1.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
2.
Canadian Armed Forces
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This unified institution consists of sea, land, and air elements referred to as the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. Under the National Defence Act, the Canadian Armed Forces are an entity separate and distinct from the Department of National Defence, the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces is the reigning Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General of Canada. The Canadian Armed Forces is led by the Chief of the Defence Staff, during the Cold War, a principal focus of Canadian defence policy was contributing to the security of Europe in the face of the Soviet military threat. Toward that end, Canadian ground and air forces were based in Europe from the early 1950s until the early 1990s, Canadian defence policy today is based on the Canada First Defence Strategy, introduced in 2008. Based on that strategy, the Canadian military is oriented and being equipped to carry out six core missions within Canada, in North America and globally. Prior to Confederation in 1867, residents of the colonies in what is now Canada served as members of French and British forces. Thereafter, the Royal Canadian Navy was formed, and, with the advent of military aviation and these forces were organised under the Department of Militia and Defence, and split into the Permanent and Non-Permanent Active Militias—frequently shortened to simply The Militia. By 1923, the department was merged into the Department of National Defence, the first overseas deployment of Canadian military forces occurred during the Second Boer War, when several units were raised to serve under British command. Similarly, when the United Kingdom entered into conflict with Germany in the First World War, the Canadian Crown-in-Council then decided to send its forces into the Second World War, as well as the Korean War. Since 1947, Canadian military units have participated in more than 200 operations worldwide, Canada maintained an aircraft carrier from 1957 to 1970 during the Cold War, which never saw combat but participated in patrols during the Cuban Missile Crisis. At the end of the Second World War, Canada possessed the fourth-largest air force and fifth-largest naval surface fleet in the world, conscription for overseas service was introduced only near the end of the war, and only 2,400 conscripts actually made it into battle. Originally, Canada was thought to have had the third-largest navy in the world and its roots, however, lie in colonial militia groups that served alongside garrisons of the French and British armies and navies, a structure that remained in place until the early 20th century. After the 1980s, the use of the Canadian Armed Forces name gave way to Canadian Forces, land Forces during this period also deployed in support of peacekeeping operations within United Nations sanctioned conflicts. The nature of the Canadian Forces has continued to evolve and they have been deployed in Afghanistan until 2011, under the NATO-led United Nations International Security Assistance Force, at the request of the Government of Afghanistan. The Armed Forces are today funded by approximately $20, the number of primary reserve personnel is expected to go up to 30,000 by 2020, and the number of active to at least 70,000. In addition,5000 rangers and 19,000 supplementary personnel will be serving, if this happens the total strength would be around 124,000. These individuals serve on numerous CF bases located in all regions of the country, and are governed by the Queens Regulations and Orders, the 2006 renewal and re-equipment effort has resulted in the acquisition of specific equipment to support the mission in Afghanistan. It has also encompassed initiatives to renew certain so-called core capabilities, in addition, new systems have also been acquired for the Armed Forces
3.
Military engineering
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Military engineering is loosely defined as the art and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and communications. Military engineers are responsible for logistics behind military tactics. Modern military engineering differs from civil engineering, in the 20th and 21st centuries, military engineering also includes other engineering disciplines such as mechanical and electrical engineering techniques. According to NATO, military engineering is that engineer activity undertaken, regardless of component or service, Military engineering does not encompass the activities undertaken by those engineers who maintain, repair and operate vehicles, vessels, aircraft, weapon systems and equipment. Military engineering is a subject taught in military academies or schools of military engineering. The construction and demolition tasks related to engineering are usually performed by military engineers including soldiers trained as sappers or pioneers. In modern armies, soldiers trained to perform such tasks while well forward in battle, the word engineer was initially used in the context of warfare, dating back to 1325 when engine’er referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, engine referred to a machine, i. e. A mechanical contraption used in war, in its place, the term military engineering has come to be used. Modern military engineering can be divided into three main tasks or fields, combat engineering, strategic support, and ancillary support, combat engineering is associated with engineering on the battlefield. Combat engineers are responsible for increasing mobility on the front lines of war such as digging trenches, strategic support is associated with providing service in communication zones such as the construction of airfields and the improvement and upgrade of ports, roads and railways communication. Ancillary support includes provision and distribution of maps as well as the disposal of unexploded warheads, Military engineers construct bases, airfields, roads, bridges, ports, and hospitals. During peacetime before modern warfare, military engineers took the role of civil engineers by participating in the construction of civil-works projects, nowadays, military engineers are almost entirely engaged in war logistics and preparedness. Combat engineers clear routes, repair airfields and harbours, bridge rivers all at top speed, the first civilization to have a dedicated force of military engineering specialists were the Romans, whose army contained a dedicated corps of military engineers known as architecti. This group was pre-eminent among its contemporaries, such military engineering feats would have been completely new, and probably bewildering and demoralizing, to the Gallic defenders. The best known of these Roman army engineers due to his writings surviving is Vitruvius, alexander the Great also used engineers in his army. In ancient times, military engineers were responsible for warfare and building field fortifications, temporary camps. The most notable engineers of ancient times were the Romans and Chinese, the Romans were responsible for constructing fortified wooden camps and paved roads for their legions
4.
Gagetown, New Brunswick
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Gagetown is a village in Queens County, New Brunswick, Canada. It is situated on the west bank of the Saint John River and is the shire town. Gagetown was originally named Grimross by the Acadians and Maliseet, who lived prior to the Expulsion of the Acadians. The Raid on Grimross occurred during the St. John River Campaign, during the Expulsion of the Acadians, many Acadians fled from various parts of the Maritimes to villages along the Saint John River. There were 2000 Acadians on the Saint John River, many of whom were trying to escape the Expulsion of the Acadians. On November 4,1758, British Officer, Monckton entered the vacant village. They burned 50 buildings, crops and killed the animals, the name of the village is derived from British General Sir Thomas Gage. It is a historic Loyalist community that served as a stop for boats during the 1800s. The village is the birthplace of Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley, a Father of Confederation, the nearby army training centre, CFB Gagetown, takes its name from the village, although its headquarters are in Oromocto. Despite sharing the name, the village of Gagetown has no access to the base. Every Summer since 2009 a local music & art collective known as FEELS GOOD, Folly Fest generally falls on the weekend closest to the split of June & July. The Gagetown Ferry, formerly a free ferry, crossed the Saint John River to Lower Jemseg on the east bank. John Montgomery was born in Gagetown and he owned the tavern which served as a base for the rebels during the Upper Canada Rebellion. His parents were loyalists who fled from New York following the American revolution, List of lighthouses in New Brunswick List of communities in New Brunswick Village of Gagetown Queens County Heritage
5.
Saint Barbara
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Saint Barbara, Feast Day December 4, known in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the Great Martyr Barbara, was an early Christian Greek saint and martyr. Accounts place her in the 3rd century in the Greek city Nicomedia, present-day Turkey or in Heliopolis of Phoenicia, present-day Baalbek, there is no reference to her in the authentic early Christian writings nor in the original recension of Saint Jeromes martyrology. Her name can be traced to the 7th century, and veneration of her was common, especially in the East, from the 9th century. Because of doubts about the historicity of her legend, she was removed from the General Roman Calendar in the 1969 revision, Saint Barbara is often portrayed with miniature chains and a tower. Many of the thirteen miracles in a 15th-century French version of her turn on the security she offered that her devotees would not die without making confession. Having secretly become a Christian, she rejected an offer of marriage that she received through him, dioscorus, in pursuit of his daughter, was rebuffed by the first shepherd, but the second betrayed her and was turned to stone and his flock changed to locusts. Dragged before the prefect of the province, Martinianus, who had her cruelly tortured, during the night, the dark prison was bathed in light and new miracles occurred. Every morning her wounds were healed, torches that were to be used to burn her went out as soon as they came near her. Finally she was condemned to death by beheading and her father himself carried out the death-sentence. However, as punishment for this, he was struck by lightning on the way home, Barbara was buried by a Christian, Valentinus, and her tomb became the site of miracles. Williams of the Anglican Community of the Resurrection, the name of Saint Barbara was known in Rome in the 7th century, her cult can be traced to the 9th century, at first in the East. Since there is no mention of her in the earlier martyrologies and her legend is included in Vincent of Beauvais Speculum historiale and in later versions of the Golden Legend. Various versions, which include two surviving plays, differ on the location of her martyrdom, which is variously given as Tuscany, Rome, Antioch, Baalbek. Saint Barbara is one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers and her association with the lightning that killed her father has caused her to be invoked against lightning and fire, by association with explosions, she is also the patron of artillery and mining. Her feast on December 4 was included in the Tridentine Calendar, in 1729, that date was assigned to the celebration of Saint Peter Chrysologus, reducing that of Saint Barbara to a commemoration in his Mass. In 1969, because the accounts of her life and martyrdom were judged to be entirely fabulous, lacking clarity even about the place of her martyrdom, but she is still mentioned in the Roman Martyrology, which, in addition, lists another ten martyr saints named Barbara. A small part of St. Andrew Ukrainian Orthodox Cathedral in Bloomingdale and her feast day for Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Anglicans is December 4. Saint Barbara became the saint of artillerymen
6.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
7.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
8.
Second Boer War
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The Second Boer War, usually known as the Boer War and also at the time as the South African War, started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902. Great Britain defeated two Boer states in South Africa, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, Britain was aided by its Cape Colony, Colony of Natal and some native African allies. The British war effort was supported by volunteers from the British Empire, including Southern Africa, the Australian colonies, Canada, India. All other nations were neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain, inside Britain and its Empire there also was significant opposition to the Second Boer War. The British were overconfident and under-prepared, the Boers were very well armed and struck first, besieging Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking in early 1900, and winning important battles at Colenso, Magersfontein and Stormberg. Staggered, the British brought in numbers of soldiers and fought back. General Redvers Buller was replaced by Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener and they relieved the three besieged cities, and invaded the two Boer republics in late 1900. The onward marches of the British Army were so overwhelming that the Boers did not fight staged battles in defense of their homeland, the British quickly seized control of all of the Orange Free State and Transvaal, as the civilian leadership went into hiding or exile. In conventional terms, the war was over, Britain officially annexed the two countries in 1900, and called a khaki election to give the government another six years of power in London. However, the Boers refused to surrender and they reverted to guerrilla warfare under new generals Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, Christiaan de Wet and Koos de la Rey. Two more years of attacks and quick escapes followed. As guerrillas without uniforms, the Boer fighters easily blended into the farmlands, which provided hiding places, supplies, the British solution was to set up complex nets of block houses, strong points, and barbed wire fences, partitioning off the entire conquered territory. The civilian farmers were relocated into concentration camps, where very large proportions died of disease, especially the children, then the British mounted infantry units systematically tracked down the highly mobile Boer guerrilla units. The battles at this stage were small operations with few combat casualties The war ended in surrender, the British successfully won over the Boer leaders, who now gave full support to the new political system. Both former republics were incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910, the conflict is commonly referred to as simply the Boer War, since the First Boer War is much less well known. Boer was the term for Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans descended from the Dutch East India Companys original settlers at the Cape of Good Hope. It is officially called the South African War and it is known as the Anglo-Boer War among some South Africans. In Afrikaans it may be called the Anglo-Boereoorlog, Tweede Boereoorlog, in South Africa it is officially called the South African War
9.
Royal Military College of Canada
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The Royal Military College of Canada, commonly abbreviated as RMCC or RMC, is the military college of the Canadian Armed Forces, and is a degree-granting university training military officers. RMC was established in 1876 and is the only institution in Canada with degree-granting powers. The Royal Military College of Canada Degrees Act,1959 empowers the college to confer degrees in arts, science, programs are offered at the undergraduate and graduate levels both on campus as well as through the Colleges distance learning programme via the Division of Continuing Studies. Located on Point Frederick, a 41-hectare peninsula in Kingston, Ontario, the college is a blend of older, historic buildings, as well as more academic, athletic. Officer cadets of the Royal Military College of Canada are trained in what are known as the four pillars of academics, officership, athletics, and bilingualism. RMC provides programs and courses of education and professional development to meet the needs of the Canadian Armed Forces. Those able to gain admission to this institution will belong to a community of peers that encourages alumni prosperity. For most students under the ROTP, education is free and a salary is paid which meets incidentals. The courses are offered both on site and by learning in both official languages, English and French. After graduation, Officers are to two months of service for each subsidized month of education. RMC offers 19 undergraduate programs in Arts, Science and Engineering, RMC offers 34 graduate studies opportunities, including 14 doctorates. All undergraduate students are required to complete the curriculum, which is designed to provide a balanced liberal arts, science. The Core Curriculum consists of Economics, Psychology, Mathematics, English, Calculus, Military history of Canada, Chemistry, Canadian History, Engineering and Management was offered, 1972–1995. Engineering Physics was offered 1975–1995 and Fuels and Materials Engineering were offered 1982–1991, engineers provide support to deployed operations and domestic installations. RMC was the first college in Canada to train engineers, Physics, Chemistry, Computer Science, Mathematics and Space Science are offered by the Faculty of Science. The science programs are relevant to occupations in both the Canadian Armed Forces and the civilian sector, students pursuing a Bachelor of Arts gain practical communication and critical thinking skills as well as specialized, hands-on experience in their chosen field. English, French, Economics, Political Science, History, Business Administration, Military theory, Military strategy studies, Military Psychology and Leadership are offered by the Faculty of Arts. Tuition fees at the undergraduate level vary from $2,780 – $3,710 for Canadian undergraduate students, the tuition fees for international students vary from $8,750 – $9,000 for undergraduate students and $6,200 – $6,700 for graduate students
10.
Canal du Nord
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The Canal du Nord is a 95-kilometre long canal in northern France. The canal connects the Canal latéral à lOise at Pont-lÉvêque to the Sensée Canal at Arleux, the French government, in partnership with coal-mining companies in the Nord and Pas-de-Calais departments, developed the canal to help French coal mining companies withstand foreign competition. Construction of the began in 1908 but halted in 1914. The war caused widespread destruction of the canal and the French government made no attempt to resume construction until 1959, construction recommenced in 1960 and the waterway opened to the public in 1965. Until the construction of the Canal du Nord, the Canal de Saint-Quentin was the only linking the Seine basin to the north of France. In 1860, the coal companies in the Pas-de-Calais region grouped themselves into a Comité des Houillères du Pas-de-Calais. The group expanded into the Comité des Houillères du Nord et du Pas-de-Calais in 1878, a special commission of the French Ministry of Public Works conducted their first study in 1878 to find a “suitable means of putting the coal mines in a position to withstand foreign competition. The concept of the canal was included in the Freycinet Plan, plans for the canal were presented to the Chamber of Deputies in 1882. On 23 December 1903, the French government authorized construction of the Canal du Nord, in 1908 construction began on the canal. Under the plan, coal-mining companies contributed one-third of the construction cost, three quarters of the excavations, eleven locks and all of the bridges were complete, with work well advanced on the tunnels, when World War I forced a halt in construction. The war resulted in destruction of the canal and the French government did not attempt to resume building prior to the Second World War. The Battle of the Canal du Nord was part of a general Allied offensive against German positions on the Western Front during the Hundred Days Offensive of World War I. The battle took place along a portion of the Canal du Nord. It began one day after the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, one day before an offensive in the Flanders region of Belgium, Bordeaux, Société de géographie commerciale de Bordeaux
11.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
12.
CFB Valcartier
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Canadian Forces Base Valcartier is a Canadian Forces Base located in the municipality of Saint-Gabriel-de-Valcartier, approximately 25 km north of Quebec City. It is home to 5 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, CFB Valcartier was originally erected as a military training camp in August 1914 as part of the mobilization of the Canadian Expeditionary Force at the onset of World War I. The site was used as an internment camp for enemy aliens. The name Valcartier comes from the town of Saint-Gabriel-de-Valcartier, of which a section was expropriated in order to create the military training camp. Due to its proximity to the Port of Quebec, Valcartier became the largest military camp on Canadian soil, in 1968, after the unification of the Canadian Forces, the title 5 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group was assigned to the brigade group established in CFB Valcartier. Currently, Valcartier Garrison is home to 5 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, the Myriam Bédard Biathlon Training Centre is also located on the base. CFB Valcartier is also home to a Defence Research and Development Canada location, ASU Valcartier is also home of the Army Cadet Summer Training Centre Valcartier, which trains Royal Canadian Army Cadets of the Eastern Region / Province of Quebec. In July 1974, a safety training accident involving D Company killed six cadets. A coroners inquiry found the instructor criminally responsible, an account of the explosion, its cause and effects are detailed in the book As You Were, The Tragedy at Valcartier by Gerry Fostaty and published by Goose Lane Editions. In 1997 a cancer-causing chemical, trichloroethylene, was found in the supply of CFB Valcartier. Trichloroethylene, which has linked to liver cancer, was used for degreasing metal parts at the base in the 1970s. The Department of National Defence, which was accused of a cover-up, media related to CFB Valcartier at Wikimedia Commons
13.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
14.
1st Canadian Division
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The 1st Canadian Division is an operational command and control formation of the Canadian Joint Operations Command, based at CFB Kingston. Formed during the First World War in August 1914, the 1st Canadian Division was a formation of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. The division was made up from provisional battalions that were named after their province of origin. Following the war, the division was stood down only to be re mobilized as a formation on 1 September 1939 as the 1st Canadian Infantry Division for service in the Second World War, the division was also reactivated twice during the Cold War. In 2010, the division was reactivated for a third time, several units under command of the First Contingent were excluded from the divisional organization, including the 17th Battalion, 18th Battalion, and several companies of Newfoundland soldiers. The strength of the division was placed at 17,873 all ranks, the 10th Battalion replaced the 6th Battalion, which left the 2nd Brigade to become a cavalry unit, later serving in the Canadian Cavalry Brigade. Pioneer units were added later in the war, including the 1st Canadian Pioneer Battalion from Mar 1916 to Feb 1917, the 107th Canadian Pioneer Battalion also came under command between Mar 1917 and May 1918, before being absorbed by the 1st Canadian Engineer Brigade. He was selected — to the relief of many — in lieu of Sir Sam Hughes and it had been Hughess wish to command the Canadians in action. Alderson, who had commanded Canadian units before, won out over three prospective Canadian appointees, who, while serving with the British Army, were considered too inexperienced. Training in the winter of 1914 was rigorous, and conditions on Salisbury Plain were harsh due to cold, a royal inspection of the division early in 1915 foretold a move to France. After being stationed at Salisbury Plain in England, the 1st Canadian Division embarked for France during February 1915, the division moved to the Ypres Salient in April, and faced its first real test during the defence of St. Julien beginning on 22 April. The Canadians withstood German attack—aided, for the first time on the Western Front, by the use of poison gas—and finally retired to positions on 26 April. The Second Battle of Ypres, as the action came to be known. Two weeks later, the division was in action again at Festubert, aiding in a diversionary offensive by the British armies, the Canadians suffered 2,204 casualties for gains of only 600 yards. Another futile attack was launched at Givenchy-en-Gohelle in June 1915, after which the moved to Ploegsteert. The Canadians began a period of static warfare which would last them throughout the winter. In September, the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Division meant that a corps headquarters could take to the field to command the division. Major-General Arthur Currie took command of the division in September, active operations resumed again in the spring of 1916, participating in the Battle of Mount Sorrel, and then restoring the situation at Sanctuary Wood
15.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
16.
Sapper
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They are also trained to serve as infantry personnel in defensive and offensive operations. A sappers duties are devoted to tasks involving facilitating movement, defence and survival of allied forces, the term sapper is used in the British Army and Commonwealth nations, Polish Army and the U. S. military. The phrase sapper comes from the French saper, saps were excavated by brigades of trained sappers or instructed troops. When an army was defending a fortress with cannon, they had an obvious height, the attacking armys artillery had to be brought forward, under fire, so as to facilitate effective counter-battery fire. This was achieved by digging what the French termed a sappe, using techniques developed and perfected by Vauban, the sappers began the trench at such an angle so as to avoid enemy fire enfilading the sappe. As they pressed forward, a position was prepared from which cannon could suppress the defenders on the bastions, the sappers would then change the course of their trench, zig-zagging toward the fortress wall. Each leg brought the attackers artillery closer until the cannon would be sufficiently suppressed for the attackers to breach the walls. Broadly speaking, sappers were experts at demolishing or otherwise overcoming or bypassing fortification systems. An additional term applied to sappers of the British Indian Army was miner, the native engineer corps were referred to as sappers and miners, as for example, the Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners. The term arose from a task done by sappers to further the battle after saps were dug, the saps permitted cannon to be brought into firing range of the besieged fort and its cannon, but often the cannon themselves were unable to breach the fort walls. This was dangerous work, often lethal to the sappers, and was resisted by the besieged enemy. Since the two tasks went hand in hand and were done by the troops, native Indian engineer corps came to be called sappers and miners. Sapper is the Royal Engineers equivalent of private, the term sapper was introduced in 1856 when the Corps of Royal Sappers and Miners was amalgamated with the officer corps of the Royal Engineers to form the Corps of Royal Engineers. During the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I Australian sappers repaired a bridge at the crossing of the Jordan River at Jisr Benat Yakub. Here the retreating Ottoman and German rearguard had blown up the central arch which was repaired in five hours by sappers attached to the Australian Mounted Division. Australian Sappers in the Vietnam War were also honoured in the Cold Chisel song Khe Sanh with the line I left my heart to the Sappers round Khe Sanh, in the Canadian Forces, sappers exist both in the regular force and reserve force. The rank of sapper is used instead of private trained to signify completion of the Engineer DP1 course, Canadian sappers have been deployed in many major conflicts in recent history including World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the War in Afghanistan. Ultimately, the objective of the sappers is to facilitate the living, moving, and fighting for friendly troops on the battlefield, the motto of the Canadian Military Engineers is Ubique a motto shared with the Royal Canadian Artillery
17.
Tunnel warfare
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A counter mine is a mine dug to allow defenders to attack miners, or destroy a mine threatening their fortifications. The Aetolians then countered the Roman mine with smoke from burning feathers with charcoal, eventually, when Philip V announced that large parts of the town-walls were undermined, the citizens surrendered without delay. Mining was a method used in ancient China from at least the Warring States period forward. When enemies attempted to dig tunnels under walls for mining or entry into the city, a well-preserved case of mining and counter-mining operations is in Dura Europos, during the siege in 256 AD during the Roman-Persian wars. In warfare during the Middle Ages, a mine was a tunnel dug to bring down castles, attackers used this technique when the fortification was not built on solid rock, developing it as a response to stone-built castles that could not be burned like earlier-style wooden forts. A tunnel would be excavated under the outer defenses either to access into the fortification or to collapse the walls. These tunnels would normally be supported by wooden props as the digging progressed. Later, explosives like gunpowder were used for greater effect. A tactic related to mining is sapping the wall, where engineers would dig at the base of a wall with crowbars, several methods resisted or countered undermining. Often the siting of a castle could make mining difficult, the walls of a castle could be constructed either on solid rock or on sandy or water-logged land, making it difficult to dig mines. A very deep ditch or moat could be constructed in front of the walls, as was done at Pembroke Castle, or even artificial lakes, as was done at Kenilworth Castle. This makes it difficult to dig a mine, and even if a breach is made. Defenders could also dig counter mines, from these they could then dig into the attackers tunnels and sortie into them to either kill the miners or to set fire to the pit-props to collapse the attackers tunnel. Alternatively they could under-mine the attackers tunnels and create a camouflet to collapse the attackers tunnels, finally if the walls were breached, they could either place obstacles in the breach, for example a cheval de frise to hinder a forlorn hope, or construct a coupure. During the Siege of Vicksburg, in 1863, Union troops led by General Ulysses S. Grant tunnelled under the Confederate trenches and detonated a mine beneath the 3rd Louisiana Redan on June 25,1863. The subsequent assault, led by General John A. Logan, gained a foothold in the Confederate trenches where the crater was formed, but the attackers were eventually forced to withdraw. A more famous instance occurred during the Siege of Petersburg, Union troops dug a tunnel under the Confederate lines at Elliotts Salient, when set off, the resulting explosion killed about 300 soldiers. The combat was known as the Battle of the Crater
18.
Battle of Vimy Ridge
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The Battle of Vimy Ridge was a military engagement fought primarily as part of the Battle of Arras, in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France, during the First World War. The main combatants were the Canadian Corps, of four divisions, the battle, which took place from 9 to 12 April 1917, was part of the opening phase of the British-led Battle of Arras, a diversionary attack for the French Nivelle Offensive. The objective of the Canadian Corps was to control of the German-held high ground along an escarpment at the northernmost end of the Arras Offensive. This would ensure that the southern flank could advance without suffering German enfilade fire, supported by a creeping barrage, the Canadian Corps captured most of the ridge during the first day of the attack. The town of Thélus fell during the day of the attack. The final objective, a fortified knoll located outside the village of Givenchy-en-Gohelle, the German forces then retreated to the Oppy–Méricourt line. Recent historical research has called this patriotic narrative into question, showing that it developed in the part of the twentieth century. The nation-building story only emerged fully formed after most of those who experienced the Great War directly or indirectly had passed from the scene, a 100-hectare portion of the former battleground serves as a memorial park and site of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial. Vimy Ridge is an escarpment 8 km northeast of Arras on the edge of the Douai Plain. The ridge rises gradually on its side, and drops more quickly on the eastern side. At approximately 7 km in length, and culminating at an elevation of 145 m or 60 m above the Douai Plains, the ridge provides a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions. The ridge fell under German control in October 1914 during the Race to the Sea as the Franco-British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France. The French Tenth Army attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette. The French 1st Moroccan Division managed to capture the height of the ridge but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements. The French made another attempt during the Third Battle of Artois in September 1915, the Vimy sector calmed following the offensive with both sides taking a largely live and let live approach. In all, the French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to control of Vimy Ridge. The British XVII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Julian Byng, relieved the French Tenth Army in the sector in February 1916, the Royal Engineers immediately deployed specialist tunnelling companies along the front to combat the German mining operations. In response to increased British mining aggression, German artillery and trench mortar fire intensified in early May 1916, the Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions
19.
Mines in the Battle of Messines (1917)
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The mines were detonated at the start of the Battle of Messines, creating 19 large craters. The joint explosion of the mines at Messines ranks among the largest non-nuclear explosions of all time, the Battle of Messines marked the zenith of mine warfare. On 10 August 1917, the Royal Engineers fired the last British deep mine of the war, at Givenchy-en-Gohelle near Arras. As part of allied operations in the Ypres Salient, British mining against the German-held salient at Wijtschate near Messines had begun in spring 1915, with diggings 4. 6–6.1 metres below the surface. The concept of a mining offensive was devised in September 1915 by the Engineer-in-Chief of the BEF, Brigadier George Fowke. Fowke had been inspired by the thinking of Major John Norton-Griffiths, a civil engineer, Fowke had wanted galleries about 960 metres long, as far as Grand Bois and Bon Fermier Cabaret on the fringe of Messines but the longest tunnel was a 660 metres gallery to Kruisstraat. The scheme devised by Fowke was formally approved on 6 January 1916, although Fowke and his deputy, by January 1916, several deep mine shafts, marked as deep wells and six tunnels had thus been started. Sub-surface conditions were complex and separate ground water tables made mining difficult. To overcome the difficulties, two military geologists assisted the miners from March 1916, including Edgeworth David, who planned the system of mines. German tunnellers came within metres of several British mine chambers and, well before the Battle of Messines, found La Petite Douve Farm mine. On 27 August 1916, the Germans set a camouflet, which killed four men and wrecked the chamber for 120 metres, the mine had been charged, the British diverted the attention of German miners from their deepest galleries by making many minor attacks in the upper levels. The BEF miners eventually completed a line of mines under Messines Ridge that were charged with 454 tonnes of ammonal. A group of four mines was placed under the German strongpoint Birdcage at Le Pelerin, the mine at Spanbroekmolen was set 27 metres below ground, at the end of a gallery 520 metres long. When detonated on 7 June 1917, the blast of the mine at Spanbroekmolen formed the Lone Tree Crater with a diameter of 76 metres and a depth of 12 metres. )The mine at Ontario Farm did not produce a crater but left a shallow indentation in the soft clay, after wet sand flowed back into the crater. Birdcage 1–4 on the southern flank in the II Anzac Corps area, were not required because the Germans made a local retirement before 7 June. Peckham 2 was abandoned due to a collapse and the mine at La Petite Douve Farm was abandoned after the German camouflet blast of 27/28 August 1916. The evening before the attack, Harington, the Second Army Chief of Staff, remarked to the press, Gentlemen, we may not make history tomorrow, a voluntary retirement would avoid the calamity experienced by the defenders at the Battle of Vimy Ridge on 9 April. Kuhl proposed a retirement to the Sehnen Line, halfway back from the Second Line along the ridge or all the way back to the Third Line, the artillery commander of Gruppe Wijtschate said that the German guns were well-organised and could overcome British artillery
20.
British Expeditionary Force (World War I)
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The British Expeditionary Force or BEF was the British Army sent to the Western Front during the First World War. Planning for a British Expeditionary Force began with the Haldane reforms of the British Army carried out by the Secretary of State for War Richard Haldane following the Second Boer War. The term British Expeditionary Force is often used to only to the forces present in France prior to the end of the First Battle of Ypres on 22 November 1914. By the end of 1914—after the battles of Mons, Le Cateau, an alternative endpoint of the BEF was 26 December 1914, when it was divided into the First and Second Armies. B. E. F. remained the name of the British armies in France. Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany, who was dismissive of the BEF. The treacherous English and walk over General Frenchs contemptible little army, hence, in later years, the survivors of the regular army dubbed themselves The Old Contemptibles. No evidence of any such order being issued by the Kaiser has ever been found, in October 1914, 7th Division arrived in France, forming the basis of III Corps and the cavalry had grown to form the Cavalry Corps of three divisions. By December 1914, the BEF had expanded to such an extent that the First Army, the force was commanded by Field Marshal Sir John French until December 1915, when he was replaced by General Sir Douglas Haig. The BEFs Chief of Staff on mobilization was General Archibald Murray and he was replaced in January 1915 by General William Robertson. Lieutenant-General Launcelot Kiggell then served as Chief of Staff from December 1915 to January 1917 when he was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Herbert Lawrence, the two initial Army Corps were commanded by Douglas Haig and Horace Smith-Dorrien. As the Regular Armys strength declined, the numbers were made up, first by the Territorial Force, by the end of August 1914, he had raised six new divisions and by March 1915, the number of divisions had increased to 29. The Territorial Force was also expanded, raising second and third battalions and forming eight new divisions. The Third Army was formed in July 1915 and with the influx of troops from Kitcheners volunteers and further reorganisation, the Fourth Army and the Reserve Army, became the Fifth Army in 1916. The BEF grew from six divisions of British regular army and reserves in 1914, to encompass the British Empires war effort on the Western front in 1918 and some of its allies. Over the course of the war 5,399,563 men served with the BEF, the First Army was formed on 26 December 1914. Its first commander was Douglas Haig promoted from command of the I Corps, when Haig took over command of the BEF in 1915, the new commander was General Henry Horne. First Army remained in France until the end of the war, the Second Army was formed at the same time as the First Army on 26 December 1914
21.
1st Canadian Tunnelling Company
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The 1st Canadian Tunnelling Company was one of the tunnelling companies of the Canadian Military Engineers during World War I. By January 1915 it had become evident to the BEF at the Western Front that the Germans were mining to a planned system, Norton-Griffiths ensured that tunnelling companies numbers 170 to 177 were ready for deployment in mid-February 1915. The lack of experienced men led to some tunnelling companies starting work later than others. The number of available to the BEF was also restricted by the need to provide effective counter-measures to the German mining activities. To make the tunnels safer and quicker to deploy, the British Army enlisted experienced coal miners, the first nine companies, numbers 170 to 178, were each commanded by a regular Royal Engineers officer. These companies each comprised 5 officers and 269 sappers, they were aided by additional infantrymen who were attached to the tunnellers as required. The success of the first tunnelling companies formed under Norton-Griffiths command led to mining being made a branch of the Engineer-in-Chiefs office under Major-General S. R. Rice, and the appointment of an Inspector of Mines at the GHQ Saint-Omer office of the Engineer-in-Chief, the formation of twelve new tunnelling companies, between July and October 1915, helped to bring more men into action in other parts of the Western Front. Most British tunnelling companies were formed under Norton-Griffiths leadership during 1915, on 10 September 1915, the British government sent an appeal to Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand to raise tunnelling companies in the Dominions of the British Empire. On 17 September, New Zealand became the first Dominion to agree the formation of a tunnelling unit, the New Zealand Tunnelling Company arrived at Plymouth on 3 February 1916 and was deployed to the Western Front in northern France. The Canadian Military Engineers contributed three tunnelling companies to the British Expeditionary Force, one unit was formed from men on the battlefield, plus two other companies trained in Canada and then shipped to France. Three Australian tunnelling companies were formed by March 1916, resulting in 30 tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers being available by the summer of 1916, the unit patch of the 1st Canadian Tunnelling Company was a red square with a large black capital letter T on it. 1st Canadian Tunnelling Company was formed in eastern Canada, then moved to France, shortly afterwards, in March 1916, it relieved 182nd Tunnelling Company near Armentières. 1st Canadian Tunnelling Company then moved to The Bluff in May 1916, from spring 1916 onwards, the Germans drove long galleries beneath The Bluff, and on 25 July 1916 the 1st Company of the 24th Pioneers blew a mine under the ridge. The 1st Canadian Tunnelling Company had, however, anticipated the blow so casualties were minimized, 1st Canadian Tunnelling Company next took over the tunnelling operations at Hill 60 in preparation for the Battle of Messines. The deep mine at St Eloi was the largest of the mines in the Battle of Messines. The work was begun with a deep shaft named Queen Victoria, building preparations had started on 16 August 1915 and the mine was completed on 11 June 1916. 1st Canadian Tunnelling Company saw the tunnelling operations at St Eloi through to 1917, when the mines at Messines were detonated, they created 19 large craters
22.
3rd Canadian Tunnelling Company
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The 3rd Canadian Tunnelling Company was one of the tunnelling companies of the Canadian Military Engineers during World War I. By January 1915 it had become evident to the BEF at the Western Front that the Germans were mining to a planned system, Norton-Griffiths ensured that tunnelling companies numbers 170 to 177 were ready for deployment in mid-February 1915. The lack of experienced men led to some tunnelling companies starting work later than others. The number of available to the BEF was also restricted by the need to provide effective counter-measures to the German mining activities. To make the tunnels safer and quicker to deploy, the British Army enlisted experienced coal miners, the first nine companies, numbers 170 to 178, were each commanded by a regular Royal Engineers officer. These companies each comprised 5 officers and 269 sappers, they were aided by additional infantrymen who were attached to the tunnellers as required. The success of the first tunnelling companies formed under Norton-Griffiths command led to mining being made a branch of the Engineer-in-Chiefs office under Major-General S. R. Rice, and the appointment of an Inspector of Mines at the GHQ Saint-Omer office of the Engineer-in-Chief, the formation of twelve new tunnelling companies, between July and October 1915, helped to bring more men into action in other parts of the Western Front. Most British tunnelling companies were formed under Norton-Griffiths leadership during 1915, on 10 September 1915, the British government sent an appeal to Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand to raise tunnelling companies in the Dominions of the British Empire. On 17 September, New Zealand became the first Dominion to agree the formation of a tunnelling unit, the New Zealand Tunnelling Company arrived at Plymouth on 3 February 1916 and was deployed to the Western Front in northern France. The Canadian Military Engineers contributed three tunnelling companies to the British Expeditionary Force, one unit was formed from men on the battlefield, plus two other companies trained in Canada and then shipped to France. Three Australian tunnelling companies were formed by March 1916, resulting in 30 tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers being available by the summer of 1916. As part of the preparations for the Battle of Messines, the 3rd Canadian Tunnelling Company began work at Spanbroekmolen, by the end of January 1916, 3rd Canadian Tunnelling Company also took over digging deep mines at Kruisstraat from 182nd Tunnelling Company. In April 1916, work at Kruisstraat was passed on to 175th Tunnelling Company, 3rd Canadian Tunnelling Company worked at The Bluff in early 1916 and Hill 60 during summer 1916. The British underground works consisted of a gallery leading to two mine chambers called Hill 60 A and Hill 60 B. The 3rd Canadian Tunnelling Company took over in April 1916 and completed the galleries, Hill 60 A being charged with explosives in July 1916 and the Hill 60 B branch gallery in October. Although it was decided not to detonate the mines at the Birdcage position. When the mines at Messines were detonated on 7 June 1917, after the Armistice, the 3rd Canadian Tunnelling Company repaired the town waterworks at Roubaix
23.
Victoria Cross
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The Victoria Cross is the highest award of the United Kingdom honours system. It is awarded for gallantry in the face of the enemy to members of the British armed forces and it was previously awarded to Commonwealth countries, most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any rank in any service. Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857 and these investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace. The VC was introduced on 29 January 1856 by Queen Victoria to honour acts of valour during the Crimean War, since then, the medal has been awarded 1,358 times to 1,355 individual recipients. Only 15 medals,11 to members of the British Army, the traditional explanation of the source of the metal from which the medals are struck is that it derives from Russian cannon captured at the Siege of Sevastopol. Some research has suggested a variety of origins for the material, research has established that the metal for most of the medals made since December 1914 came from two Chinese cannons that were captured from the Russians in 1855. Owing to its rarity, the VC is highly prized and the medal has fetched over £400,000 at auction, a number of public and private collections are devoted to the Victoria Cross. The private collection of Lord Ashcroft, amassed since 1986, contains over one-tenth of all VCs awarded, following a 2008 donation to the Imperial War Museum, the Ashcroft collection went on public display alongside the museums Victoria and George Cross collection in November 2010. These are unique awards of honours system, recommended, assessed, gazetted and presented by each country. In 1854, after 39 years of peace, Britain found itself fighting a war against Russia. The Crimean War was one of the first wars with modern reporting, before the Crimean War, there was no official standardised system for recognition of gallantry within the British armed forces. This structure was limited, in practice awards of the Order of the Bath were confined to officers of field rank. Brevet promotions or Mentions in Despatches were largely confined to those who were under the notice of the commanders in the field. Other European countries had awards that did not discriminate against class or rank, France awarded the Légion dhonneur and The Netherlands gave the Order of William. There was a feeling among the public and in the Royal Court that a new award was needed to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a mans lengthy or meritorious service. Queen Victoria issued a Warrant under the Royal sign-manual on 29 January 1856 that officially constituted the VC, the order was backdated to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War. Queen Victoria had instructed the War Office to strike a new medal that would not recognise birth or class, the medal was meant to be a simple decoration that would be highly prized and eagerly sought after by those in the military services
24.
Coulson Norman Mitchell
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Coulson Norman Mitchell VC MC was a Canadian soldier. Mitchell was a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British, born in Winnipeg on December 11,1889, Mitchell was a graduate of the University of Manitoba in engineering. He enlisted in the Canadian Army in 1914 and went overseas with a construction unit. As an officer with the 1st Tunnelling Company of Canadian Engineers he was awarded the Military Cross in 1917, for most conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty on the night of 8–9 October 1918, at Canal de LEscaut, north-east of Cambrai. He led a small party ahead of the first wave of infantry in order to examine the various bridges on the line of approach and, if possible, on reaching the canal he found the bridge already blown up. Under a heavy barrage he crossed to the bridge, where he cut a number of lead wires. Then in total darkness, and unaware of the position or strength of the enemy at the bridgehead and this bridge was found to be heavily charged for demolition, and whilst Capt. Mitchell, assisted by his N. C. O. Then under heavy fire he continued his task of cutting wires and removing charges and it was entirely due to his valour and decisive action that this important bridge across the canal was saved from destruction. After the war, Mitchell returned to Winnipeg to practice civil engineering, early in World War II, he was assigned to the Royal Canadian Engineers, at Camp Borden, Ont. In 1940, he went overseas and was put in charge of replacement training, transferred back to Canada in 1943, he was attached to National Defence Headquarters in Ottawa before joining the staff of the RCE Training Centre at Petawawa, Ont. In 1944, he took command of the Royal School of Military Engineering in Chilliwack and he later achieved the rank of lieutenant colonel. In 1946, Mitchell moved to Montreal where he joined a firm in an executive capacity. In 1965, a Montreal branch of The Royal Canadian Legion was named after him and he died November 17,1978 and was buried at the National Field of Honour in Pointe Claire, Quebec. The Canadian Military Engineers chose to honour Mitchell by naming the building of the Canadian Forces School of Military Engineering at CFB Gagetown. His Victoria Cross is on display at the museum there, a street in the town of Mount Royal is named after him. Coulson Mitchell Lake, named after him is located approximately 100 kilometres east of Thompson, the name of the lake is being modified to Norman Mitchell Lake at the request of the family to reflect that Lieutenant-colonel Mitchell was commonly referred to by the name Norman
25.
Cambrai
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Cambrai is a commune in the Nord department and in the Hauts-de-France region of France on the Scheldt river, which is known locally as the Escaut river. A sub-prefecture of the department, Cambrai is a town which had 32,518 inhabitants in the Census of 2009 and it is in the heart of the urban unit of Cambrai which, with 47,138 inhabitants, ranks as 7th largest of the department. Its urban area, an extensive range, included 65,986 inhabitants in 2009. With Lille and the towns of the former Nord-Pas de Calais Mining Basin, towards the end of the Roman Empire, Cambrai replaced Bavay as the capital of the land of the Nervii. The bishopric had some limited power and depended on the Holy Roman Empire until annexation to France in 1678. Fénelon, nicknamed the Swan of Cambrai, was the most renowned of the archbishops, the fertile lands which surround it and the textile industry gave it prosperity in the Middle Ages, but in modern times it is less industrialised than its neighbours of Nord-Pas-de-Calais. Cambrai was the Duke of Wellingtons headquarters, for the British Army of Occupation, occupied and partly destroyed by the German army during World War I, Cambrai saw unfold in its vicinity the Battle of Cambrai where tanks were massively and successfully used for the first time. A second Battle of Cambrai took place between 8 and 10 October 1918 as part of the Hundred Days Offensive, World War II was followed by reconstructions and a rapidly developing economy and population, abruptly reversed by the 1973 oil crisis. Cambrai today is a city and, despite the past destruction. Cambrai is affirmed as the centre of Cambrésis. Its economic life is strengthened by its position on the local highway. The town of Cambrai is located in the south of the Nord Department, the regional capital of Lille is 52 kilometres away. Cambrai is not very far from several European capitals, Brussels is 108 kilometres, Paris is 160 kilometres, the city was born and developed on the right bank of the Scheldt river. Locally known as the Escaut, the river has its source in the department of Aisne, the Saint-Quentin canal, the Canal du Nord, the A1, A2 and A26 autoroutes all borrow all this passage between the basin of the Seine and the plains of the Nord department. The chalky subsoil allowed, as in medieval cities, the digging of a network of cellars, tunnels. The poor quality of the Cambrai chalk was reserved for use in the manufacture of lime or filling, for prestigious buildings, stone from the nearby villages of Noyelles-sur-Escaut, Rumilly or Marcoing was used. The city is bordered in its part, as well as to the north. Cambrai is built on the bank of the Scheldt
26.
Cathays Cemetery
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The Cathays Cemetery is one of the main cemeteries of Cardiff, Wales. It is in the Cathays district of the city, about 1.5 miles north of Cardiff city centre, at 110 acres it is the third largest cemetery in the United Kingdom. The cemetery was opened in 1859 and originally had two chapels, one Anglican and the other non-conformist, and each including its own porte-cochère, the cemetery has a Roman Catholic section, where a Roman Catholic chapel was built later. In the Second World War, air raids damaged Cathays Cemetery with a number of bombs, in the 20th century all three chapels were neglected and in the 1980s the Roman Catholic one was demolished. Since 2008 the Anglican and non-conformist chapels have been undergoing restoration, the chapels, as well as the cemetery gateway and forecourt walls, are Grade II listed buildings. One of the most imposing memorials is that of Frank Baselow, thought to be a result of Baselows European heritage, the cemetery has a Commonwealth War Graves section, marked by a Cross of Sacrifice made to the standard design devised by Reginald Blomfield. Also present is the grave of Jacques Vaillant de Guélis, a Special Operations Executive agent, the cemetery includes the graves of 21 French Navy sailors from the First World War, mostly are in the Roman Catholic section, and a similar number of Norwegian sailors from the Second. Elsewhere in the cemetery are numerous other Commonwealth War Graves from both the First and Second World Wars, the cemetery contains in all the graves of 685 service personnel that are registered and maintained by the CWGC. Cathays Cemetery Cardiff on its 150th Anniversary, the Friends of Cathays Cemetery Cathays Cemetery. Commonwealth war graves,8,000 Wales plots signposted, — photographs Search Results, Cathays Cemetery
27.
Armistice of 11 November 1918
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It went into effect at 11 a. m. Paris time on 11 November 1918, and marked a victory for the Allies, the Germans were responding to the policies proposed by U. S. President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918. Although the armistice ended the fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. In addition, he recommended the acceptance of the demands of US president Woodrow Wilson including putting the Imperial Government on a democratic footing, hoping for more favorable peace terms. As he said to officers of his staff on 1 October, on 3 October, the liberal Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed Chancellor of Germany, replacing Georg von Hertling in order to negotiate an armistice. In the subsequent two exchanges, Wilsons allusions failed to convey the idea that the Kaisers abdication was a condition for peace. The leading statesmen of the Reich were not yet ready to contemplate such a monstrous possibility, in late October, Ludendorff, in a sudden change of mind, declared the conditions of the Allies unacceptable. He now demanded to resume the war which he himself had declared lost only one month earlier, however the German soldiers were pressing to get home. It was scarcely possible to arouse their readiness for battle anew, the Imperial Government stayed on course and Ludendorff was replaced by Wilhelm Groener. On 5 November, the Allies agreed to take up negotiations for a truce, the latest note from Wilson was received in Berlin on 6 November. That same day, the led by Matthias Erzberger departed for France. For example, they assumed that the de-militarization suggested by Wilson would be limited to the Central Powers, there were also contradictions with their post-War plans that did not include a consistent implementation of the ideal of national self-determination. Also on 9 November, Max von Baden handed over the office of Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert, eberts SPD and Erzbergers Catholic Centre Party had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Imperial government since Bismarcks era in the 1870s and 1880s. They were well represented in the Imperial Reichstag, which had power over the government. Their prominence in the negotiations would cause the new Weimar Republic to lack legitimacy in right-wing. The Armistice was the result of a hurried and desperate process and they were then entrained and taken to the secret destination, aboard Ferdinand Fochs private train parked in a railway siding in the forest of Compiègne. Foch appeared only twice in the three days of negotiations, on the first day, to ask the German delegation what they wanted, the Germans were handed the list of Allied demands and given 72 hours to agree. The German delegation discussed the Allied terms not with Foch, but with other French, the Armistice amounted to complete German demilitarization, with few promises made by the Allies in return
28.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
29.
Monarchy of Canada
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The Monarchy of Canada is at the very core of both Canadas federal structure and Westminster-style of parliamentary and constitutional democracy. The monarchy is the foundation of the executive, legislature, and judiciary in the federal, the Canadian sovereign is the personification of the Canadian state and, as a matter of constitutional law, is Canada. The current Canadian monarch, since 6 February 1952, is Queen Elizabeth II, as such, Elizabeths son, Prince Charles, is heir apparent. Although the person of the sovereign is shared with 15 other independent countries within the Commonwealth of Nations, each countrys monarchy is separate. However, the Queen is the member of the Royal Family with any constitutional role. While some powers are only by the sovereign, most of the monarchs operational and ceremonial duties are exercised by his or her representative. In each of Canadas provinces, the monarch is represented by a lieutenant governor, as the territories are not sovereign, they do not have a viceroy. As all executive authority is vested in the sovereign, their assent is required to allow for bills to become law and for letters patent, Canada is one of the oldest continuing monarchies in the world. The emergence of this arrangement paralleled the fruition of Canadian nationalism following the end of the First World War and culminated in the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Upon a demise of the Crown, the late sovereigns heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony, hence arises the phrase The King is dead. It is customary for the accession of the new monarch to be proclaimed by the governor general on behalf of the Privy Council. Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual. This is because, in law, the Crown never dies. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she continues to reign until death. The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the rules of succession to their respective crowns requires the consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes, such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701, in 1936, King Edward VIII abdicated and any possible future descendants of his were excluded from the line of succession. As the Statute of Westminster 1931 disallowed the UK from legislating for Canada, including in relation to succession, the latter was deemed by the Cabinet in 1947 to be part of Canadian law, as is the Bill of Rights 1689, according to the Supreme Court of Canada. The Department of External Affairs included all succession-related laws in its list of acts within Canadian law, certain aspects of the succession rules have been challenged in the courts
30.
Cap badge
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A cap badge, also known as head badge or hat badge, is a badge worn on uniform headgear and distinguishes the wearers nationality and/or organisation. Cap badges are a form of heraldry and their design generally incorporates highly symbolic devices. In the British Army each regiment and corps has its own cap badge and that of the Grenadier Guards is known as The Grenade Fired Proper The concept of regimental badges appears to have originated with the British Army. Plastic cap badges were introduced during the Second World War, when metals became strategic materials. Nowadays many cap badges in the British Army are made of a material called stay-brite, regimental cap badges are usually cast as one single piece but in a number of cases they may be cast in different pieces. The Royal Corps Of Signals also have a two part badge, the top being a brass crown and the bottom consisting of a silver flying body of Mercury above a brass world and the motto Certa Cito. A regiment or battalion may maintain variations of the cap badge for different ranks. These variations are usually in the material, size and stylization. Variations in cap badges are made for, Officers, usually three-dimensional in design with more expensive materials such as silver, enamel. Most officers beret badges are embroidered rather than metal or stay-brite, there are exceptions such as the Welsh Guards, where all ranks wear a cloth cap badge. Officers wearing an elaborate version to that of soldiers, made using gold thread and has a more three-dimensional design. All ranks of the Special Air Service wear an embroidered capbadge and all ranks of The Rifles, some regiments maintain a blackened or subdued version of their cap badges as shiny brass cap badges may attract the enemys attention on the battlefield. However, since the practice of British soldiers operating in theatre with regimental headdress has all but died out, the back badge is unique in the British Army and was awarded to the 28th Regiment of Foot for their actions at the Battle of Alexandria in 1801. Additional items that reflect a regiments historical accomplishments, such as backing cloth and hackles, in Scottish regiments, for instance, it is a tradition for soldiers to wear their cap badges on a small square piece of their regimental tartans. Officer Cadets may wear a white backing behind their badges. For a period leading up to Remembrance Day artificial poppies are worn by people in the United Kingdom. When worn in uniform the plastic stem of the poppy is discarded, on forage caps the paper petals are fitted under the left hand chin strap button. In the Royal Marines, the cap badges of commissioned officers are split into two, the crown and lion atop, but separated from, the globe and laurels, the Canadian Forces utilize a variety of metal and cloth cap badges on their headdress
31.
First Canadian Army
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The First Canadian Army was a field army and the senior formation of the Canadian Army that served on the Western Front from July 1944 until May 1945 during the Second World War. By the end of 1943 Canadian formations in the United Kingdom consisted of three divisions, two armoured divisions, and two independent armoured brigades. The first commander was Lieutenant-General A. G. L, andy McNaughton, who was replaced in 1944 by General H. D. G. Harry Crerar. Both had been senior officers in the Canadian Corps in the Great War. Allied formations of other nationalities were added to the First Canadian Army to keep it at full strength, the First Canadian Armys strength was 177,000 in all ranks at the end of 1942. One year later it had grown to 242,000, on 31 May 1944, shortly before the Normandy landings, it was 251,000 of which 75,000 were serving on the Italian Front. When the First Canadian Army was formed overseas in 1942, Lieutenant-General McNaughtons aim was to keep the Canadian Army unified to lead the assault on northwest Europe. Two brigades of the 2nd Canadian Division led the ill-fated Dieppe Raid in 1942, aside from this endeavour, the Army did not see combat until July 1943. In early 1944, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division and 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade were also detached to British I Corps to participate in the phase of the Normandy landings. II Canadian Corps became operational in Normandy in early July 1944, the First Canadian Army headquarters did not itself arrive in Normandy until mid-July, becoming operational 23 July 1944 just prior to 4th Canadian Armoured Division arriving on the Continent. The Army proper first went into action in the Battle of Normandy and conducted operations at Falaise, the critical Battle of the Scheldt in October and November opened Antwerp to Allied shipping. The First Canadian Army held a line along the river Meuse from December through February. By this point the Army, besides the II Canadian Corps, the Siegfried Line was broken and the Army reached the banks of the Rhine in early March. In the final weeks of the war in Europe, the First Army cleared the Netherlands of German forces, the First Canadian Army was international in character. However, both McNaughton and Crerar, backed up by the Canadian government, were successful in their lobbying to create a Canadian-led army enlarged with contributions from other Allied countries. The First Canadian Army in North-West Europe during the phases of the war comprised the largest field army ever under the control of a Canadian general. Ration strength of the army ranged from approximately 105,000 to 175,000 Canadian soldiers to anywhere from 200,000 to over 450,000 when including the soldiers from other nations, the Maple Leaf Route was the designation of the armys main supply route. The route was divided into Maple Leaf Up and Maple Leaf Down, designating traffic to and away from the front
32.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
33.
Company (military unit)
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A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–250 soldiers and usually commanded by a major or a captain. Most companies are formed of three to six platoons, although the number may vary by country, unit type. Usually several companies are grouped as a battalion or regiment, the latter of which is formed by several battalions. Occasionally, independent or separate companies are organized for special purposes and these companies are not organic to a battalion or regiment, but rather report directly to a higher level organization such as a Marine Expeditionary Force headquarters. The modern military company became popularized during the reorganization of the Swedish Army in 1631 under King Gustav II Adolph, for administrative purposes, the infantry was divided into companies consisting of 150 men, grouped into regiments of eight companies. Tactically, the companies were organized into battalions and grouped with cavalry troops. From ancient times, some armies have used a base administrative. Furthermore, recent studies have indicated that humans are best able to maintain stable relationships in a group numbering between 100-250 members, with 150 members being the common number. The advent of accurate, long-range rifle fire, repeating rifles and this, coupled with the advent of radio communication, permitted relatively small numbers of men to have much greater firepower and combat effectiveness than previously possible. Companies, however, continue to remain within the range of 100-250 members, perhaps validating the premise that men fight best in organizations of around 150 members. These companies were not organic to any intermediate headquarters, but rather reported directly to the division headquarters, rifle companies consist of three platoons and a company headquarters. Until after the Second World War, the Royal Engineers and Royal Signals had both squadrons and companies depending on whether the units were supporting mounted or foot formations. The British Army infantry normally identifies its rifle companies by letter within a battalion, usually with the addition of a headquarters company and a support/heavy weapons company. Some units name their companies after regimental battle honours, this is commonly the case for composite units, for example the London Regiment with its Somme, Messines and Cambrai companies. The foot guards regiments use traditional names for some of their companies, for example Queens Company, Left Flank, Royal Marines companies are designated by a letter that is unique across the corps, not just within their command. The Intelligence Corps, Royal Army Medical Corps, Royal Military Police, the defunct Royal Army Service Corps, Royal Pioneer Corps and Royal Army Ordnance Corps had companies, the Royal Corps of Transport had squadrons. British companies are commanded by a major, the officer commanding. The Honourable Artillery Company is in fact a regiment, not a company, in terms of organisation, canadian Army organisation is modelled after the British
34.
Squadron (army)
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A squadron was historically a cavalry subunit, a company sized military formation. The term is used to refer to modern cavalry units but can also be used as a designation for other arms. In some countries, like Italy, the cavalry unit is called Squadron Group. Prior to the revisions in the US Army structure in the 1880s, US Cavalry regiments were divided into companies, the reorganizations converted companies to troops and battalions to squadrons, and made squadrons tactical formations as well as administrative ones. In the British Army and many other Commonwealth armies, a squadron is the Royal Armoured Corps counterpart of a company or artillery battery. A squadron is a sub-unit of a formation, and is usually made up of two or more troops. Squadrons are commonly designated using letters or numbers, in some British Army units it is a tradition for squadrons to also be named after an important historical battle in which the regiment has taken part. For example, the Royal Armoured Corps Training Regiment assigns trainees to Waterloo Squadron, in some special cases, squadrons can also be named after a unique honour which has been bestowed on the unit. The modern French Army is composed of troupes à pied and troupes à cheval, nowadays, the term escadron is used to describe a company of mounted soldiers but, for a long time, a cavalry escadron corresponded to an infantry battalion, both units grouping several companies. The term compagnie has been discontinued and replaced by escadron in cavalry units since 1815, in the mounted arms a captain in charge of an escadron is thus called a chef descadron. However, his superior in the hierarchy has the rank of chef descadrons. After 1815, the army began to write chef descadrons with an s in cavalry units to reflect the fact that this officer who used to be in charge of one squadron was now in charge of several squadrons. In other mounted branches, chef descadron is still spelled without s, the Norwegian army operates with units called eskadroner, typically a company-equivalent unit, generally in armoured cavalry units although not always. The 2nd Battalion, Brigade Nord, has a company-equivalent unit called kavalerieskadronen and it serves as the main reconnaissance unit in the battalion. Like the mechanized units, it wears the distinct khaki-coloured beret of the battalion instead of the normal black for cavalry units. The Armoured Battalion has the majority of its constituents labeled eskadroner, including the Cavalry Squadron, the Armoured Squadron and the Assault Squadrons. It also includes the battalions Support element, the Combat Support Squadron and its members are also referred to as dragoons, reflecting the nature of the unit. The Telemark Battalion also has a number of units labelled eskadroner and this includes the Armoured Squadron, the Cavalry Squadron and the Combat Support Squadron
35.
Cavalry
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Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the most mobile of the combat arms, an individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations such as cavalryman, horseman, dragoon or trooper. The designation of cavalry was not usually given to any military forces that used animals, such as camels. Cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, and a man fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, another element of horse mounted warfare is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent. In Europe cavalry became increasingly armoured, and eventually became known for the mounted knights, in the period between the World Wars, many cavalry units were converted into motorized infantry and mechanized infantry units, or reformed as tank troops. Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, modern usage of the term generally refers to specialist units equipped with tanks or aircraft. The shock role, traditionally filled by heavy cavalry, is filled by units with the armored designation. Before the Iron Age, the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots, the chariot originated with the Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians. The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, Cavalry techniques were an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Central Asian and Iranian steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the Persian Parthians and Sarmatians. The photograph above left shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC, at this time, the men had no spurs, saddles, saddle cloths, or stirrups. Fighting from the back of a horse was more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs, the reins of the archer were controlled by his neighbours hand. Even at this time, cavalry used swords, shields. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist, Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse. As early as 490 BC a breed of horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour. However, chariots remained in use for purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph. The southern Britons met Julius Caesar with chariots in 55 and 54 BC, the last mention of chariot use in battle was by the Caledonians at the Mons Graupius, in 84 AD. During the classical Greek period cavalry were usually limited to citizens who could afford expensive war-horses
36.
2nd Canadian Division during World War II
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The 2nd Canadian Division, an infantry division of the Canadian Army, was mobilized for war service on 1 September 1939 at the outset of World War II. On 19 August 1942, with air and naval gunfire support, the Germans were well prepared and, despite being reinforced, the Canadians sustained heavy losses and had to be evacuated, with fewer than half their number returning to the United Kingdom. Following a period of reconstruction and retraining from 1942 to 1944, the 2nd Division saw significant action from 20 July to 21 August in the battles for Caen and Falaise. The division was deactivated shortly after the end of the war, at the start of the Second World War, the Canadian Active Service Force was initially composed of two divisions, the 1st and 2nd Canadian Infantry Divisions, both raised on 1 September 1939. The fighting power of this lay in its constituent infantry brigades. These were in turn composed of three rifle and one machine gun battalion, with divisional artillery and engineer units in support. Its 4th Brigade was composed of regiments from Ontario, the 5th Brigade of regiments from Quebec, the first brigade concentrations took place in May and June 1940, until which time all units had trained in their own garrisons. The 4th Brigade assembled at Camp Borden in Ontario, the 5th at Valcartier Camp in Quebec, the divisional artillery was concentrated at artillery training centres at Camp Petawawa in Ontario, and at Shilo. The 2nd Divisions structure was altered in early 1940, reducing its number of battalions from three to one. As a result, most of the 2nd Divisions units were sent to the United Kingdom in August 1940, the absence of the Mont Royals allowed Odlum to reassign the Calgary Highlanders to the 5th Brigade in September, in an attempt to ethnically mix the brigades of the division. By late December 1940, the 2nd Canadian Division was joined with the 1st to form the Canadian Corps, in 1941, the Toronto Scottish Regiment was transferred from the 1st Division to become the machine-gun battalion of the 2nd Division. Around the same time, the 8th Reconnaissance Regiment was raised from 2nd Division personnel supplemented by reinforcements from Canada, due to equipment shortages, it was often difficult to adequately supply newly arrived divisions in England. When the division was not engaged in coastal-defence duties or unit training, exercise Waterloo, conducted from 14–16 June 1941, was the largest in the United Kingdom to date, with I Canadian Corps counter-attacking an imagined German sea and air landing. Exercise Bumper, held from 29 September to 3 October, was larger still and these exercises tended to concentrate on traffic control, communications, and logistical concerns, and were of little practical value to the infantry. On 23 December 1941, Major General Harry Crerar was appointed as commander, replacing Odlum who had ceased command in November. Meanwhile, on 30 December 1941, the Calgary Highlanders introduced battle drill to the division, as April and May progressed, the exercises intensified, becoming significantly more demanding on the participants. Mounted as a test of whether or not such a landing was feasible, the Dieppe raid was to be undertaken by the 4th and 6th Brigades, with additional naval, air, significant elements of the 5th Brigade were also involved. On 19 August 1942, while British commando units attacked bunker positions on the outskirts of Dieppe, only six percent of the men that landed on Blue Beach returned to Britain
37.
3rd Canadian Division
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The 3rd Canadian Division is a formation of the Canadian Army. It was first created as a formation of the Canadian Corps during the First World War and it was stood down following the war and was later reactivated as the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division during the Second World War. The second iteration served with distinction from 1941 to 1945, taking part in the D-Day landings of 6 June 1944, a duplicate of the 3rd Canadian Division was formed in 1945 to serve on occupation duty in Germany, and was disbanded the following year. In 2013, Land Force Western Area, a military organization in western Canada, was ordered to be redesignated as 3rd Canadian Division. On 6 June 2014, the 3rd Canadian Division adopted the insignia, traditions, from the middle of 1916, the division has been identified by a distinctive French-Grey patch worn on the uniforms of its soldiers. The 3rd Canadian Division was formed in France in December 1915 under the command of Major-General Malcolm Mercer and its members served in France and Flanders until Armistice Day. While with the 3rd Division at Ypres, Mercer became the highest-ranking Canadian officer killed in action during the First World War. On the same day, Brigadier V. A. Williams, commanding the 8th Infantry Brigade, became the highest-ranking Canadian officer captured in the First World War, also at the Battle of Mount Sorrel. Mercer was replaced by Louis Lipsett, who commanded the division until September 1918, shortly before he too was killed in action on 14 October 1918, Major-General Frederick Loomis closed out World War I as the commander. 7th Infantry Brigade, The Royal Canadian Regiment, December 1915 –11 November 1918, Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry. 24 December 1915 –11 November 1918, 42nd Battalion Canadian Infantry, December 1915 –11 November 1918, 49th Battalion Canadian Infantry. December 1915 –11 November 1918, 8th Infantry Brigade, 1st Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, CEF. December 1915 –11 November 1918, 2nd Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, December 1915 –11 November 1918, 4th Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, CEF. December 1915 –11 November 1918, 5th Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, December 1915 –11 November 1918. 9th Infantry Brigade, 43rd Battalion Canadian Infantry, January 1916 –11 November 1918, 52nd Battalion Canadian Infantry. January 1916 –11 November 1918, 58th Battalion Canadian Infantry, January 1916 –11 November 1918, 60th Battalion Canadian Infantry. January 1916 –30 April 1917, April 1917 –11 November 1918. 8 January 1916 – May 1917, 123rd Canadian Pioneer Battalion, to the 3rd Canadian Engineer Brigade
38.
4th Canadian Division
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The 4th Canadian Division is a formation of the Canadian Army. The division was first created as a formation of the Canadian Corps during the First World War, during the Second World War the division was reactivated as the 4th Canadian Infantry Division in 1941 and then converted to armour and redesignated as the 4th Canadian Division. Beginning in 1916 the division adopted a distinctive green-coloured formation patch as its insignia, in 2013 it was announced that Land Force Central Area would be redesignated 4th Canadian Division. It is currently responsible for Canadian Army operations in the Canadian province of Ontario and is headquartered at Denison Armoury, the 4th Canadian Division was formed in the Britain in April 1916 from several existing units and others scheduled to arrive shortly thereafter. Under the command of Major-General David Watson, the Division embarked for France in August of that year where they served both in the Western Front in France and in Flanders until Armistice Day. The 4th Canadian Division was a part of the Canadian Corps in the Battle of Vimy Ridge, as a result, the Canadians became known as masters of offensive warfare and an elite fighting force. In the Battle of Vimy Ridge in April 1917, the 4th Canadian Division was given the job of capturing Hill 145, however, when they attempted to capture the hill, they were hampered by fire from the Pimple, which was the other prominent height at Vimy Ridge. To capture Hill 145, forces which were supposed to attack the Pimple were redeployed and captured Hill 145, 10th Canadian Brigade, 44th Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1916 –11 November 1918, April 1916 –11 November 1918, 47th Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1916 –11 November 1918, April 1916 –11 November 1918. 11th Canadian Brigade, 54th Battalion Canadian Infantry, April 1916 –11 November 1918, 75th Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1916 –11 November 1918, 87th Battalion Canadian Infantry, june 1916 –11 November 1918, 102nd Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1916 –11 November 1918, 12th Canadian Brigade, 38th Battalion Canadian Infantry. June 1916 –11 November 1918, 51st Battalion Canadian Infantry, April 1916 –13 November 1916, 72nd Battalion, CEF. April 1916 –11 November 1918, 73rd Battalion Canadian Infantry, April 1916 –19 April 1917, 78th Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1916 –11 November 1918, 85th Battalion Canadian Infantry, April 1917 –11 November 1918, 87th Battalion Canadian Infantry. Pioneers, 67th Pioneer Battalion Canadian Infantry, the division proceeded overseas in 1942, with its two main convoys reaching the United Kingdom in August and October. The division spent almost two years training in the United Kingdom before crossing to Normandy in July 1944, the division participated in the later stages of the Battle of Normandy at the Falaise Pocket, the advance from Normandy and spent almost two months engaged at the Breskens Pocket
39.
5th Canadian Division
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The 5th Canadian Division is a formation of the Canadian Army. It was first created as a formation of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War and it was stood down during the war only to be reactivated through the renaming from 1st Canadian Armoured Division to the 5th Canadian Division during the Second World War. In both wars the division was recognized by the distinctive Maroon patch worn on the sleeve of its soldiers, the 5th Canadian Division of the Canadian Corps was formed during World War I. The 5th began assembling in Britain in February,1917, but was broken up in February 1918 before it was fully formed. Its men were used as reinforcements for the other four Canadian divisions, helping to maintain the over-strength Divisions of 22, 13th Canadian Brigade, 128th Battalion Canadian Infantry. Absorbed by the 15th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 134th Battalion Canadian Infantry, absorbed by the 12th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 160th Battalion Canadian Infantry. Absorbed by the 4th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 164th Battalion Canadian Infantry, absorbed by the 8th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 202nd Battalion Canadian Infantry. February 1917 – May 28,1918, absorbed by the 9th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 208th Battalion Canadian Infantry. May 1917 – January 3,1918, absorbed by the 2nd and 3rd Canadian Reserve Battalions. 14th Canadian Brigade, 125th Battalion Canadian Infantry, February 1917 – April 16,1918. Absorbed by the 8th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 150th Battalion Canadian Infantry, February 1917 – February 15,1918. Absorbed by the 6th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 156th Battalion Canadian Infantry, February 1917 – February 15,1918. Absorbed by the 6th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 161st Battalion Canadian Infantry, February 1917 – February 15,1918. Absorbed by the 4th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 15th Canadian Brigade, 104th Battalion Canadian Infantry. February 1917 – February 15,1918, absorbed by the 13th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 119th Battalion Canadian Infantry. February 1917 – April 16,1918, absorbed by the 8th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 185th Battalion Canadian Infantry. February 1917 – February 15,1918, absorbed by the 17th Canadian Reserve Battalion, 198th Battalion Canadian Infantry. April 1917 – March 9,1918, absorbed by the 3rd Canadian Reserve Battalion, 199th Battalion Canadian Infantry
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6th Canadian Infantry Division
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The 6th Canadian Infantry Division was an infantry division of the Canadian Army, formed in 1942 during the Second World War. It was attached to Pacific Command, the division had a brigade sent to the Aleutian Islands Campaign, particularly at Kiska, but never saw action. The 6th was raised as part of a scheme in Canada. The 6th was raised in March 1942 with its headquarters on Vancouver Island in British Columbia, various composite units were stationed at Port Alberni, Vancouver Island and Vernon. Throughout 1943, the division lost its artillery units to coastal defence work, by January 1944, the units had returned from Kiska, having not taken part in any fighting. On 1 December 1944, the need for coastal defence having lessened, the division was disbanded, remaining units loaned from other, now defunct divisions, were finally disbanded in January 1946. The division was reformed as part of the Canadian Army Pacific Force, and was to be a component of the Commonwealth Corps intended to be used in Operation Olympic, the division was to be commanded by Major General Bert Hoffmeister. 6th Division was organized on American lines and with U. S. equipment, the division was disbanded after Japans surrender made the Corpss use unnecessary
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Pacific Command (Canadian Army)
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Pacific Command was a formation of the Canadian Army created during the Second World War to strengthen and administer home defence facilities on Canadas Pacific Coast against possible Japanese attack. A second major function was to train reinforcements to be sent to the Canadian divisions in Europe, Pacific Command combined the pre-war Military District No.11 with Military District No.13. The command headquarters was housed in Esquimalt Fortress near Victoria. After the United States entered the war in December 1941, Canada, thus Pacific Command operated in close cooperation with Western Defense Command to the south and with Alaska Defense Command to the north. This act precluded the use of conscripts in overseas operations, however, a plebiscite held in April 1942 released the Canadian government from this restriction. Even after the plebiscite, the government was reluctant to send conscripts into combat outside of North America, in August 1943 troops of Pacific Command participated in Operation Cottage, in the final stages of the Aleutian Islands campaign. However, that ended without a shot being fired when it was discovered that the Japanese occupiers of Kiska had already evacuated the island. The two home defence infantry divisions attached to Pacific Command were thus broken up and their personnel were redistributed to other formations. C. A. S. C. 30,1942 Major-General George R. Pearkes, Sept.2,1942 to Feb.15,1945 Major-General Frederic Franklin Worthington, the Canadian Army 1939-1945 Law, Clive M. Distinguishing Patches
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Atlantic Command (Canadian Army)
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Atlantic Command was a formation of the Canadian Army created during the Second World War to strengthen and administer home defence facilities on Canadas Atlantic Coast. A second major function was to train reinforcements to be sent to the Canadian divisions in Europe, most of those soldiers received and trained with their personal weapons in Camp Debert before being transported by train to Halifax where they embarked on troop ships that took them to Britain. Atlantic Command combined the pre-war Military District No.6 with Military District No.7, extending the existing military cooperation among Canada, the Dominion of Newfoundland and the United Kingdom, Atlantic Command also controlled Canadian personnel stationed in Newfoundland. The Canadian Army 1939-1945 Law, Clive M. Distinguishing Patches
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8th Canadian Infantry Division
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The 8th Canadian Infantry Division was a Canadian formation that served within Pacific Command in Western Canada during World War II. The Division units were raised on 18 March 1942 and the HQ was raised on 12 May 1942 at Prince George, the Division was a home defence unit. It initially consisted of the 19th, 20th, and 21st Canadian Infantry Brigades, in July the home Defence Divisions were reorganised and the 8th Division consisted of the 14th and 16th Infantry Brigades. The 19th Brigade went to the 6th Canadian Infantry Division, the 20th went to the 7th Canadian Infantry Division, the 8th Canadian Infantry Division was disbanded on 15 October 1943, along with the 16th Brigade. The 14th Brigade returned to the 6th Division,14 Ground Defence Platoon 16th Canadian Infantry Brigade No.16 Defence Platoon
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I Canadian Corps
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I Canadian Corps was one of the two corps fielded by the Canadian Army during the Second World War. From December 24,1940 until the formation of the First Canadian Army in April 1942, I Canadian Corps was commanded successively by Lieutenant-General Harry Crerar, Lieutenant-General Eedson Burns, and Lieutenant-General Charles Foulkes. There the Corps participated in the campaign to complete the liberation of the Netherlands, on May 6,1945 at Wageningen, Lieutenant-General Foulkes received the final surrender by Colonel General Johannes Blaskowitz of all remaining German forces still active in the Netherlands. The Corps was deactivated on July 17,1945 as part of general demobilization, although nominally a Canadian formation, I Canadian Corps contained significant elements at different times from other Allied countries. During the final campaign to liberate the Netherlands, the Corps included for a time the British 49th Infantry Division. In 2015, personnel of the Canadian Army Doctrine and Training Centre, headquartered at Kingston, began wearing the patch of I Canadian Corps on their ceremonial. The Canadians at War 1939/45, 2nd ed, copp, Terry, Cinderella Army, The Canadians in Northwest Europe 1944-1945, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada,2007, ISBN 978-0-8020-9522-0. Official history of the Canadian Army in the Second World War, Vol II The Canadians in Italy, official history of the Canadian Army in the Second World War, Vol III The Victory Campaign, The Operations in Northwest Europe 1944-1945. The Liri Valley, Canadas World War II Breakthrough to Rome, the Gothic Line, Canadas Month of Hell in World War II Italy
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II Canadian Corps
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II Canadian Corps was a corps-level formation that, along with I Corps and I Canadian Corps, comprised the First Canadian Army in Northwest Europe during World War II. Authorization for the formation of the Corps headquarters became effective in England on January 14,1943, over March 4–12,1943 the new Canadian corps was involved in Exercise Spartan, a large-scale training exercise in southern England. This exercise revealed weaknesses in the command of both the new Corps and of First Canadian Army, and this led directly to changes in leadership over the subsequent year. The first commander of II Canadian Corps was Lieutenant-General Ernest William Sansom, concerns over his leadership abilities and health caused Sansom to be replaced by Lieutenant-General Guy Simonds on January 29,1944. Simonds led the Corps for the remainder of its existence, on May 5,1945, at Bad Zwischenahn in Northern Germany, Simonds accepted the surrender of German forces facing II Canadian Corps at the end of the war. The Corps was deactivated on June 25,1945 as part of general demobilization, II Canadian Corps opened its first tactical headquarters in Normandy at Amblie on June 29,1944. The headquarters became fully operational on July 7 as the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division began to arrive in France, the 4th Canadian Division was the third Canadian division-level component of the Corps. Finally, for most of the campaign through Northwest Europe the Corps also included Polish 1st Armoured Division, although nominally a Canadian formation, II Canadian Corps contained significant contributions at different times from other Allied countries. In addition to the 1st Polish Armoured Division, the Corps included the 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade, the Royal Netherlands Motorized Infantry Brigade, II Canadian Corps engaged in combat operations in North-West Europe from the beginning of July 1944 to just before VE Day in early May 1945. During the Battle of Normandy, the Corps was used to spearhead the British-Canadian advance from Caen to Falaise, the First Canadian Army formed the left flank of the advancing Allied armies, and was charged with capturing or sealing off German-occupied ports in Northern France and in Belgium. Dieppe, Boulogne, Calais, Cap-Gris-Nez and Ostend were captured in September by troops of II Canadian Corps, however, the defences of Dunkirk proved to be so strong that it was decided to leave the German-occupied port city under siege until the end of the European war. As the spearhead of the First Canadian Army, II Canadian Corps was heavily involved in the Battle of the Scheldt to clear out those German positions. In the final phases of the war, II Canadian Corps advanced into the provinces of the Netherlands. Simonds received the surrender of those German forces facing the Corps in northern Germany. The Canadians at War 1939/45, 2nd ed, brown, Angus and Gimblett, Richard, In the Footsteps of First Canadian Army, Northwest Europe 1942-1945, Magic Light Publishing, Ottawa,2009, ISBN 1-894673-33-6. Copp, Terry, Fields of Fire, The Canadians in Normandy, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada,2004, copp, Terry, Cindarella Army, The Canadians in Northwest Europe 1944-1945, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada,2007, ISBN 978-0-8020-9522-0. Official history of the Canadian Army in the Second World War, Vol III The Victory Campaign, zuehlke, Mark, Terrible Victory, First Canadian Army and the Scheldt Estuary Campaign, September 13 – November 6,1944, Douglas & McIntyre,2009, ISBN 1-55365-404-8. History of the 6th Canadian anti-tank regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery, 1st April, 1942-24th June,1945 www. canadiansoldiers. com
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Charles Hertzberg
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Major General Charles Sumner Lund Hertzberg CB, MC, VD was a prominent engineer and senior commander in the Canadian Army during the Second World War. Hertzberg commanded the Royal Canadian Engineering Corps as Chief Engineer, First Canadian Army and he was made a Companion of the Order of Bath, and died at age 57 after contracting smallpox on a special assignment in India. Charles Hertzberg was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada on 12 June 1886, to Anton Lund Hertzberg and he had two brothers - Major General H. F. H. Hertzberg, CB, CMG, DSO, MC of the Canadian Engineers and Lieutenant O. P. Hertzberg and he was descended from a distinguished military family in Norway, and was the great-grandson of Niels Hertzberg. Hertzberg was educated at St. Andrews College in Aurora, Ontario and he joined 2nd Field Company Canadian Engineers in 1902, and was commissioned in 1904. Before heading overseas to fight in the First World War, Hertzberg worked as an engineer an career he continued post-war. Hertzberg, also reached the rank of Major General, the Hertzbergs were the only brother-duo to hold the rank of general at the same time in the Canadian army. He married Jessie Alexander Hertzberg, of Toronto, Hertzberg went overseas in 1916 and saw action in France as a Captain of the 7th Field Company of the Royal Canadian Engineers. He suffered a severe chest wounded at Vimy Ridge in 1917 and was awarded the Military Cross for conspicuous bravery in action in January of that year, deemed permanently unfit for any service, he was sent home in June 1917. He then served as Adjutant of the Spadina Military Hospital in Toronto and he managed to make his way back into action in October 1918 at Vladivostok, where he fought with the Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force as a major, with the title of Senior Engineering Officer. Here he fought the Bolsheviks and was awarded the Slovak Republics Croix de Guerre for his services in Siberia and he served until the Force demobilized in June 1919. In the interwar years Hertzberg remained active in the volunteer militia. He commanded the Second Field Company and he also served as Aide-de-Camp to Herbert Alexander Bruce, 15th Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario. From 1939 to 1943 Hertzberg was the engineering officer for the Canadian Army overseas. He was the first Canadian to hold the position of Chief Engineer in the Canadian Army, Hertzberg went overseas in December 1939 as Lieutenant-Colonel of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division, tasked with commanding the engineers. He quickly rose to Chief Engineer of the division, and then of the Army, during his command he and the Canadian engineers developed technologies that proved invaluable to the war effort. Hertzberg was finally forced into retirement in June 1943, mcNaughton wrote at the time, Hertzberg has rendered exceptional service and his work is deserving of the highest commendation. He will be a loss to the Canadian Army Overseas. Upon retirement Hertzberg was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath,1 Canadian Division and proceeded overseas with his unit in the fall of 1939
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