado trees have characteristic twisted trunks covered by a thick bark, and leaves which are usually broad and rigid. Many herbaceous plants have extensive roots to store water and nutrients, the plants thick bark and roots serve as adaptations for the periodic fires which sweep the cerrado landscape. The adaptations protect the plants from destruction and make them capable of sprouting again after the fire, the state is located in western Brazil, in a region mostly occupied by the inland marshes of the Pantanal. The highest elevation is the 1,065 m high Morro Grande, in October 11,1977, the state was created by dividing the state of Mato Grosso. Its status as a state went into effect two years later on January 1,1979
6.
Regions of Brazil
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Brazil is geopolitically divided into five regions by the Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, each region is composed of three or more states. On state level, there are also mesoregion and microregion, There are 137 mesoregions and 558 microregions. Economy, Iron, Energy production, electronic manufacturing, tourism, Highways are scarce and present mainly in the east. Airplanes are commonly used in remote communities and sometimes in the larger cities. Vegetation, Almost the entire region is covered by Amazon Rainforest, except the state of Tocantins, although most of the native vegetation still remains, the region suffers from critical problems due to the growing deforestation of the area. Notable characteristics, Presence of the Amazon Rainforest, which is the dominant in every state. Cities are spread far apart in the region, and it has the lowest population density of the country, There are very few paved highways in the region, as it is almost isolated from the rest of the country. It is also the biggest region of Brazil, being responsible for almost half of the Brazilian territorial extension, economic growth is above national average. Area,1,561,177 km² Population,53,340,945 GDP, R$437 billion / US$273,1 billion Climate, tropical near the coast and semi-arid in the interior, semi-equatorial in the far west of the region. Economy, Tourism, cocoa, machinery manufacturing, textiles, transport, Mainly highways, which are more abundant along the coast, although transport by sea is also important. Vegetation, Mainly desert-like vegetation, with forests along the coast and in the west. Notable characteristics, This region was the first part of Brazil discovered by the Portuguese, and it has the lowest levels in the country in almost all of the social indicators, being considered the most impoverished region in Brazil. However, has been growing above national average since the start of 21st century, area,1,612,077.2 km² Population,13,357,154 GDP, R$279 billion / US$174,3 billion Climate, Savanna climate. States, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, largest Cities, Brasília, Goiânia, Campo Grande, Cuiabá, Aparecida de Goiânia, Anápolis. Transport, Highways where they are present, transport by rivers is common in the north and in the east, airplanes are used in remote, vegetation, Mainly savanna-like vegetation, including the Pantanal, flooded areas in the west, equatorial rainforests in the north. Notable characteristics, With a low density, most of the land in the region is used for grazing instead of agriculture. The region is also the least industrialized in the country, based mainly in food & meat processing. The economical success of this region is a combination of its 4 states. São Paulo state is the most developed in the country, it has a density as high as European Occident
7.
Central-West Region, Brazil
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The Central-West Region of Brazil is composed of the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, along with Distrito Federal, where Brazils national capital, Brasília, is situated. This Region is right in the heart of Brazil, representing 18. 86% of the national territory, today, Center-West is attracting many investments for agriculture, pecuary, industries and people from Southeast and Southern Brazil. The Center-West is home to the University of Brasília, University Center of Brasília, Federal University of Goiás, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul and Federal University of Mato Grosso. Mato Grosso A state with a landscape, alternating great chapadas and plain areas. The vegetation of the open pasture covers 40% of the state, in the north is the Amazonian Rainforest, with a huge biodiversity covering half of the state and the Xingu National Park and the river Araguaia. Further south, the Pantanal, the world largest plain covered with water, is the habitat for almost a thousand species of animals, with many aquatic birds. Mato Grosso do Sul The Pantanal covers 12 municipalities and presents a variety of flora and fauna, with forests, natural sand banks, savannahs, open pasture, fields. The city Bonito, in the mountain of Bodoquena, has prehistoric caverns, natural rivers, waterfalls, swimming pools, Mato Grosso do Sul has humid subtropical and tropical climate. The annual rainfall is 1.500 mm, january is the warmest month, with mean maxima of 34 °C and minima of 24 °C and more rain, July experiences the coldest temperatures, with mean maxima of 25 °C and minima of 15 °C and sun. The cerrado landscape is characterized by extensive savanna formations crossed by gallery forests, Cerrado includes various types of vegetation. Goiás The most populous state of the region, Goiás presents a landscape of plateaus, in the height of the draught, from June to September, the lack of rain makes the level of the River Araguaia go down and brings up almost 2 km of beaches. At the Emas National Park in the municipality of Chapadão do Céu, it is possible to observe the typical fauna, at the Chapada dos Veadeiros the attractions are the canyons, valleys, rapids and waterfalls. Other attractions are the city of Goiás, at 132 km from Goiânia, established in the beginning of 18th century. Federal District Located in the State of Goiás, in a region called Planalto Central, Brasília - place where the three branches of the Federal Government are located - is the main attraction of this dry area and climate with only two seasons. The raining season from October to March, during the dry season, the humidity can reach critical levels, mainly in the pick hours of the hottest days. The artificial lake of Paranoá, with almost 40 km² and 500 million m³ of water, was built exactly to minimize the severe conditions of the winter. The region also attracts místicos and in its surroundings you find many temples of different religions, the Central-West Region has 237 cities. Brazils largest manganese reserve is found in the Central-West Region in Urucum Woods and political business, vehicles,3,944,768, Telephones,3,168,026, Portuguese language is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools
8.
List of largest cities in Brazil
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Brazil has a high level of urbanization,82 out of every 100 Brazilians live in cities. The criteria used by the IBGE in determining whether households are urban or rural, however, are based on political divisions, nowadays, the country has more than 5,570 municipalities. About 87. 86% of Brazilians live in urban areas, the state capitals are also the largest cities in their respective states, exceptions being Florianópolis and Vitória. There are also metropolitan areas in São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Bahia, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina. Most of the large cities in Brazil are in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Pernambuco, Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul. This is a list of the most populous cities based on the population of the municipality where the city is located, as IBGE considers the entire Federal District synonymous to Brasília, the population of the Federal District is shown for Brasília. IBGE estimates of 1 July 2014 State capitals are in bold, the first rank tells the list of largest cities in Brazil, the second rank is by state capitals and the third by non-capitals. Palmas is the state capital not listed. Brazils population, as recorded by the 2010 Census, was of 190,755,799 inhabitants, the population is heavily concentrated in the Southeast and Northeast
9.
Metropolitan area
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As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. The Greater São Paulo is a term for one of the multiple definitions the large metropolitan area located in the São Paulo state in Brazil. A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with zones not necessarily urban in character and these outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, El Monte, California is considered part of the Los Angeles metro area in the United States, in practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Population figures given for one area can vary by millions. A polycentric metropolitan area is one not connected by continuous development or conurbation, in defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus that other areas have a high degree of integration with. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines statistical divisions as areas under the influence of one or more major towns or a major city. However, this definition has become obsolete with the conurbation of several statistical divisions into a larger metropolitan areas. In Brazil, metropolitan areas are called metropolitan regions, each State defines its own legislation for the creation, definition and organization of a metropolitan region. The creation of a region is not intended for any statistical purpose, although the Brazilian Institute of Geography. Their main purpose is to allow for a management of public policies of common interest to all cities involved. They dont have political, electoral or jurisdictional power whatsoever, so living in a metropolitan region do not elect representatives for them. Statistics Canada defines a metropolitan area as an area consisting of one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core. To form a CMA, the area must have a population of at least 100,000. To be included in the CMA, adjacent municipalities must have a degree of integration with the core. As of the Canada 2011 Census, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, including six with a population over one million—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary and Edmonton. In Denmark the only area is Greater Copenhagen, consisting of the Capital Region of Denmark along with the neighboring regions Region Zealand. Greater Copenhagen has an population of 1.25 million people
10.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
11.
Capital (political)
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A capital city is the municipality exercising primary status in a country, state, province, or other region, usually as its seat of government. A capital is typically a city that encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government. In some jurisdictions, including countries, the different branches of government are located in different settlements. In some cases, a distinction is made between the capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. The word capital derives from the Latin caput, meaning head, in several English-speaking states, the terms county town, county seat, and borough seat are also used in lower subdivisions. In unitary states, subnational capitals are known as administrative centres. The capital is often, but not necessarily, the largest city of its constituent, historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, Ancient Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Changan, Ancient Cusco, Madrid, Paris, London, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Vienna, and Berlin. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e. g. Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Ancient Babylon, Moscow, Belgrade, Paris, and Peking. A capital city that is also the economic, cultural. The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal, traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e. g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its city, as occurred at Babylon. Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such, for example Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, are located in or near them. In Canada, there is a capital, while the ten provinces. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil, and Australia all have capital cities, for example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the capital cities is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra and Darwin. Abu Dhabi is the city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent countries, such as the United Kingdom or the Kingdom of Denmark, the national capitals of Germany and Russia, the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the Federal City of Moscow, are also constituent states of both countries in their own right
12.
Center-West Region, Brazil
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The Central-West Region of Brazil is composed of the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, along with Distrito Federal, where Brazils national capital, Brasília, is situated. This Region is right in the heart of Brazil, representing 18. 86% of the national territory, today, Center-West is attracting many investments for agriculture, pecuary, industries and people from Southeast and Southern Brazil. The Center-West is home to the University of Brasília, University Center of Brasília, Federal University of Goiás, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul and Federal University of Mato Grosso. Mato Grosso A state with a landscape, alternating great chapadas and plain areas. The vegetation of the open pasture covers 40% of the state, in the north is the Amazonian Rainforest, with a huge biodiversity covering half of the state and the Xingu National Park and the river Araguaia. Further south, the Pantanal, the world largest plain covered with water, is the habitat for almost a thousand species of animals, with many aquatic birds. Mato Grosso do Sul The Pantanal covers 12 municipalities and presents a variety of flora and fauna, with forests, natural sand banks, savannahs, open pasture, fields. The city Bonito, in the mountain of Bodoquena, has prehistoric caverns, natural rivers, waterfalls, swimming pools, Mato Grosso do Sul has humid subtropical and tropical climate. The annual rainfall is 1.500 mm, january is the warmest month, with mean maxima of 34 °C and minima of 24 °C and more rain, July experiences the coldest temperatures, with mean maxima of 25 °C and minima of 15 °C and sun. The cerrado landscape is characterized by extensive savanna formations crossed by gallery forests, Cerrado includes various types of vegetation. Goiás The most populous state of the region, Goiás presents a landscape of plateaus, in the height of the draught, from June to September, the lack of rain makes the level of the River Araguaia go down and brings up almost 2 km of beaches. At the Emas National Park in the municipality of Chapadão do Céu, it is possible to observe the typical fauna, at the Chapada dos Veadeiros the attractions are the canyons, valleys, rapids and waterfalls. Other attractions are the city of Goiás, at 132 km from Goiânia, established in the beginning of 18th century. Federal District Located in the State of Goiás, in a region called Planalto Central, Brasília - place where the three branches of the Federal Government are located - is the main attraction of this dry area and climate with only two seasons. The raining season from October to March, during the dry season, the humidity can reach critical levels, mainly in the pick hours of the hottest days. The artificial lake of Paranoá, with almost 40 km² and 500 million m³ of water, was built exactly to minimize the severe conditions of the winter. The region also attracts místicos and in its surroundings you find many temples of different religions, the Central-West Region has 237 cities. Brazils largest manganese reserve is found in the Central-West Region in Urucum Woods and political business, vehicles,3,944,768, Telephones,3,168,026, Portuguese language is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools
13.
Country
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A country is a region that is identified as a distinct national entity in political geography. Sometimes the word countries is used to both to sovereign states and to other political entities, while other times it refers only to states. The word country comes from Old French contrée, itself derived from Vulgar Latin contrata and it most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century. Areas much smaller than a state may be called by names such as the West Country in England, the Black Country, Constable Country. In many European countries the words are used for sub-divisions of the territory, as in the German Bundesländer. The modern Italian contrada is a word with its meaning varying locally, the term country is frequently used to refer to sovereign states. There is no agreement on the number of countries in the world. There are 206 sovereign states, of which 193 states are members of the United Nations, all are defined as states by declarative theory of statehood and constitutive theory of statehood. The latest proclaimed state is South Sudan in 2011, the Kingdom of Denmark, a sovereign state, comprises Metropolitan Denmark and two nominally separate countries—the Faroe Islands, and Greenland—which are almost fully internally self-governing. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, a state, comprises four separate countries, Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao. The degree of autonomy of non-sovereign countries varies widely, some are possessions of sovereign states, as several states have overseas territories, with citizenry at times identical and at times distinct from their own
14.
Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics
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IBGE performs a decennial national census, questionnaires account for information such as age, household income, literacy, education, occupation and hygiene levels. IBGE is an institute created in 1936 under the name National Institute of Statistics. Its founder and chief proponent was statistician Mário Augusto Teixeira de Freitas, the current name dates from 1938. Its headquarters are located in Rio de Janeiro, and its current president is Paulo Rabello de Castro and it was made a federal agency by Decree-Law No.161 on February 13,1967, and is subordinate to the Ministry of Planning, Budget, and Management. The IBGE also maintains the Roncador Ecological Reserve, situated 35 km south of Brasília, gives an overview of the economy and describes the phenomena of economic life, production, consumption and wealth accumulation, providing a comprehensive and simplified representation of these data. Two series of numbers are calculated, the basis of the previous year. The series is seasonally adjusted using X-12-ARIMA, enabling calculation of the rates of change over the previous quarter, the IBGE survey was started in 1988 and restructured after 1998, when their results were integrated into the current System of National Accounts. The annual weights are derived from this new system accounts,73,177 of November 20,1973 and Law No.5534 of November 14,1968, modified by Law No. In Brazil, the censuses are conducted every 10 years solely by the IBGE. The population count is made between the interval between two censuses, usually five years after the last five or before the next, aims to update the data on the number of inhabitants, and is not always applied in all municipalities. The agricultural census collects information on agricultural establishments, forests and/or aquaculture of all municipalities of a country, the goal of this research is to update previous census data and to provide information about economic, social, and environmental farming. It usually occurs every 10 years, the last agricultural census conducted by the IBGE in Brazil was in 1996. In 2007, a new census was undertaken, which refers to activities developed in the previous year. The next agricultural census is planned for 2017, after the 2016 one was cancelled due to insufficient funds, National mapping agencies Instituto Nacional de Estatística IBGE website
15.
Minas Gerais
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Minas Gerais is a state in the north of Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product, Minas Gerais is the state with the largest number of Brazilian presidents. With an area of 586,528 square kilometres —larger than Metropolitan France—it is the fourth most extensive state in Brazil. In the south, the tourist points are the mineral spas, such as Caxambu, Lambari, São Lourenço, Poços de Caldas, São Thomé das Letras, Monte Verde. The landscape of the State is marked by mountains, valleys, in the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls are the attractions. Some of Brazils most famous caverns are located there, in recent years, the state has emerged as one of the largest economic forces of Brazil, exploring its great economic potential. Two interpretations are given for the origin of the name Minas Gerais and it comes from Minas dos Matos Gerais, the former name of the colonial province. Another explanation is that this ignores the two large geographical spaces which conformed the state in its history, the region of the mines, and these corresponded to the areas of Sertão which were farther and hard to access from the mining spots. The confusion comes from the fact that the term Gerais is taken as an adjective to Minas in the first version, Minas Gerais is in the north of the southeastern subdivision of Brasil, which also contains the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It borders on Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and it also shares a short boundary with the Distrito Federal. Minas Gerais is situated between 14°1358 and 22°5400 S latitude and between 39°5132 and 51°0235 W longitude and it is larger in area than Metropolitan France or Spain. Minas Gerais features some of the longest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, the state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Emeralds found in location are comparable to the best Colombia-origin emeralds. Each region of the state has a character, geographically. The central and eastern area of the state is hilly and rocky, around Lagoa Santa and Sete Lagoas a typical Karst topography with caves and lakes is found. Some of the mountains are almost entirely iron ore, which led to extensive mining, recent advances in environmental policy helped to put limits to mining. Vale do Aços largest cities are Ipatinga, Coronel Fabriciano and Timóteo, now that mining is restricted large areas of forest are being removed for timber, charcoal and to clear land for cattle ranching
16.
Mato Grosso
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Mato Grosso is one of the states of Brazil, the third largest by area, located in the western part of the country. Neighboring states are Rondônia, Amazonas, Pará, Tocantins, Goiás and it also borders Bolivia to the southwest. A state with a landscape, alternating great chapadas and plain areas. The vegetation of the open pasture covers 40% of the state, in the north is the Amazonian forest, with a biodiversity originally covering half of the state, currently largely devastated for logging, agricultural purposes and pastures. The Xingu National Park and the Araguaia River are in Mato Grosso, further south, the Pantanal, the worlds largest wetland, is the habitat for almost a thousand species of animals, with many aquatic birds. Located in the Mato Grosso is the Chapada dos Guimarães, an environment made from sandstone mountains. The terrain of the Mato Grosso is varied and includes cliffs, canyons, the biologically rich Pantanal, one of the worlds largest wetland/prairie ecosystems, is also located within this state. Much environmental degradation has occurred to the Pantanal within the past few decades, the Pantanal can be compared to the Everglades in Florida, as both share much in common, habitat wise, although the Pantanal is of much larger scale. In 1977, the state was split into two halves, with Mato Grosso do Sul becoming a new state, the Bororo Indians live in the Mato Grosso area. As late as 1880, soldiers patrolled lands on the outskirts of Cuiabá, Mato Grossos capital and largest city, the southwestern part of it was ceded to Bolivia in exchange for Acre, according to Treaty of Petrópolis in 1903. The historic remoteness of this area led it to be the subject of exploration, most notably by Captain Percy Fawcett and it was also the rumored location of access to the interior of the earth in various Hollow Earth theories. Mato Grosso had a rate of population growth in the 20th century. Despite this, the state as a whole has one of the lowest population densities of any Brazilian state, according to the IBGE of 2008,3,010,000 people resided in the state. The population density was 3.2 inh. /km², urbanization,76. 6%, Population growth,2. 4%, Houses,836,000. Ethnically, the state includes a high proportion of caboclos. The last PNAD census revealed the numbers,1,532,000 Brown people,1,179,000 White people,239,000 Black people,41,000 Amerindian people,14,000 Asian people. Agriculture is the largest component of GDP at 40. 8%, the industrial sector represents 19% of GDP. Mato Grosso exports, soybeans 83%, wood 5. 6%, meats 4. 8%, the states share of the Brazilian economy is 1. 7%
17.
Bolivia
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Bolivia, officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. One-third of the country is the Andean mountain range, with one of its largest cities and principal economic centers, El Alto, Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia. Bolivia is geographically the largest landlocked country in the Americas, but remains a small country in economic. Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas, spain built its empire in great part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivias mines. After the first call for independence in 1809,16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre. The countrys population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, the racial and social segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara, modern Bolivia is constitutionally a unitary state, divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands and it is a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing such as textiles, clothing, refined metals. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin, Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence. Sucre opted to create a new nation and, with local support. The original name was Republic of Bolívar, some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed, If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia. The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825, the region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived. However, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, the capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village. The community grew to urban proportions between AD600 and AD800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes
18.
Bauru
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Bauru is a Brazilian municipality in midwestern region of the state of São Paulo. It is the city of the mesoregion and microregion of Bauru. The population is 366,992 in an area of 667.68 km², established in 1896, its boundaries are Reginópolis to the north, Arealva to the northeast, Pederneiras to the east, Agudos and Piratininga to the south and Avaí to the west. It is the hometown of Marcos César Pontes, the first Brazilian in space and it is also the town where Pelé grew up and learned his football skills. The city is served by two airports, the older Bauru Airport, and the newer Bauru-Arealva Airport, officially known as Moussa Nakhl Tobias Airport, there are various theories intended to explain the origin of the name Bauru. One was proposed by Ismael Marinho Falcão, an engineer who lived for years with the Kaingang tribe. According to him, the region was called ubaurú because of the abundance of a plant called ubá, used for hampers and wicker baskets, and urú. Historically, the occupied by Bauru was a disputed territory between two Indigenous groups, the Kaingang and the Guaraní. The non-Indians only managed to settle in the region in the century with the coming of the population coming from São Paulos coast as well the states of Minas Gerais. In 1856, Felicissimo Antonio Pereira, coming from Minas Gerais, purchased land and settled, near the current center of Bauru, years later, in 1884, this farm have spun off part of its area for the training camp of the São Sebastião de Bauru. The district has progressed, even being subject to attacks of native Kaingang and relatively isolated from the rest of the state, the arrival of migrants from eastern São Paulo and Minas Gerais led to the emancipation of the city on August 1,1896. The new municipality at first lived from the cultivation of coffee, despite having weaker and infertile lands that the rest of the state. In 1905, Bauru was chosen as the point of the Estrada de Ferro Noroeste do Brasil. During the first half of the century, Bauru becomes the main economic hub of the region comprised by west São Paulo, northern Paraná. The team plays its games at the Ginásio Panela de Pressão. Bauru travel guide from Wikivoyage UOL. com. br, History of Bauru - Origin of Bauru, SP. gov. br, Official Website - Prefeitura Municipal de Bauru Embrapa. br, Aerial view of the city
19.
Population growth
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In biology, population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population. Global human population growth amounts to around 75 million annually, or 1. 1% per year, the global population has grown from 1 billion in 1800 to 7 billion in 2012. It is expected to keep growing, and estimates have put the population at 8.4 billion by mid-2030. Many nations with rapid growth have low standards of living. The growth of the started in the Western world during industrialization by the end of the 18th century. The reasons for the Modern Rise of Population were particularly investigated by the British health scientist Thomas McKeown, although the McKeown thesis has been heavily disputed, recent studies have confirmed the value of his ideas. His work is pivotal for present day thinking about population growth, birth control, public health, McKeown had a major influence on many population researchers, such as health economists and Noble prize winners Robert W. Fogel and Angus Deaton. The latter considered McKeown as the founder of social medicine, the population growth rate is the rate at which the number of individuals in a population increases in a given time period, expressed as a fraction of the initial population. A related measure is the net reproduction rate, most populations do not grow exponentially, rather they follow a logistic model. The Analytic Logistic Solution This is a differential equation that can be derived through integration. The analytic solution is useful in analyzing the behavior of population models, the equation is separable and to find the solution we integrate. ∫ d P P = ∫ k ⋅ d t Working on just the left side of the equation, the fraction in the denominator is eliminated by multiplying the variable K, and then the fraction is split in 2. 1 P ⋅ K K = K P K P =1 P +1 K − P The partial fraction is then integrated more easily. This is the equation that remains, | K − P P | = e − k t − C Get rid of the absolute value, in 2009, the estimated annual growth rate was 1. 1%. The CIA World Factbook gives the world annual birthrate, mortality rate, and growth rate as 1. 86%,0. 78%, and 1. 08% respectively. The annual increase in the number of living humans peaked at 88.0 million in 1989, then declined to 73.9 million in 2003. In 2009, the population increased by 74.6 million. In some countries the population is declining, especially in Eastern Europe, mainly due to low fertility rates, high death rates, in Southern Africa, growth is slowing due to the high number of AIDS-related deaths
20.
Urban center
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An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, in urbanism, the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment. The worlds urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has increased to 3.9 billion in the decades since, in 2009, the number of people living in urban areas surpassed the number living in rural areas and since then the world has become more urban than rural. This was the first time that the majority of the population lived in a city. In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet, Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Urban areas are measured for various purposes, including analyzing population density, historian John Gurda writes, I have tried to uncover Milwaukees civic bedrock - the shifting foundation on which individuals have built their lives and the community has constructed its identity. There is no doubt that the deepest layer of bedrock is economic. In every age, people have chosen to live in areas not because of their climates or landmarks or cultural attractions. It was economic opportunity that brought people to Milwaukee, and it is economic opportunity that keeps them there, I define cities as concentrations of people animated by concentrations of capital. More simply put, money is the root of all cities, official definitions vary somewhat between nations. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population, about 3 million people live in Buenos Aires City and the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world. The metropolitan areas of Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza and Tucumán have around 1.3 million inhabitants each and La Plata, seven other provinces have over one million people each, Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. According to IBGE urban areas already concentrate 84. 35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 20,12, and 5 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, there are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. According to Statistics Canada, an area in Canada is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square kilometre. If two or more areas are within 2 km of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area. Accordingly, the new definition set out three types of population centres, small, medium and large
21.
Japanese Brazilian
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Japanese Brazilians are Brazilian citizens who are nationals or naturals of Japanese ancestry, or Japanese immigrants living in Brazil. The first Japanese immigrants arrived in Brazil in 1908, Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside Japan. According to the IBGE, as of 2009 there were approximately 1.6 million people of Japanese descent in Brazil, between the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, coffee was the main export product of Brazil. At first, Brazilian farmers used African slave labour in the plantations, but in 1850. To solve the shortage, the Brazilian elite decided to attract European immigrants to work on the coffee plantations. This also supported the push toward Whitening the country. The hope was that through procreation that the large African and Native American groups would be eliminated or reduced, the government and farmers offered to pay European immigrants passage. The plan encouraged millions of Europeans, most of them Italians, because of this, in 1902, Italy enacted Decree Prinetti, prohibiting subsidized immigration to Brazil. The end of feudalism in Japan generated great poverty in the rural population, by the 1930s, Japanese industrialisation had significantly boosted the population. However, prospects for Japanese people to immigrate to other countries were limited, at the same time in Australia, the White Australia Policy prevented the immigration of non-whites to Australia. In 1907, the Brazilian and the Japanese governments signed a treaty permitting Japanese migration to Brazil, the first Japanese immigrants came to Brazil in 1908 on the Kasato Maru. They travelled from the Japanese port of Kobe via the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, many of them became owners of coffee plantations. Japanese immigrants began arriving in 1908, as a result of the decrease in the Italian immigration to Brazil, in the first seven years,3,434 more Japanese families arrived. The vast majority of Japanese immigrants intended to work a few years in Brazil, make some money, however, “getting rich quick” was a dream that was almost impossible to achieve. The immigrants were paid a low salary and worked long hours of exhausting work. Also, everything that the immigrants consumed had to be purchased from the landowner, soon, their debts became very high. The land owners in Brazil still had a slavery mentality, immigrants, although employees, had to confront the rigidity and lack of labour laws. Indebted and subjected to hours of work, often suffering physical violence
22.
Okinawa prefecture
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Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost prefecture of Japan. It comprises hundreds of the Ryukyu Islands in a chain over 1,000 kilometres long, the Ryukyus extend southwest from Kyushu to Taiwan. The Okinawa Prefecture encompasses the two thirds of that chain. Naha, Okinawas capital, is located in the part of Okinawa Island. Although Okinawa comprises just 0. 6% of Japans total land mass, currently about 26,000 of the U. S. troops deployed in Japan are based in the prefecture. The oldest evidence of existence on the Ryukyu islands is from the Stone Age and was discovered in Naha. Some human bone fragments from the Paleolithic era were unearthed, Japanese Jōmon influences are dominant on the Okinawa Islands, although clay vessels on the Sakishima Islands have a commonality with those in Taiwan. The first mention of the word Ryukyu was written in the Book of Sui, Okinawa was the Japanese word identifying the islands, first seen in the biography of Jianzhen, written in 779. Agricultural societies begun in the 8th century slowly developed until the 12th century, since the islands are located at the eastern perimeter of the East China Sea relatively close to Japan, China and South-East Asia, the Ryukyu Kingdom became a prosperous trading nation. Also during this period, many Gusukus, similar to castles, were constructed, the Ryukyu Kingdom entered into the Imperial Chinese tributary system under the Ming dynasty beginning in the 15th century, which established economic relations between the two nations. In 1609, the Shimazu clan, which controlled the region that is now Kagoshima Prefecture, the Satsuma clan earned considerable profits from trade with China during a period in which foreign trade was heavily restricted by the shogunate. Although Satsuma maintained strong influence over the islands, the Ryukyu Kingdom maintained a degree of domestic political freedom for over two hundred years. Four years after the 1868 Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government, through military incursions, officially annexed the kingdom and renamed it Ryukyu han. At the time, the Qing Empire asserted a nominal suzerainty over the islands of the Ryukyu Kingdom, Ryukyu han became Okinawa Prefecture of Japan in 1879, even though all other hans had become prefectures of Japan in 1872. In 1912, Okinawans first obtained the right to vote for representatives to the national Diet which had established in 1890. Near the end of World War II, in 1945, the US Army, a third of the civilian population died, a quarter of the civilian population died during the 1945 Battle of Okinawa alone. The dead, of all nationalities, are commemorated at the Cornerstone of Peace, after the end of World War II, the Ryukyu independence movement developed, while Okinawa was under United States Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands administration for 27 years. During this trusteeship rule, the United States established numerous military bases on the Ryukyu islands, during the Korean War, B-29 Superfortresses flew bombing missions over Korea from Kadena Air Base on Okinawa
23.
Arab Brazilian
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Arab Brazilians are Brazilian citizens of Arab ethnic and/or linguistic heritage or identity. The majority of Arab Brazilians trace their origin to the Levantine lands of the Arab World, known in Arabic as Bilad al-Sham, primarily Lebanon, Syria, Palestine and Israel. Immigration of Arabs to Brazil started in the late 19th century, most of them coming from Lebanon and Syria, later from other parts of the Arab world. There were many causes for Arabs to leave their homelands in the Ottoman Empire, overpopulation in Lebanon, conscription in Lebanon and Syria, and religious persecution by the Ottoman Turks. Arab immigration to Brazil grew also after World War I and the rest of the 20th century, and concentrated in the states of São Paulo, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Goiás, most Arab immigrants in Brazil were Christians, Muslims being a minority. As a result of this, the new generations of Brazilians of Arab descent show marked language shift away from Arabic, only a few speak any Arabic, and such knowledge is often limited to a few basic words. Instead the majority, especially those of generations, speak Portuguese as a first language. The Brazilian and Lebanese governments claim there are 7 million Brazilians of Lebanese descent, also, the Brazilian government claims there are 4 million Brazilians of Syrian descent. According to a research conducted by IBGE in 2008, covering only the states of Amazonas, Paraíba, São Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Mato Grosso and Distrito Federal,0. In the main Brazilian cities it is easy to find restaurants that cook Arab food, most Arab immigrants in Brazil have worked as traders, roaming the vast country to sell textiles and clothes and open new markets. This economic history can be today in the ways that the São Paulo-based Arab Brazilian Chamber of Commerce has gained greater recognition in increasing Brazilian exports to the Arab world. Arab-Brazilians are well integrated into Brazilian society, today, only a minority of Arab Brazilians still know and speak the Arabic language, the vast majority of them being monolingual Portuguese speakers. Many important Brazilians are of Arab descent, including important politicians such as Paulo Maluf, Geraldo Alckmin, Gilberto Kassab, Michel Temer and José Maria Alkmin, artists, writers and models
24.
Portuguese Brazilian
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Not to be confused with the Portuguese dialect, Brazilian Portuguese. Portuguese Brazilians are Brazilian citizens whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in Portugal, most of the Portuguese who arrived throughout the centuries in Brazil sought economic opportunities. Although present since the onset of the colonization, Portuguese people began migrating to Brazil in larger numbers, nowadays, the Portuguese constitute the biggest group of foreigners living in the country, with an estimated 596,000 Portuguese nationals currently living in Brazil. According to Portuguese law, any Brazilian that has at least one Portuguese parent or grandparent is eligible to obtain Portuguese citizenship,5 million Brazilians fall under this category. According to the Constitution of Brazil, the Portuguese people have a status in Brazil. Requirements for the granting of equality are, habitual residence, the age of majority, in Brazil, the Portuguese may require equal treatment with regard to civil rights, moreover, they may ask to be granted political rights granted to Brazilians. In the latter case, this requires a minimum of three years of permanent residence, some of the earliest colonists for whom we have written records are João Ramalho and Diogo Álvares Correia. As a result, many pirates, mainly French, began dealing in pau brasil with the Amerindians and this situation worried Portugal, which in the 1530s started to encourage the colonization of Brazil, principally for defensive reasons. The towns of Cananéia, São Vicente, Porto Seguro and Iguape date from that period, by the mid-16th century, Portuguese colonists were already settling in significant numbers, mainly along the coastal regions of Brazil. Numerous cities were established, including Salvador, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, while most Portuguese settlers came willingly, some were forced exiles or degredados. Such convicts were sentenced for a variety of crimes according to the Ordenações do Reino, there was concern in keeping the control of the territory, hence the policy in promoting the colonization with couples in the border lands. The occupation of the territory was seen as essential, in 1619, about 300 couples arrived in Maranhão, the total number of people being around 1000 individuals, a significant number for that time. Maranhão is the first region to receive Azorean settlers in an organised way, S. da Palma and São Rafael,50 couples arrived, in the ships N. S. da Penha de França and São Francisco Xavier more settlers came. Throughout the 17th century, successive waves of Azorean couples were settled in Maranhão, Azorean couples were also settled in Pará, an example of this being the 50 couples who embarked on 29 March 1677, in the ship Jesus, Maria e José, in Horta, Faial. In the 18th century, immigration to Brazil from Portugal increased dramatically, immigrants to Brazil departed from Portugal via the ports of Lisbon, Porto, and Funchal on Madeira. Two British companies provided the bulk of transport of passengers in this period, many gold and diamond mines were discovered in the region of Minas Gerais, which then led to the arrival of not only Portuguese, but also of native-born Brazilians. Regarding the former, most were peasants from the Minho region in Portugal, in the beginning, Portugal stimulated the immigration of minhotos to Brazil. After some time, however, the number of departures was so great that the Portuguese Crown had to establish barriers to further immigration
25.
German Brazilian
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German Brazilians refers to Brazilian people of ethnic German ancestry or origin. German Brazilians live mostly in the countrys South Region, with lesser, German dialects together make up the second most spoken first language in Brazil after Portuguese. A few Brazilian municipalities have Brazilian Hunsrückisch and Germanic Pomeranian as co-official with Portuguese and they are located in Southern Brazil and Espírito Santo. In the year 2000 Brazilian census 12 million people in Brazil claimed to be of German descent, between 1824 and 1972, about 260,000 Germans settled in Brazil, the fifth largest nationality to immigrate after the Portuguese, the Italians, the Spaniards, and the Japanese. The vast majority settled in states of São Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, less than 5% of Germans settled in Minas Gerais, Pernambuco, and Espírito Santo. The most influenced state by the German immigration was Santa Catarina, Germans and Austrians were about 50% of all immigrants settled in Santa Catarina, and between 15–20% in Rio Grande do Sul and Paraná. In the rest of the country, Germans accounted for less than 5% of immigrants, the 19th century was marked by an intense emigration of Europeans to different parts of the world, which led to a process of Europeanisation of these areas. Between 1816 and 1850,5 million people left Europe, between 1850 and 1880 another 22 million people emigrated, between 1846 and 1932,60 million Europeans emigrated. Many Germans left the German states after the revolutions of 1848. Germans appeared in place among immigrants to Brazil, but dropped to fifth place when Japanese immigration increased after 1908. Even though the immigration of Germans to Brazil was small, it had a impact on the ethnic composition of the country. Different factors led to large influence. First of all, German immigration to Brazil is an old phenomenon which started as early as 1824, for example, the first significant groups of Italians to immigrate to Brazil only arrived in 1875, many decades after the arrival of the first Germans. When the settlement of other Europeans in Brazil began, the Germans had already been living there for many generations, another factor was the high birth rates among German Brazilians. Research has found that between 1826 and 1828 a first-generation German Brazilian woman had an average of 8.5 children, in the book The Monroe Doctrine by T B Edgington is said, The natural increase of the German population in southern Brazil is marvelous. As a rule they rear from ten to fifteen children in each family, Blumenau, a colony which was settled by the Germans over fifty years ago, more than doubles itself every ten years. Southern Brazil is now called ‘Greater Germany’, and the Germans exercise there a commercial and financial supremacy, even though the population of German descent makes up a small minority in Brazil, they represent a very large percentage of the population of the South. Jean Roche estimated that people of German descent made up 13. 3% of the population in Rio Grande do Sul in 1890, by 1920, the vast majority of the population of German descent was Brazilian-born
26.
Italian Brazilian
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Italian Brazilians are Brazilian citizens of full or partial Italian descent. There are no official numbers about how many Brazilians have Italian ancestry, as the national census conducted by IBGE does not ask the ancestry of the Brazilian people. In the last census to ask about ancestry, from 1940,1,260,931 Brazilians said to be the child of an Italian father, Italians were 285,000 and naturalized Brazilians,40,000. Therefore, Italians and their children were just over 3. 8% of Brazils population in 1940, an Italian source, from 1996, cites the number of 22,753,000 descendants. The Embassy of Italy in Brazil, in 2013, reported the number of 31 million descendants of Italian immigrants in Brazil, according to García, the number of Brazilians with actual links to Italian identity and culture would be around 3.5 to 4.5 million people. Many Brazilian politicians, artists, footballers, models and personalities are or were of Italian descent, amongst Italian-Brazilian one finds several State Governors, Congressmen, mayors and ambassadors. Three Presidents of Brazil were of Italian descent, Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli, Itamar Franco, Médici was also of Basque descent. According to the Brazilian Constitution, anyone born in the country is a Brazilian citizen by birthright, in addition, many who were born in Italy have become naturalized citizens after settling in Brazil. The Brazilian government used to prohibit multiple citizenships, however, this changed in 1994 with a new constitutional amendment. After the changes in 1994 over half a million Italian-Brazilians have requested the recognition of their Italian citizenship, according to the Italian legislation an individual with an Italian parent is automatically recognized as an Italian citizen, the jus sanguinis principle being applied. In order to exercise the rights and obligations of citizenship an individual needs to have all documents registered in Italy, after constitutional reform in Italy, Italian citizens abroad can also elect representatives to the Italian Chamber of Deputies and the Italian Senate. Italian citizens residing in Brazil elect representatives together with Argentina, Uruguay, according to Italian senator Edoardo Pollastri, currently there are over half a million Brazilians in line to have their Italian citizenship recognized. Italy only united as a national state in 1861. Before that Italy was politically divided in several kingdoms, ducates and this fact influenced deeply the character of the Italian migrant. Before 1914, the typical Italian migrant was a man without a national identity but with strong attachments to his town or village or region of birth. During the 19th century, many Italians fled the persecutions in Italy led by the Imperial Austrian government after the failure of unification movements in 1848 and 1861. Although very small, these well educated and revolutionary group of emigrants left a mark where they settled. In Brazil, the most famous Italian in this period was Líbero Badaró, despite that, the mass Italian immigration that contributed to shape Brazilian culture after the Portuguese and the German migration movements started only after Italian unification
27.
Asian Brazilian
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Asian Brazilians are Brazilian citizens of full or predominantly East Asian, South Asian and in some cases South East Asian ancestry, or an Asian-born person permanently residing in Brazil. This first presence of Asians was limited to Northeast Brazil, especially Bahia and these Asians intermarried people of African and European ancestry and left a legacy in the food, early art and boat-making traditions of the Northeast. The first substantial Asian immigration to Brazil were a number of Chinese people during the colonial period as coolie slaves. However, significant immigration from Asia to Brazil started in the late 19th century, in Brazil, most of definitions of an Asian Brazilian usually do not refer to the community of West Asian origins such as Arabs, Turks, and Armenians. The vast majority of Asian Brazilians have origins in Japan, the first Japanese immigrants arrived in Brazil in 1908. Until the 1950s, more than 250 thousand Japanese immigrated to Brazil, currently, the Japanese-Brazilian population is estimated at 1.4 million people. It is the largest ethnic Japanese population outside Japan, followed closely by the Japanese community in the United States, other East Asian groups are also significant in Brazil. The Korean Brazilian population is estimated to be 50,000, over 70% of Asian Brazilians are concentrated in the state of São Paulo. There are significant populations in Paraná, Pará, Mato Grosso do Sul, in 1907, the Government of the State of São Paulo authorized Japans Imperial Immigration Company to transfer, annually, a certain amount of emigrants to Brazil. On June 18,1908, arrived at Santos harbor the Japanese vessel Kasato Maru with the first group of immigrants composed of 165 families, from the harbor they went to coffee farms, in the Mogiana region, State of São Paulo, to work as colonists. There they started a new life in a country with different climate, culture. Other quotas followed them and almost all of them went to live in coffee farms, during the 1910s, they established several immigration centers in the region of the North West railway as well as alongside the banks of Ribeira River in Iguape. From 1925 to 1935, these centers spread statewide and became localities, by this time approximately 140,000 immigrants had arrived in Brazil. The immigration influx was interrupted for 10 years because of World War II, in 1959 it started again but the quotas were smaller, especially those that arrived from 1961 on, date of the beginning of Japans economic recuperation. Up to the present, approximately 260,000 immigrants have arrived in Brazil, the biggest concentration of immigrants are, Japanese immigration The others are living countrywide. Their labor force is employed as follows, Agriculture, Commerce, the industry has grown quickly in view of the establishment in Brazil of Japanese enterprises during the 60s. We believe that 800,000 people compose the Japanese community in Brazil, the descendants of the immigrants perform all kind of activity within the cultural and economic sectors. In the past two decades we have had two State Ministers in the Brazilian Government and this year, on June 18, they will celebrate with great rejoicing the beginning of the Japanese immigration into Brazil, since this day symbolizes a landmark of a history started 80 years ago
28.
White Brazilian
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White Brazilians refers to Brazilian citizens of European or Levantine descent. According to the 2010 Census, they totaled 91,051,646 people, the main ancestry of white Brazilians is Portuguese, followed by Italian, Spanish, German Slavic, and Levantine. The states with the highest percentage of citizens are, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná. Other states with significant rates are, Rio de Janeiro, Mato Grosso do Sul, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, São Paulo has the largest population in absolute numbers with 30 million whites. The Brazilian concept of race is different from the concept of white race in other countries. A comprehensive study presented by the Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research found that on average, another autosomal study carried out by the geneticist Sergio Pena showed that the overwhelming ancestry of white Brazilians is European. The results of the tests of genomic ancestry are quite different from the estimates of European ancestry. In general, the test results showed that European ancestry is far more important than those students had thought it would be, the later settlers, however, would tend to reproduce with women who were the product of previous miscegenation in Brazil. However, social prejudice connected to certain details in the appearance of individual is widespread. Those details are related to the concept of cor and this concept, unlike the English notion of race, captures the continuous aspects of phenotypes. Thus, it there is no racial descent rule operational in Brazil. The following are the results for the different Brazilian censuses, since 1872, ^1 The 1900,1920, ^2 In the 1872 census, people were counted based on self-declaration, except for slaves, who were classified by their owners. ^3 The 1872 and 1890 censuses counted caboclos apart, in the 1890 census, the category pardo was replaced with mestiço. Figures for 1890 are available at the IBGE site, ^4 In the 1940 Census, people were asked for their colour or race, if the answer was not White, Black, or Yellow, interviewers were instructed to fill the colour or race box with a slash. These slashs were later summed up in the category pardo, in practice this means answers such as pardo, moreno, mulato, caboclo, etc. ^5 In the 1950 Census, the category pardo was included on its own. ^6 The 1960 Census adopted a system, again explicitly including Amerindians as pardos. In the past, ancestry was quite irrelevant for racial classifications in Brazil, a survey in Rio de Janeiro also concluded that racial-purity is not important for a person to be classified as white in Brazil. The survey asked respondents if they had any ancestors who were European, African or Amerindian, as much as 52% of those whites reported they have some non-European ancestry, 38% reported to have some Black African ancestry and 29% reported Amerindian ancestry
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Southern Region, Brazil
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The South Region of Brazil is one of the five regions of Brazil. Its whole area is smaller than that of the state of Minas Gerais, in Southeast Brazil and it is a great tourist, economic and cultural pole. It borders Uruguay, Argentina, and Paraguay as well as the Centre-West Region, the Southeast Region, European colonization in Southern Brazil started with the arrival of Portuguese and Spanish Jesuits. They lived among the Indians and converted them to Catholicism, colonists from São Paulo arrived in the same period. For decades, the Portuguese and Spanish crowns disputed over this region, due to this conflict, the King of Portugal encouraged the immigration of settlers from the Azores Islands to Southern Brazil. Between 1748 and 1756, six thousand Azoreans arrived and they composed over half of the population of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina by the late 18th century. The first Germans came to Brazil soon after independence from Portugal in 1761, settlers from Germany were brought to work as small farmers because there were many land holdings without workers. To attract the immigrants, the Brazilian government had promised large tracts where they could settle with their families. By 1904, it is estimated that 50,000 Germans had settled in this state and these groups created rural communities or colonies for immigrants, many of which developed into large cities, such as Blumenau and Joinville, the largest city in Santa Catarina. Considerable numbers of immigrants from Germany arrived at Paraná during the civil war, the Ragamuffin War was a Republican uprising that began in Southern Brazil in 1835. The rebels, led by generals Bento Gonçalves da Silva and Antônio de Souza Netto with the support of the Italian warrior Giuseppe Garibaldi, the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the rebels in 1839. With his help the spread through Santa Catarina, in the northern border of Rio Grande do Sul. After many conflicts, in 1845 peace negotiations ended the war, Italian immigrants started arriving in Brazil in 1875. They were mostly peasants from the Veneto in Northern Italy attracted to Southern Brazil to get their own lands, most of the immigrants worked as small farmers, mainly cultivating grapes in the Serra Gaúcha. Italian immigration to the region lasted until 1914, with a total of 100,000 Italians settling in Rio Grande do Sul in this period and many others in Santa Catarina and Paraná. In 1898, there were 300,000 people of Italian origin in Rio Grande do Sul,50,000 in Santa Catarina and 30,000 in Paraná, nowadays, their Southern Brazilian descendants number 9.7 million and comprise 35. 9% of Southern Brazils population. The region received large numbers of European immigrants during the 19th century, the main ethnic origins of Southern Brazil are Portuguese, Italian, German, Austrian, Luxembourger, Polish, Ukrainian, Spaniard, Dutch and Russian. The annual average temperatures vary between 12°C and 22°C and it snows in the mountain ranges
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Southeast Region, Brazil
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The Southeast Region of Brazil is composed by the states of Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. It is the richest region of the country, responsible for approximately 60% of the Brazilian GDP, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais are three richest states of Brazil, the top three Brazilian states in terms of GDP. The Southeast of Brazil also has the highest GDP per capita among all Brazilian regions, São Paulo Heart of the largest continued remnant of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, the Ribeira Valley is a Natural Heritage of Humanity, granted heritage as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO. One of the biggest attractions is the biologic and ecosystems diversity, the Alto Ribeira Tourist State Park is paradise for ecotourists, for its enormous diversity in geologic formations, among grottos and caves, rivers and waterfalls. There are currently 454 caves registered by the Brazilian Society of Speleology in the State of São Paulo, the 280 caves located at PETAR represent the biggest concentration of caves in Brazil. Minas Gerais The landscape of the State is marked by mountains, valleys, in the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls. Minas Gerais is the source of some of the biggest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas dam. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, the state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Rio de Janeiro The state is part of the Mata Atlântica biome and its coast is carved by the bays of Guanabara, Sepetiba and Ilha Grande. There are prominent slopes near the ocean, featuring also diverse environments, such as vegetation, bays, lagoons. Rio de Janeiro is the smallest state in the Southeast macroregion and it has, however, the third longest coastline in the country, extending 635 kilometers. The main river in the state is the Doce, Espírito Santos climate is tropical along the coast, with dry winters and rainy summers. North of Doce River its generally drier and also hot, in the mountainous regions in the south and south west of the state, the tropical climate is strongly influenced by altitude, and the average temperatures are colder. The state can be divided into two areas, the low lying coastline and the area known as Serra, which is part of the larger Serra do Caparaó. In the map to the right it is in the area in the extreme southwest of the state. São Paulo state is responsible for approximately one-third of Brazilian GDP, the states GDP consists of 550 billion dollars, making it also the second biggest economy of South America after Brazil and the biggest subdivision economy in Latin America. Its economy is based on machinery, the automobile and aviation industries, services, financial companies, commerce, textiles, orange growing, sugar cane, Minas Gerais is a growing state. Vehicles,36,030,943, Telephones,23,878,000, portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools
31.
Indigenous peoples in Brazil
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Unlike Christopher Columbus, who thought he had reached the East Indies, the Portuguese, most notably Vasco da Gama, had already reached India via the Indian Ocean route when they reached Brazil. At the time of European contact, some of the people were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering. The indigenous population was killed by European diseases, declining from a pre-Columbian high of millions to some 300,000. However, the number could be higher if the urban indigenous populations are counted in all the Brazilian cities today. A somewhat dated linguistic survey found 188 living indigenous languages with 155,000 total speakers, on January 18,2007, FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition Brazil has now surpassed New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted people, in the last IBGE census,817,000 Brazilians classified themselves as indigenous. Questions about the settlement of the Americas has produced a number of hypothetical models. The origins of indigenous people are still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. A migrant wave would have some time after initial entry to reach present-day Brazil. An analysis of Amerindian Y-chromosome DNA indicates specific clustering of much of the South American population, according to an autosomal genetic study from 2012, Native Americans descend of at least three main migrant waves from East Asia. Most of it is traced back to an ancestral population. However, those who speak Inuit languages from the Arctic inherited almost half of their ancestry from a second East Asian migrant wave, and those who speak Na-dene, on the other hand, inherited a tenth of their ancestry from a third migrant wave. The initial settling of the Americas was followed by a rapid expansion southwards, by the coast, with gene flow later. One exception to this are the Chibcha speakers, whose ancestry comes from both North and South America, linguistic studies have backed up genetic studies, with ancient patterns having been found between the languages spoken in Siberia and those spoken in the Americas. Two 2015 autosomal DNA genetic studies confirmed the Siberian origins of the Natives of the Americas, however an ancient signal of shared ancestry with the Natives of Australia and Melanesia was detected among the Natives of the Amazon region. The migration coming out of Siberia would have happened 23000 years ago, following a rapid movement throughout the Americas, limited gene flow in South America resulted in a marked phylogeographic structure of populations, which persisted through time. All of the ancient mitochondrial lineages detected in this study were absent from modern data sets, to investigate this further, we applied a novel principal components multiple logistic regression test to Bayesian serial coalescent simulations. The analysis supported a scenario in which European colonization caused a loss of pre-Columbian lineages
32.
Afro-Brazilian
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Afro-Brazilians, Portuguese pronunciation, is a term used in the 21st century by some in Brazil to refer to Brazilian people with African ancestry. The term does not have use in Brazil, where social constructs. People with noticeable African features and skin color are referred to as negro or preto. Many members of group of people, multiracial Brazilians, or pardos. Preto and pardo are among five color categories used by the Brazilian Census, along with branco, amarelo, in 2010,7. 6% of the Brazilian population, some 15 million people, identified as preto, while 43% identified as pardo. Pretos tend to be predominantly African in ancestry, while pardos tend to have a percentage of African ancestry. On average pardos are predominantly European, with African or Native American ancestries and they suggest doing so would make it easier to help people who have been closed out of opportunity. This decision has caused controversy because there is no consensus about it in Brazilian society. In the July 1998 PME, the categories Afro-Brasileiro and Africano Brasileiro were not chosen at all, in the 1976 National Household Sample, none of these terms was used even once. Brazilian geneticist Sérgio Pena has criticised American scholar Edward Telles for lumping pretos and pardos in the same category, as many pardos are primarily of European ancestry, Pena questioned studying them together with pretos, who are primarily of African ancestry. Before testing, the students identified as ⅓ European, ⅓ African, according to Edward Telles, three different systems related to racial classification along the White-Black continuum are used in Brazil. The first is the Census System, which distinguishes three categories, branco, pardo, and preto, the second is the popular social system that uses many different categories, including the ambiguous term moreno. The third is the Black movement, which only two categories, summing up pardos and pretos as negros, and putting all others as whites. The first system referred by Telles is that of the Brazilian Institute of Geography, in the Census, respondents may identify their ethnicity or color from five categories, branca, parda, preta, amarela or indígena. The term parda needs further explanation, it has been used since the Census of 1940. In that census, people were asked for their colour or race, if the answer was not White, preta, or Yellow and these slashes were later summed up in the category pardo. In practice this means answers such as pardo, moreno, mulato, in the following censuses, pardo was added as a category on its own, and included Amerindians. The latter were defined as a category only in 1991
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Paraguayan War
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With an estimated 400,000 deaths, the war was the deadliest and bloodiest in Latin Americas history. According to some estimates, Paraguays pre-war population of 525,000 was reduced to 221,000, the war began in late 1864, as a result of a conflict between Paraguay and Brazil caused by the Uruguayan War. Argentina and Uruguay entered the war against Paraguay in 1865, the war ended with the total defeat of Paraguay. The guerrilla war lasted 14 months until President Francisco Solano López was killed in action by Brazilian forces in the Battle of Cerro Corá on March 1,1870, Argentine and Brazilian troops occupied Paraguay until 1876. Estimates of total Paraguayan losses range from 21,000 to 200,000 people and it took decades for Paraguay to recover from the chaos and demographic losses. There are several theories regarding the origins of the war, before the war Paraguay had experienced rapid economic and military growth. A strong military was developed because Paraguays larger neighbors Argentina and Brazil had territorial claims against it, Paraguay had recurring boundary disputes and tariff issues with Argentina and Brazil for many years during the rule of Carlos Antonio López. Since Brazil and Argentina had become independent, their struggle for hegemony in the Río de la Plata profoundly marked the diplomatic, Brazil was the first country to recognize the independence of Paraguay in 1844. At this time Argentina still considered it a break-away province, as no roads linked the inland province of Mato Grosso to Rio de Janeiro, Brazilian ships needed to travel through Paraguayan territory, going up the Paraguay River to arrive at Cuiabá. However, Brazil had difficulty obtaining permission from the government in Asunción to freely use the Paraguay River for its shipping needs and this last intervention would lead to the Paraguayan War. Flores wanted to overthrow the Blanco Party government of President Bernardo Berro, Paraguayan President López sent a note on 6 September 1863 to the Argentine government asking for an explanation, but Buenos Aires denied any involvement in Uruguay. From that moment, mandatory service was introduced in Paraguay and in February 1864. Uruguayan President Atanasio Aguirre from the Blanco Party rejected the Brazilian demands, presented his own demands, Brazilian soldiers on the northern borders of Uruguay started to provide help to Flores troops, harassed Uruguayan officers, while the Imperial Fleet pressed hard on Montevideo. During the months of June–August,1864 a Cooperation Treaty was signed between Brazil and Argentina at Buenos Aires, for assistance in the Plate Basin Crisis. Brazilian Minister Saraiva on August 4,1864, sent an ultimatum to the Uruguayan government, either comply with the Brazilian demands, or the Brazilian army would retaliate. Despite the Paraguayan notes and ultimatums, on October 12,1864 Brazilian troops under the command of Gen. João Propício Mena Barreto invaded Uruguay thus marking the beginning of the hostilities. On 12 November 1864, the Paraguayan ship Tacuarí captured the Brazilian ship Marquês de Olinda, news of the wars end was brought by Pereira Pinto and met with joy in Rio de Janeiro. Brazilian Emperor Dom Pedro II found himself waylaid by a crowd of thousands in the streets amid acclamations, but public opinion quickly changed for the worse when newspapers began running stories painting the convention of 20 February as harmful to Brazilian interests, for which the cabinet was blamed
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Highland (geography)
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The term highland or uplands is used to denote any mountainous region or elevated mountainous plateau. Generally speaking, upland tends to refer to ranges of hills, Highland is usually reserved for ranges of low mountains. Probably the most known highlands in the anglosphere are the Scottish Highlands in the United Kingdom, the Highland council area is a local government area in the Scottish Highlands and Britains largest local government area. Many countries have areas that are officially or unofficially referred to as highlands, other than Scotland, these include parts Ethiopia, Kenya, Eritrea, Yemen, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Syria, Cantabria and Nova Scotia. The highlands in Australia are often above the elevation of 500 metres and these areas often receive snowfalls through winter. Most of the lead up to large alpine or sub-alpine mountainous regions such as the Australian Alps, Snowy Mountains, Great Dividing Range, Northern Tablelands. The most mountainous region of Tasmania is the Central Highlands area, many of these areas are highly elevated alpine regions. A spine of mountains runs the length of the island of New Guinea, the highlands of Iceland cover about 40% of the country and are mostly inhospitable to humans. They are generally referred to as land above 500 meters, additionally, the mountainous natural region of the Thai highlands is found in Northern Thailand. The Cameron Highlands are an area and hill station in Northern Malaysia. Shillong in India in the state of Meghalaya is a station which is surrounded by highlands. Officers of the British Raj referred to Shillong as The Scotland of the East, Highland continents – or terrae – are areas of topographically unstable terrain, with high peaks and valleys. They resemble highlands on Earth, but the term is applied to larger areas on other planets. They can be found on Venus, Mercury, Mars and the Moon
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Tropical
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The tropics are a region of the Earth surrounding the equator. The tropics are also referred to as the zone and the torrid zone. The tropics include all the areas on the Earth where the Sun is at a point directly overhead at least once during the solar year. The tropics are distinguished from the climatic and biomatic regions of Earth, which are the middle latitudes. Tropical is sometimes used in a sense for a tropical climate to mean warm to hot and moist year-round. Many tropical areas have a dry and wet season, the wet season, rainy season or green season, is the time of year, ranging from one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls. Areas with wet seasons are disseminated across portions of the tropics and subtropics, under the Köppen climate classification, for tropical climates, a wet season month is defined as a month where average precipitation is 60 millimetres or more. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is distributed through the year. When the wet season occurs during the season, or summer, precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves and vegetation grows significantly, floods cause rivers to overflow their banks, and some animals to retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases, the incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime, unfortunately, the previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Regions within the tropics may well not have a tropical climate, there are alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Argentina. Under the Köppen climate classification, much of the area within the tropics is classed not as tropical but as dry including the Sahara Desert. Tropical plants and animals are those native to the tropics. Tropical ecosystems may consist of rainforests, dry forests, spiny forests, desert. There are often significant areas of biodiversity, and species present, particularly in rainforests. In biogeography, the tropics are divided into Paleotropics and Neotropics, together, they are sometimes referred to as the Pantropic
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Tropical wet and dry climate
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Tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate is a type of climate that corresponds to the Köppen climate classification categories Aw and As. This latter fact is in direct contrast to a monsoon climate. In essence, a savanna climate tends to either see less rainfall than a tropical monsoon climate or have more pronounced dry seasons. There are generally four types of tropical climate,1. Distinct wet and dry seasons of relatively equal duration, most of the regions annual rainfall is experienced during the wet season and very little precipitation falls during the dry season. A lengthy dry season and a short wet season. This version features seven or more dry season months and five or less wet season months, there are variations within this version, On one extreme, the region receives just enough precipitation during the short wet season to preclude it from a semi-arid climate classification. This drier variation of the savanna climate is typically found adjacent to regions with semi-arid climates. On the other extreme, the features a lengthy dry season followed by a short. However, regions with this variation of the climate do not experience enough rainfall during the wet season to qualify as a monsoon climate. A lengthy wet season and a short dry season. This version features seven or more wet season months and five or less dry season months, a dry season with a noticeable amount of rainfall followed by a rainy wet season. Tropical savanna climates are most commonly found in Africa, Asia, the climate is also prevalent in sections of Central America, northern Australia and southern North America, specifically in sections of Mexico and the state of Florida in the United States. Most places that have this climate are found at the margins of the tropical zone. Similarly, the Caribbean coast, eastward from the Gulf of Urabá on the Colombia – Panamá border to the Orinoco river delta and this condition extends to the Lesser Antilles and Greater Antilles forming the Circumcaribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminishes inland, at the latitude of the Amazon river—which flows eastward, East from the Andes, between the arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are the Orinoco river llanos or savannas, from where this climate takes its name. Sometimes As is used in place of Aw if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and this is the case in parts of Hawaii, East Africa, Sri Lanka and coastal regions of Northeastern Brazil, for instance. The difference between summer and winter in such locations is usually so slight that a distinction between an As and Aw climate is a quibble
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Rainfall
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Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then precipitated—that is, become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems, as well as water for power plants. The major cause of production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such as cumulonimbus which can organize into narrow rainbands. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass, the movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes. The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities, global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm, climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain gauges, rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar. Rain is also known or suspected on other planets, where it may be composed of methane, neon, sulfuric acid, or even iron rather than water. Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a mass of dry air. The amount of moisture in air is commonly reported as relative humidity. How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated, warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it, the dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated. There are four mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point, adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands, the air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain. Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a surface, usually by being blown from one surface to another. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath, evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation
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Cerrado
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The Cerrado is a vast tropical savanna ecoregion of Brazil, particularly in the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso, Tocantins and Minas Gerais. The Cerrado biome core areas are the plateaus in the center of Brazil, the main habitat types of the Cerrado include, forest savanna, wooded savanna, park savanna and gramineous-woody savanna. Savanna wetlands and gallery forests are also included, the second largest of Brazils major habitat types, after the Amazonian rainforest, the Cerrado accounts for a full 21 percent of the countrys land area. Since then vast amounts of research have proved that the Cerrado is one of the richest of all tropical regions and has high levels of endemism. There are nearly 200 species of mammal in the Cerrado, though only 14 are endemic, the Cerrados climate is typical of the rather moister savanna regions of the world, with a semi-humid tropical climate. The Cerrado is limited to two dominant seasons throughout the year, wet and dry, annual temperatures for the Cerrado average between 22 and 27 °C and average precipitation between 800–2000 mm for over 90% of the area. This ecoregion has a strong dry season during the southern winter. The Cerrado is characterized by unique vegetation types and it is composed of a shifting mosaic of habitats, with the savanna-like cerrado itself on well-drained areas between strips of gallery forest which occur along streams. The savanna portion of the Cerrado is heterogeneous in terms of canopy cover, goodland divided the Cerrado into four categories ranging from least to most canopy cover, campo sujo, campo cerrado, cerrado sensu stricto and cerradao. Probably around 800 species of trees are found in the Cerrado, among the most diverse families of trees in the Cerrado are the Leguminosae, Malpighiaceae, Myrtaceae, Melastomataceae and Rubiaceae. Much of the Cerrado is dominated by the Vochysiaceae due to the abundance of three species in the genus Qualea, the herbaceous layer usually reaches about 60 cm in height and is composed mainly of the Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Leguminosae, Compositae, Myrtaceae and Rubiaceae. Much of the vegetation in the forests is similar to nearby rainforest, however. Soil fertility, fire regime and hydrology are thought to be most influential in determining Cerrado vegetation, Cerrado soils are always well-drained and most are oxisols with low pH and low calcium and magnesium. The amount of potassium, nitrogen and phosphorus has been found to be correlated with tree trunk basal area in Cerrado habitats. Cerrado vegetation is believed to be ancient, stretching back perhaps as far in a prototypic form during the Cretaceous before Africa, a dynamic expansion and contraction between cerrado and Amazonian rainforest has probably occurred historically, with expansion of the Cerrado during glacial periods like the Pleistocene. These processes and the resulting fragmentation have probably contributed to the species richness both of the Cerrado and of the Amazonian rainforest. The insects of the Cerrado are relatively understudied, a yearlong survey of the Cerrado at one reserve in Brazil found that the orders Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera and Isoptera accounted for 89. 5% of all captures. The Cerrado also supports high density of leaf cutter ant nests which are very diverse
Brazil
Mato Grosso do Sul
Media related to Campo Grande (Mato Grosso do Sul) at Wikimedia Commons
Campo Grande travel guide from Wikivoyage
