1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
3.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
4.
Upper Canada
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The new province remained, for the next fifty years of growth and settlement, the colonial government of the territory. Upper Canada existed from 26 December 1791 to 10 February 1841, the upper prefix in the name reflects its geographic position being closer to the headwaters of the Saint Lawrence River than that of Lower Canada to the northeast. The control the French had over Canada was handed over to Great Britain in 1763 when the Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years War in America. The territories of modern southern Ontario and southern Quebec were initially maintained as the single Province of Quebec, from 1763 to 1791, the Province of Quebec maintained its French language, cultural behavioural expectations, practices and laws. This region quickly became culturally distinct, while the act addressed some religious issues, it did not appease those used to English law. Upper Canada became an entity on December 26,1791 with the Parliament of Great Britains passage of the Constitutional Act of 1791. The act divided the Province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada, the first lieutenant-governor was John Graves Simcoe. On February 1,1796, the capital of Upper Canada was moved from Newark to York, which was judged to be less vulnerable to attack by the Americans. Upper Canadas constitution was said to be the image and transcript of the British constitution. The Executive Council of Upper Canada had a function to the Cabinet in England but was not responsible to the Legislative Assembly. They held a position, however, and did not serve in administrative offices as cabinet ministers do. Members of the Executive Council were not necessarily members of the Legislative Assembly but were members of the Legislative Council. The Legislative branch of the government consisted of the parliament comprising legislative council, forces in the War of 1812, rebuilt, then burned again by accident. The site was abandoned for another, to the west. The Legislative Council of Upper Canada was the upper house governing the province of Upper Canada, although modelled after the British House of Lords, Upper Canada had no aristocracy. Members of the Legislative council, appointed for life, formed the core of the group, the Family Compact. The Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada functioned as the house in the Parliament of Upper Canada. Its legislative power was subject to veto by the appointed Lieutenant Governor, Executive Council, local government in the Province of Upper Canada was based on districts
5.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
6.
Michigan Territory
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The earliest European explorers of Michigan saw it mostly as a place to control the fur trade. Small military forces, Jesuit missions to Native American tribes, after the arrival of Europeans, the area that became the Michigan Territory was first under French and then British control. Soon after their arrival, his troops erected Fort Pontchartrain du Detroit and a dedicated to Saint Anne. As part of New France, the upper Great Lakes had first been governed from Michilimackinac, then Detroit and its role was to supply the needs of the fur traders and discourage any settlements not directly supportive of that effort. After the surrender of Montreal in 1760, British troops under Robert Rogers occupied Detroit, in 1763, Pontiacs Rebellion saw the fall of Fort Michilimackinac to the northern tribes, and a lengthy siege of Fort Detroit. The siege was lifted in 1764, and rule under a British lieutenant-governor at Detroit followed soon thereafter, due to the Quebec Act of 1774, Michigan was governed during the Revolution as part of the Province of Quebec. Although the 1783 Treaty of Paris gave the fledgling United States a claim to what is now Michigan, British policy was to hold on to Detroit, in addition to the British remaining in the region, several states also held competing claims on the future state of Michigan. In 1779, Virginia established Illinois County with boundaries that encompassed all of the land east of the Mississippi River, north of the Ohio River and west of the Appalachian Mountains. For all practical purposes, however, the county government never exercised actual control beyond a limited to a few old French settlements along the major rivers. The overwhelming majority of the lands were controlled by the native tribes. Virginia surrendered its claim to lands north and west of the Ohio River effective March 1,1784, coincidentally, this was the same day that the findings of a Congressional committee on the western lands, chaired by Thomas Jefferson since the previous October, were reported. The Land Ordinance of 1785 would go further by establishing a procedure for land sales in the new territory, however, the Ohio River remained an effective boundary between the United States and the Northwest tribes for a few more years. The other states with claims in the Northwest eventually followed Virginias example, and in 1787, the Continental Congress enacted the Northwest Ordinance, the first settlement under the Northwest Ordinance was at Marietta in 1788. Knox County was established on June 20,1790 with boundaries that included the half of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. In 1792, the boundaries of Hamilton County were expanded to include the portions of Michigan not included in Knox County. American claims to Michigan were frustrated by Britains refusal to evacuate the forts at Detroit, Mackinac, Britains tacit support for the Northwest tribes during the Northwest Indian War was dependent on Detroit remaining out of American hands. The United States had finally established a presence in Michigan, in 1800, the western half of the Lower Peninsula and most of the Upper Peninsula were attached to the Indiana Territory when it was established as a separate government from the Northwest Territory. Wayne County was thereby reduced to the remainder of the two peninsulas, and continued under the government of the Northwest Territory, when Ohio was admitted as a state in early 1803, the eastern half of Michigan was incorporated into the Indiana Territory
7.
Lower Canada
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The Province of Lower Canada was a British colony on the lower Saint Lawrence River and the shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It covered the portion of the modern-day Province of Quebec, Canada. Other parts of New France ceded to Britain became the Colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, the prefix lower in its name refers to its geographic position farther downriver from the headwaters of the St. Lawrence River than its contemporary Upper Canada, present-day southern Ontario. The colony/province was abolished in 1841, when it and the adjacent Upper Canada were united into the Province of Canada, like Upper Canada, there was significant political unrest. Twenty-two years after the invasion by the Americans in the War of 1812, an abortive attempt by revolutionary Robert Nelson to declare a Republic of Lower Canada was quickly thwarted. The provinces of Lower Canada and Upper Canada were combined as the United Province of Canada in 1841 and their separate legislatures were combined into a single parliament with equal representation for both constituent parts, even though Lower Canada had a greater population. Traveling around Lower Canada was made mainly by water along the St. Lawrence River, on land the only main route was the Chemin du Roy or Kings Highway, built in the 1730s by New France. The Kings Highway remained as a means of travel until the challenge of steamboats. A History of the Late Province of Lower Canada, Quebec City, T. Cary/R
8.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
9.
The Maritimes
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The Maritimes, also called the Maritime provinces or the Canadian Maritimes, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The Maritimes had a population of 1,813,606 in 2016, the Maritimes, along with a fourth province – Canadas easternmost province, Newfoundland and Labrador – make up Atlantic Canada. Located along the Atlantic coast, various aquatic sub-basins are located in the Maritimes, such as the Gulf of Maine, the region is located northeast of New England, southeast of Quebecs Gaspé Peninsula, and southwest of the island of Newfoundland. All three provinces are entirely south of the southernmost extremity of Western Canada, and are the provinces of Canada without large. The Mikmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy people are indigenous to the Maritimes, while Acadian, the word maritime is an adjective that simply means of the sea, thus any land associated with the sea can be considered a maritime state or province. Nonetheless, the term Maritimes has historically been applied to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. The Middle Period, starting 6,000 years ago, and this is also when what is called the Laurentian tradition started among Archaic Indians, existing First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the Saint John River valley has been uncovered, the primarily agrarian Maliseet Nation settled throughout the Saint John River and Allagash River valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The Passamaquoddy Nation inhabited the coastal regions of the present-day Bay of Fundy. The Maritimes were the area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. Both Giovanni Caboto and Giovanni da Verrazzano are reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for England, several Portuguese explorers/cartographers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely Diogo Homem. However, it was French explorer Jacques Cartier who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power, and in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Champlain went on to fame as the founder of New Frances province of Canada which comprises much of the present-day lower St. Lawrence River valley in the province of Quebec. Most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the comparatively enormous seasonal European fishing fleets based out of Newfoundland which took advantage of proximity to the Grand Banks. In 1613, Virginian raiders captured Port-Royal, and in 1621 Acadia was ceded to Scotlands Sir William Alexander who renamed it Nova Scotia. By 1632, Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was contemptuous at best. Frances priorities were in settling and strengthening its claim on New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America, over 74 years there were six colonial wars, which involved continuous warfare between New England and Acadia. Throughout these wars, New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy, in the first war, King Williams War, natives from the Maritime region participated in numerous attacks with the French on the Acadia/ New England border in southern Maine
10.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
11.
New Brunswick
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New Brunswick is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally bilingual province. In the Canada 2016 Census, Statistics Canada estimated the population to have been 747,101, down very slightly from 751,171 in 2011. The majority of the population is English-speaking of Anglo and Celtic heritage and it was created as a result of the partitioning of the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1784 and was originally named New Ireland with the capital to be in Saint John. The name was replaced with New Brunswick by King George II. The provincial flag features a ship superimposed on a background with a yellow lion passant guardant on red pennon above it. The province is named for the city of Braunschweig, known in English and Low German as Brunswick, located in modern-day Lower Saxony in northern Germany. The then-colony was named in 1784 to honour the reigning British monarch, George III, the original First Nations inhabitants of New Brunswick were members of three distinct tribes. The largest tribe was the Mikmaq, and they occupied the eastern and they were responsible for the Augustine Mound, a burial ground built about 800 BCE near Metepnákiaq. The western portion of the province was the home of the Wolastoqiyik people. The smaller Passamaquoddy tribe occupied lands in the southwest of the province. The next French contact was in 1604, when a party led by Pierre du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain set up camp for the winter on St. Croix Island, the colony relocated the following year across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The whole maritime region was at that time claimed by France and was designated as the colony of Acadia, one of the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 was the surrender of Acadia to Queen Anne. The bulk of the Acadian population thus found themselves residing in the new British colony of Nova Scotia, the remainder of Acadia was only lightly populated and poorly defended. The Maliseet from their headquarters at Meductic on the Saint John River, participated in guerilla raids and battles against New England during Father Rales War. About 1750, to protect his interests in New France, Louis XV caused three forts to be built along the Isthmus of Chignecto and this caused what is known to historians as Father Le Loutres War. During the French and Indian War, the British completed their displacement of the Acadians over all of present-day New Brunswick, Fort Beauséjour, Fort Menagoueche and Fort Gaspareaux were captured by a British force commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Monckton in 1755. Inside Fort Beauséjour, the British forces found not only French regular troops, Governor Charles Lawrence of Nova Scotia used the discovery of Acadian civilians helping in the defence of the fort to order the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia. The Acadians of the recently captured Beaubassin and Petitcodiac regions were included in the expulsion order, other actions in the war included British expeditions up the Saint John River in the St. John River Campaign
12.
Prince Edward Island
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Prince Edward Island is a province of Canada consisting of the island of the same name, as well as several much smaller islands. It is one of the three Maritime Provinces and is the smallest province in land area and population. It is the only jurisdiction of North America outside the Caribbean to have no mainland territory. The backbone of the economy is farming, it produces 25% of Canadas potatoes, historically, PEI is one of Canadas older settlements and demographically still reflects older immigration to the country, with Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and French surnames being dominant to this day. According to the 2011 census, the province of Prince Edward Island has 140,204 residents and it is located about 200 kilometres north of Halifax, Nova Scotia and 600 kilometres east of Quebec City. It consists of the island and 231 minor islands. Altogether, the province has a land area of 5,685.73 km2. The main island is 5,620 km2 in size, slightly larger than the U. S. state of Delaware and it is the 104th-largest island in the world and Canadas 23rd-largest island. The island is named for Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the son of King George III. Prince Edward has been called Father of the Canadian Crown, Prince Edward Island is located in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, west of Cape Breton Island, north of the Nova Scotia peninsula, and east of New Brunswick. Its southern shore bounds the Northumberland Strait, the island has two urban areas. A much smaller urban area surrounds Summerside Harbour, situated on the southern shore 40 km west of Charlottetown Harbour, as with all natural harbours on the island, Charlottetown and Summerside harbours are created by rias. Rolling hills, woods, reddish white sand beaches, ocean coves, under the Planning Act of the province, municipalities have the option to assume responsibility for land-use planning through the development and adoption of official plans and land use bylaws. Thirty-one municipalities have taken responsibility for planning, in areas where municipalities have not assumed responsibility for planning, the Province remains responsible for development control. The islands lush landscape has a bearing on its economy. The author Lucy Maud Montgomery drew inspiration from the land during the late Victorian Era for the setting of her classic novel Anne of Green Gables, today, many of the same qualities that Montgomery and others found in the island are enjoyed by tourists who visit year-round. The smaller, rural communities as well as the towns and villages throughout the province, retain a slower-paced, Prince Edward Island has become popular as a tourist destination for relaxation. The economy of most rural communities on the island is based on small-scale agriculture, industrial farming has increased as businesses buy and consolidate older farm properties
13.
Cape Breton Island
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Cape Breton Island is an island on the Atlantic coast of North America and part of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. Its name may derive from Capbreton near Bayonne, or more probably from the word Breton, the French adjective form of the proper noun Bretagne, the 10,311 km2 island accounts for 18. 7% of the Nova Scotias total area. Although physically separated from the Nova Scotia peninsula by the Strait of Canso, the island is east-northeast of the mainland with its northern and western coasts fronting on the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, its western coast also forms the eastern limits of the Northumberland Strait. The eastern and southern coasts front the Atlantic Ocean, its eastern coast also forms the limits of the Cabot Strait. Its landmass slopes upward from south to north, culminating in the highlands of its northern cape, one of the worlds larger salt water lakes, Bras dOr, dominates the islands centre. The island is divided into four of Nova Scotias eighteen counties, Cape Breton, Inverness, Richmond and their total population at the 2016 census numbered 132,010 Cape Bretoners, this is approximately 15% of the provincial population. Cape Breton Island has experienced a decline in population of approximately 2.9 since the 2011 census, the island has five reserves of the Mikmaq Nation, Eskasoni, Membertou, Wagmatcook, Waycobah, and Potlotek/Chapel Island. Eskasoni is the largest in population and land area. Cape Breton Islands first residents were likely Archaic maritime natives, ancestors of the Mikmaq, John Cabot reportedly visited the island in 1497. However, historians are unclear as to whether Cabot first visited Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island and this discovery is commemorated by Cape Bretons Cabot Trail, and by the Cabots Landing Historic Site & Provincial Park, near the village of Dingwall. In about 1521–22, the Portuguese under João Álvares Fagundes established a colony on the island. As many as two hundred settlers lived in a village, the name of which is not known, located according to historians at what is now present day Ingonish on the islands northeastern peninsula. This Portuguese colonys fate is unknown, but it is mentioned as late as 1570 and these Scottish triumphs, which left Cape Sable as the only major French holding in North America, did not last. Charles I’s haste to make peace with France on the terms most beneficial to him meant the new North American gains would be bargained away in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The French quickly defeated the Scots at Baleine, and established the first permanent settlements on Île Royale, present day Englishtown and these settlements lasted almost continuously until Nicolas Denys left in 1659. Île Royale was vacant for more than fifty years until the communities along with Louisbourg were established in 1713, known as Île Royale to the French, the island also saw active settlement by France. The French also built the Louisbourg Lighthouse in 1734, the first lighthouse in Canada, in addition to Cape Breton Island, the French colony of Île Royale also included Île Saint-Jean, today called Prince Edward Island. Louisbourg itself was one of the most important commercial and military centres in New France, Louisbourg was captured by New Englanders with British naval assistance in 1745 and by British forces in 1758
14.
Fencibles
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They had no liability for overseas service. The Scottish Highlands supplied fencible regiments for most of the half of the 18th century. The first regiment raised was the Argyle Fencibles in 1759 and the last was the MacLeod Fencibles in 1779, in all over 20 regiments were created, although they were not all in existence at the same time. Some Highland fencibles regiments saw action in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, while other performed garrison and policing duties in Britain, Ireland, Fencibles were raised for the entirety of the British Isles. In Thomas Flanagans The Year of the French Fencibles are raised by Cornwallis, Fencible units were raised in the United Kingdom during the early years of the war. This included not only land regiments but also the Sea Fencibles, in the early years of the 19th Century, regiments of Fencibles were raised in the Canadas, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia. The regiments were liable for service in North America only, all but one of these regiments saw action in the War of 1812. The regiments were disbanded in 1816 and 1817, after the War of 1812, although the units were disbanded, several regiments in Canada continue to perpetuate their historic lineage. The Glengarry Light Infantry Fencibles was formed in February 1812, several months prior to the war, in addition to these Canadian units, the Michigan Fencibles, a small unit of 45 men was raised at Fort Mackinac in 1813. The 5th battalion of the Maratha Light Infantry was raised in December 1800 from the Bombay Fencibles as the 1st Battalion, the Royal Malta Fencible Regiment was in existence from 1815 to 1861 when it became the Royal Malta Fencible Artillery until 1881. The term Fencible was dropped in 1889, in 1847 the Royal New Zealand Fencible Corps were raised and sent to New Zealand for the defence of the early settlers there. They were settled in a four new outlying villages around Auckland, the capital, at Onehunga, Otahuhu, Panmure, and Howick, about 75 fencibles and their sons took part as militia in the 1860s New Zealand Wars. Fencible regiments were less effective than regular troops for duties, with problems of lack of education. The men would take part in inter-regimental brawls and attacks on soldiers, some regiments of Fencibles, however, were noted for exceptional service. A small number of units raised before and during the Civil War used the title fencibles, example include the Texas Fencibles and the Bellefonte Fencibles. A Texas unit called the Panther City Fencibles existed from 1883 to 1898, fullarton and Co. pp. 368–384 The Glengarry Fencibles, Ontario Ontarios Provincial Plaques The Royal New Zealand Fencibles Institute for Advanced Loyalist Studies - Royal Fencible Americans
15.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
16.
First Nations
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The First Nations are the predominant Aboriginal peoples of Canada south of the Arctic. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit, the Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans. There are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a group, along with women, visible minorities. First Nations are not defined as a minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada. Within Canada, First Nations has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term Indians—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, individuals using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence movement, as well as U. S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations person, North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700, written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture, in addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Combined with later development, this relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an influence on the national culture. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, First Nations came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s, others say that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word Indian, which some Canadians considered offensive. No legal definition of the term exists, some Aboriginal peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. While the word Indian is still a term, its use is erratic. Some First Nations people consider the term offensive, while others prefer it to Aboriginal person/persons/people, the term is a misnomer given to indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed on the Indian subcontinent. The use of the term Native Americans, which the United States government and it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples residing within the boundaries of the United States. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Natives and autochthones are, under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the Indian Magna Carta, the Crown referred to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized, unlike alternative terms, bands and nations may have slightly different meanings
17.
Battle of Beaver Dams
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The Battle of Beaver Dams took place on 24 June 1813, during the War of 1812. An American column marched from Fort George and attempted to surprise a British outpost at Beaver Dams, billeting themselves overnight in the village of Queenston, Ontario. When the Americans resumed their march, they were ambushed by Native warriors, about 500 Americans, including their wounded commander, were taken prisoner. On 25 May 1813, the Americans had won the Battle of Fort George, the British fell back to a position at Burlington Heights near the western end of Lake Ontario, briefly abandoning the entire Niagara Peninsula to the Americans. The Americans attempted to pursue the British, but their advance was checked at the Battle of Stoney Creek by a British counter-attack, the Americans fell back to Fort George. The British followed up and established an outpost at DeCous house in the city of Thorold, Ontario, from which Natives. The American force assigned to the attack was led by the recently-promoted Colonel Charles Boerstler of the 14th U. S, Infantry and consisted of Boerstlers own 14th U. S. Regiment of Infantry, with detachments of the 6th, 13th, regiments of Infantry, a company of artillery with one 12-pounder and one 6-pounder field guns, and twenty U. S. Dragoons. An irregular corps of forty mounted volunteers from the New York Militia under Cyrenius Chapin led the way, the force was accompanied by two large supply wagons. At dusk on 23 June, Boerstlers force moved in secret from Fort George to the village of Queenston, several American officers had earlier billeted themselves in the house of Militia Captain James Secord, who had been severely wounded the previous year at the Battle of Queenston Heights. His wife, Laura Secord, overheard the American officers discussing their scheme, very early on 22 June, she set out to warn the British at DeCous house, walking about 17 miles through the woods until she came upon a Native encampment on the Twelve Mile Creek. The warriors took her to Lieutenant James FitzGibbon, who commanded the British outpost, the information she conveyed to FitzGibbon confirmed what Natives had reported since they first observed the American column near St. Davids. The main contingent of Natives were 300 Kahnawake, also referred to as Caughnawaga in contemporary accounts and they were nominally commanded by Captain Dominique Ducharme of the Indian Department, with Lieutenants Isaac LeClair and J. B. de Lorimier. There were also 100 Mohawks under Captain William Johnson Kerr and they set up ambushes in a thickly wooded area 1.5 miles east of Beaver Dams. FitzGibbon with 46 men of the 49th Regiment of Foot was in reserve, early on 24 June, the Americans set out for DeCous stone house. At St. Davids they proceeded along a trail at the base of the escarpment until they reached another trail leading up the mountain, reaching the top, they became aware of Natives closing in on their flanks and rear. Boerstler did not change his plans, when the Natives opened fire, Boerstler was wounded and placed in one of the wagons. By American accounts, they put the Mohawks to flight and fought their way out of the woods into open fields where they could use their artillery, and this account is not supported by other witnesses
18.
Lake Ontario
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Lake Ontario is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Ontario, Canadas most populous province, was named for the lake, in the Wyandot language, ontarío means “Lake of Shining Waters”. Its primary inlet is the Niagara River from Lake Erie, the last in the Great Lakes chain, Lake Ontario serves as the outlet to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence River. Lake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes and the smallest in surface area and it is the 14th largest lake in the world. When its islands are included, the lake has a shoreline that is 712 miles long. As the last lake in the Great Lakes hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean elevation of the lakes at 243 feet above sea level,326 feet lower than its neighbor upstream. Its maximum length is 193 statute miles and its width is 53 statute miles. The lakes average depth is 47 fathoms 1 foot, with a depth of 133 fathoms 4 feet. The lakes primary source is the Niagara River, draining Lake Erie, the drainage basin covers 24,720 square miles. As with all the Great Lakes, water levels both within the year and among years. These water level fluctuations are a part of lake ecology. The lake also has an important freshwater fishery, although it has negatively affected by factors including over-fishing, water pollution. Baymouth bars built by prevailing winds and currents have created a significant number of lagoons and sheltered harbors, mostly near Prince Edward County, Ontario, perhaps the best-known example is Toronto Bay, chosen as the site of the Upper Canada capital for its strategic harbour. Other prominent examples include Hamilton Harbour, Irondequoit Bay, Presquile Bay, the bars themselves are the sites of long beaches, such as Sandbanks Provincial Park and Sandy Island Beach State Park. These sand bars are associated with large wetlands, which support large numbers of plant and animal species. Presquile, on the shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly significant in this regard. The lake basin was carved out of soft, weak Silurian-age rocks by the Wisconsin ice sheet during the last ice age, the action of the ice occurred along the pre-glacial Ontarian River valley which had approximately the same orientation as todays basin. As the ice sheet retreated toward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence valley outlet and this stage is known as Lake Iroquois
19.
HMS Royal George (1809)
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HMS Royal George was a British 20-gun wooden sloop of the Provincial Marine, and subsequently, the Royal Navy, operating on Lake Ontario during the War of 1812 with a crew of 200. She was launched at the Kingston Royal Naval Dockyard in Kingston, Ontario, Royal George was renamed Niagara in 1814 and was sold in 1837. In November 1812, Royal George was the largest warship on the lake, on 9 November 1812, an American fleet of seven ships under the command of Commodore Isaac Chauncey surprised Royal George as she passed near the Bay of Quinte on Lake Ontario. m. The following morning,10 November, the American fleet resumed the pursuit, burning a small commercial vessel near Bath, as they approached Kingston, they came under fire from shore batteries. Chauncey directed his ship, Oneida and the other American vessels to bombard, artillery fire from the shore batteries along the shoreline, including two batteries on Point Henry, attempted to prevent them from closing on the British vessel. Round shot from the American vessels penetrated into the town but they were unable to capture Royal George, at the end of the day, they anchored out of sight of Kingston, intending to resume their attack the next day. However, a storm caused Chauncey to withdraw hack to the American base at Sacketts Harbor without seizing their prize. It was the time that shots were fired from Point Henry in its history. From 30 June to 1 July 2012, a 3-day reenactment of the flight of Royal George was performed from Bath, the role of Royal George was played by the brig Niagara, one of the last two remaining tall ships with an 1812 heritage. The Sail & Steam Navy List, All the Ships of the Royal Navy 1815-1889, British Warships in the Age of Sail 1793-1817, Design, Construction, Careers and Fates. The Sailing Navy List, All the Ships of the Royal Navy, Built, Purchased and Captured, Warships of the Great Lakes, 1754-1834. The War of 1812 Magazine George F. G, a short history of Kingston as a military and naval centre
20.
Governor Simcoe (1793 ship)
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Governor Simcoe was a merchant schooner launched in 1793 that the Provincial Marine acquired in 1813 and named after the British naval officer Sir Sidney Smith. She saw service on Lake Ontario during the War of 1812, the Royal Navy acquired her in 1814 and renamed her HMS Magnet, a few months before her captain had to blow her up to prevent the Americans from capturing her. Governor Simcoe served the North West Company fur trade on Lake Ontario from her launch at Kingston, Ontario, Upper Canada and she was built for a group of merchants with ties to the North West Company, principally Richard Cartwright. As was common for most NWC ships at the start of the war, she was then hired out as a supply ship for the Provincial Marine and remained unarmed until a survey. For some years prior to the outbreak of war, and for at least the first five months of the war, her captain was James Richardson, an ex-Provincial Marine Officer. On her last merchant voyage, on 11 November 1812 Commodore Isaac Chaunceys United States Navy Lake Ontario squadron then patrolling off Kingston spotted Governor Simcoe, Governor Simcoe evaded capture but ran too closely over a shoal and sank at its berth in Kingston from the damage it had incurred. Early in 1813, despite Governor Simcoe being the oldest vessel on the lakes at the time, after a survey and extensive refitting in March 1813 she was renamed Sir Sydney Smith. Sir Sydney Smith was not a warship of the Royal Navy. She was under the command of Lieutenant G. Marjoribanks and she set sail on 27 May 1813 with the rest of Commodore Yeo’s British Provincial Marine Lake Ontario Squadron. As Sir Sydney Smith she took part in attacks on Sackets Harbor and Oswego and she also was briefly involved in a chase near Burlington, Ontario by the American schooner Julia. The Royal Navy took command of all Provincial Marine vessels in 1814, renamed them, Sir Sydney Smith was refitted as a brig and renamed HMS Magnet, the Admiralty not liking to name vessels after living people. Her captain was Lieutenant George Hawkesworth, on 5 August 1814 she was carrying munitions from York to Niagara when Chauncey’s squadron arrived to block her access to safe anchorage on the Niagara River. Citations References Colledge, J. J. Warlow, Ben, Ships of the Royal Navy, The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy. Warships of the Great Lakes, 1754-1834, the A to Z of the War of 1812. British Warships in the Age of Sail 1793–1817, Design, Construction, Careers, Julia DANFS entry on USS Julia Ken R. Macpherson, List of Vessels Employed on British Naval Service on the Great Lakes, 1755-1875, Ontario History, vol. LV, 173-79 David Lyon & Rif Winfield, the Sail & Steam Navy List, All the Ships of the Royal Navy 1815-1889. The Sailing Navy List, All the Ships of the Royal Navy, Built, Purchased and Captured, 1688-1860. This article includes data released under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported UK, England & Wales Licence, by the National Maritime Museum, as part of the Warship Histories project
21.
Lake Erie
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Lake Erie is the fourth-largest lake of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the thirteenth-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area. It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes, at its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet deep. Lake Eries northern shore is bounded by the Canadian province of Ontario, with the U. S. states of Ohio, Pennsylvania and these jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake by water boundaries. The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native Americans people who lived along its southern shore and that Iroquoian tribe called it Erige because of its unpredictable and sometimes violently dangerous nature. It is a matter of whether the lake was named after the tribe. Situated below Lake Huron, Eries primary inlet is the Detroit River, Lake Erie has a mean elevation of 571 feet above sea level. It has an area of 9,990 square miles with a length of 241 statute miles. The warm summer of 1999 caused lake temperatures to come close to the 85 °F limit necessary to keep the plants cool, also because of its shallowness, and in spite of being the warmest lake in the summer, it is also the first to freeze in the winter. The waves build very quickly, according to other accounts, after being trapped for an hour-and-a-half, Baker was back on dry land, exhausted and battered but alive. This area is known as the thunderstorm capital of Canada with breathtaking lightning displays. Lake Erie is primarily fed by the Detroit River and drains via the Niagara River, navigation downstream is provided by the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Other major contributors to Lake Erie include the Grand River, the Huron River, the Maumee River, the Sandusky River, the Buffalo River, the drainage basin covers 30,140 square miles. Point Pelee National Park, the southernmost point of the Canadian mainland, is located on a peninsula extending into the lake. Several islands are found in the end of the lake, these belong to Ohio except for Pelee Island and eight neighboring islands. Major cities along Lake Erie include Buffalo, Erie, Pennsylvania, Toledo, Ohio, Islands tend to be located in the western side of the lake and total 31 in number. The island-village of Put-in-Bay on South Bass Island attracts young crowds who sometimes wear red hats and are prone to break off cartwheels in the park. Pelee Island is the largest of Eries islands, accessible by ferry from Leamington, Ontario and Sandusky, songbirds migrate to Pelee in spring, and monarch butterflies stop over during the fall. Lake Erie has a retention time of 2.6 years
22.
Isaac Brock
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Major-General Sir Isaac Brock KB was a British Army officer and colonial administrator from Guernsey. Brock was assigned to Lower Canada in 1802, despite facing desertions and near-mutinies, he commanded his regiment in Upper Canada successfully for many years. He was promoted to general, and became responsible for defending Upper Canada against the United States. While many in Canada and Britain believed war could be averted, Brock began to ready the army, when the War of 1812 broke out, the populace was prepared, and quick victories at Fort Mackinac and Detroit defeated American invasion efforts. Brocks actions, particularly his success at Detroit, earned him a knighthood, membership in the Order of the Bath, accolades and his name is often linked with that of the Native American leader Tecumseh, although the two men collaborated in person only for a few days. Brock died at the Battle of Queenston Heights, which the British won, the Brocks were an English family who had been established in Guernsey since the sixteenth century. Brock earned a reputation during his education on Guernsey as an assiduous student. At age ten, he was sent to school in Southampton, despite his lack of an extensive formal education, Brock appreciated its importance. As an adult, he spent much time reading in an attempt to improve his education and he read many works on military tactics and science, but he also read ancient history and other less immediately practical topics. At the time of his death, he owned a modest library of books, including works by Shakespeare, Voltaire. He kept a reputation as a tall, robust man throughout his life. Measurements taken from his show that at his death he had a waist size of 47 inches. Though Brock was noted as a man who enjoyed the company of women. Brock had a successful military career and a quick rise through the ranks. Some credited luck and others skill in his promotions. Lacking special political connections, Brocks ability to gain even when the nation was at peace attests to his skills in recruiting men and organizing finances. At the age of fifteen, Brock joined the 8th Regiment of Foot on 8 March 1785 with the rank of ensign and his elder brother John was already an officer in the same regiment. As was usual at the time, Brocks commission was purchased, on 16 January 1790 he bought the rank of lieutenant and later that year he raised his own company of men
23.
Battle of Lake Erie
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The Battle of Lake Erie, sometimes called the Battle of Put-in-Bay, was fought on 10 September 1813, in Lake Erie off the coast of Ohio during the War of 1812. Nine vessels of the United States Navy defeated and captured six vessels of British Royal Navy and it was one of the biggest naval battles of the War of 1812. When the war broke out, the British immediately seized control of Lake Erie and they already had a small force of warships there, the sloop-of-war Queen Charlotte and the brig General Hunter. The schooner Lady Prevost was under construction and was put into service a few weeks after the outbreak of war and these vessels were controlled by the Provincial Marine, which was a military transport service and not a naval service. Nevertheless, the Americans lacked any counter to the British armed vessels, the British took Adams when Detroit was surrendered, renaming her Detroit. Detroit ran aground on an island in the middle of the Niagara River and was set on fire to prevent her being recaptured, Caledonia was taken to the navy yard at Black Rock and commissioned into the United States Navy. Also present at Black Rock were the schooners Somers and Ohio and the sloop-rigged Trippe, while the British held Fort Erie and the nearby batteries which dominated the Niagara River, all these vessels were pinned down and unable to leave Black Rock. Dobbins recommended the bay of Presque Isle in Erie, Pennsylvania as a base on the lake. Dobbins was dispatched to build four gunboats there, although Lieutenant Elliot objected to the lack of facilities, Commodore Isaac Chauncey had been appointed to command of the United States naval forces on the Great Lakes in September 1812. Other than their rig and crude construction, the two brigs were close copies of the contemporary USS Hornet, the heaviest armament for the ships came from foundries on Chesapeake Bay, and were moved to Presque Isle only with great difficulty. However, the Americans could get other materials and fittings from Pittsburgh, which was expanding as a manufacturing center, master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry had earlier been appointed to command on Lake Erie, through lobbying by Jeremiah B. Howell, the Senior Senator from Rhode Island, supplanting Lieutenant Elliot and he arrived at Presque Isle to take command at the end of March. Having arranged for the defense of Presque Isle, he proceeded to Lake Ontario to obtain reinforcements of seamen from Commodore Isaac Chauncey. Perry had them towed by oxen up the Niagara, an operation which took six days. Meanwhile, Commander Robert Heriot Barclay was appointed to command the British squadron on Lake Erie, another British officer had already endangered his career by refusing the appointment as success appeared unlikely. Barclay missed a rendezvous with Queen Charlotte at Point Abino and was forced to make the journey to Amherstburg overland. He brought with him only a handful of officers and seamen, nevertheless, he immediately set out in Queen Charlotte and Lady Prevost. He first reconnoitred Perrys base at Presque Isle and determined that it was defended by 2,000 Pennsylvania militia, with batteries and he then cruised the eastern end of Lake Erie, hoping to intercept the American vessels from Black Rock
24.
Battle of Plattsburgh
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The Battle of Plattsburgh, also known as the Battle of Lake Champlain, ended the final invasion of the northern states of the United States during the War of 1812. Downies squadron attacked shortly after dawn on 11 September 1814, but was defeated after a fight in which Downie was killed. When the battle took place, American and British delegates were meeting at Ghent in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, retaining territory they held at the end of hostilities. The Treaty of Ghent, in which captured or occupied territories were restored on the basis of Status quo ante bellum, was signed three months after the battle, in 1814, most of Britains army was engaged in the Peninsular War. Then in April, Napoleon I abdicated the throne of France and this provided Britain the opportunity to send 16,000 veteran troops from the Peninsula and other garrisons to North America. Several experienced Major-Generals were also detached from the Duke of Wellingtons army to command them, Prévost lacked the means to transport the troops necessary for an attack on Sacketts Harbor and the supplies for them up the Saint Lawrence River. Prévost therefore prepared to launch his offensive to Lake Champlain. Prévosts choice of route on reaching the lake was influenced by the attitude of the American state of Vermont, to spare Vermont from becoming a seat of war, Prévost therefore determined to advance down the western, New York State, side of the lake. The main American position on this side was at Plattsburgh, Prévost organized the troops which were to carry out the invasion into a division commanded by Major General Sir Francis de Rottenburg, the Lieutenant Governor of Lower Canada. Each brigade was supported by a battery of five 6-pounder guns, a squadron of the 19th Light Dragoons was attached to the force. The force numbered 11,000 in total, however, some units were detached and some sick men did not take part, so the actual number of troops present at Plattsburgh was just over 8,000. There was some tension within the force between the brigade and regimental commanders who were veterans of the Peninsular War or of earlier fighting in Upper Canada, and Prévost and his staff. Prévost had not endeared himself by complaining about the standards of dress of the troops from the Peninsular Army, on the American side of the frontier, Major General George Izard was the commander of the Northern Army, deployed along the Northeast frontier. In late August, Secretary of War John Armstrong ordered Izard to take the majority of his force, about 4,000 troops, Izards force departed on 23 August, leaving Brigadier General Alexander Macomb in command at Plattsburgh with only 1,500 American regulars. Most of these troops were recruits, invalids or detachments of odds and ends, Macomb ordered General Benjamin Mooers to call out the New York militia and appealed to the governor of Vermont for militia volunteers. Up to 2,000 militia eventually reported to Plattsburgh, however, the militia units were mostly untrained, and hundreds of them were unfit for duty. Macomb put the militiamen to use digging trenches and building fortifications, Macombs main position was a ridge on the south bank of the Saranac River. Its fortifications had been out by Major Joseph Gilbert Totten, Izards senior Engineer officer
25.
Royal Newfoundland Regiment
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The Royal Newfoundland Regiment is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army. It is part of the 5th Canadian Divisions 37 Canadian Brigade Group, predecessor units trace their origins to 1795, and since 1949 Royal Newfoundland Regiment has been a unit of the Canadian Army. During the First World War the battalion-sized regiment was the only North American unit to fight in the Gallipoli campaign of 1915, later in the war the regiment was virtually wiped out at Beaumont Hamel on July 1,1916, the first day of the Battle of the Somme. Since then July 1 has been marked as Memorial Day in Newfoundland, the government of Canada doesnt recognize an unbroken lineage of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment to earlier units as there were gaps in existence. However, it recognizes that the Regiment commemorates the history and heritage of previous units, originated 25 April 1795 when Captain Thomas Skinner of the Royal Engineers was given permission to raise a fencible infantry company consisting of six hundred men. Disbanded March 1802 following the signing of the Treaty of Amiens In June 1803, the regiment, called at the time the Royal Newfoundland Regiment of Fencible Infantry, was significantly involved in the War of 1812. Some were employed as marines on board naval vessels on the Great Lakes as part of His Majestys Provincial Marine, the regiment was also involved in the British Raid on Sackets Harbour NY. May 29,1813 and provided soldiers who served as marines in the Battle of Lake Erie September 10,1813 and it was largely distributed throughout the zone as attached sub-units and not as a formed battalion and was disbanded in 1816. A monument depicting a toy soldier of the 1813 Royal Newfoundland Regiment standing over a fallen American toy soldier was unveiled in Toronto in November 2008. Colours emblazoned with battle honours were presented to the regiments 2nd battalion in the presence of their Colonel-in-Chief, HRH the Princess Royal. The ceremonies coincided with events marking the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Beaumont-Hamel, during the First World War Newfoundland was a largely rural Dominion of the British Empire with a population of 240,000 people, and not yet part of Canada. The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 led the Government of Newfoundland to recruit a force for service with the British Army. Even though the island had not possessed any formal military organization since 1870, enough men soon volunteered that a battalion was formed. The headquarters for recruiting and training was supplied by the CLB. In fact, the first man to enlist was also a member of the CLB, the regiment trained at various locations in the United Kingdom and increased from an initial contingent of 500 men to full battalion strength of 1,000 men, before being deployed. After a period of acclimatization in Egypt, the regiment was deployed at Suvla Bay on the Gallipoli peninsula with the 29th Division in support of the Gallipoli Campaign. At Gallipoli the 1st Newfoundland Regiment faced snipers, artillery fire and severe cold, as well as the trench warfare hazards of cholera, dysentery, typhus, gangrene and trench foot. Over the next three months thirty soldiers of the regiment were killed or mortally wounded in action and ten died of disease,150 were treated for frostbite, despite the terrible conditions, the Newfoundlanders stood up well
26.
Siege of Detroit
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The Siege of Detroit, also known as the Surrender of Detroit, or the Battle of Fort Detroit, was an early engagement in the Anglo-American War of 1812. The British victory reinvigorated the militia and civil authorities of Upper Canada, many Native American people in the Northwest Territory were inspired to take arms against American outposts and settlers. The British held Detroit for more than a year before their small fleet on Lake Erie was defeated, in particular it was urgently necessary to reinforce the outpost of Detroit, which had a population of 800 but a peacetime garrison of only 120 soldiers. Madison and Eustis concurred with this plan, Madison offered command of the army to Hull, an ageing veteran of the American Revolutionary War. Hull was initially reluctant to take the appointment, but no other officer with his prestige, after repeated pleas from Madison, Hull finally accepted, and was commissioned as a Brigadier General in the United States Army. Hulls army consisted initially of three regiments of Ohio militia under Colonels Lewis Cass, Duncan McArthur and James Findlay. When Hull took command of them at Dayton on 25 May, he found that they were equipped and ill-disciplined. He made hasty efforts to remedy the deficiencies in equipment, Infantry under Lieutenant Colonel James Miller, the army marched north from Urbana on 10 June. On instructions from Eustis, Hull ignored an earlier established by Anthony Wayne. On 26 June, he received a letter from Eustis, dated 18 June, warning him that war was imminent, Eustis had sent his first letter of 18 June by special messenger. Congress had passed the declaration of war later that day but Eustis sent a letter to Hull with this vital information only by ordinary mail. On 28 June, the postmaster at Cleveland, Ohio hired an express rider to rush the letter to Hull but even this arrived only on 2 July. On 2 July, the unsuspecting Cayahoga was captured by a Canadian-manned armed brig of the Provincial Marine, Hull reached Detroit on 5 July. Here he was reinforced by detachments of Michigan militia, including the 140 men of the Michigan Legionary Corps which Hull had established in 1805, the American army was short of supplies, especially food, as Detroit apparently provided only soap and whiskey. Nevertheless, Eustis urged Hull to attack Amherstburg, the fort there was defended by 300 British regulars, mainly from the 41st Regiment of Foot,400 Native Americans, and some militia. The posts commander was Colonel St. George, who was superseded by Colonel Henry Procter of the 41st. Although Hull was not enthusiastic, writing to Eustis that The British command the water and he issued several proclamations which were intended to induce Canadians to join or support his army. Some of his troops raided up the Thames as far as Moraviantown
27.
Battle of York
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The Battle of York was fought on April 27,1813, in York, the capital of the province of Upper Canada, during the Anglo-American War of 1812. Sheaffes forces were defeated and Sheaffe retreated with his regulars to Kingston, abandoning the militia. The Americans captured the fort, town and dockyard and they themselves suffered heavy casualties, including force leader Brigadier General Zebulon Pike and others killed when the retreating British blew up the forts magazine. The American forces subsequently carried out acts of arson and looting in the town before withdrawing. York, the capital of Upper Canada, stood on the north shore of Lake Ontario. At the start of the war, the British had a naval force, the Provincial Marine, with which they seized control of the lake. The United States Navy appointed Commodore Isaac Chauncey to regain control of the lakes and he created a squadron of fighting ships at Sacketts Harbor, New York by purchasing and arming several lake schooners and laying down new purpose-built fighting vessels. However, no action was possible before the onset of winter. To match Chaunceys ships, the British laid down a sloop of war at Kingston and this vessel was named Sir Isaac Brock after the general, who had been killed at the Battle of Queenston Heights the previous October. On January 13,1813, John Armstrong, Jr. was appointed United States Secretary of War. Having been a soldier, he quickly appreciated the situation on Lake Ontario. Working together with Chaunceys squadron, this force would capture Kingston before the Saint Lawrence River thawed, after Kingston was captured, the Americans would then capture the British positions at York and Fort George, at the mouth of the Niagara River. Armstrong conferred with Major General Henry Dearborn, commander of the American Army of the North, at Albany, both Dearborn and Chauncey agreed with Armstrongs plan at this point, but they subsequently had second thoughts. That month, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, the British Governor General of Canada and this visit was made necessary because Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe, who had succeeded Brock as Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, was ill and unable to perform his various duties. Prevost was accompanied only by a few detachments of reinforcements. During March, Chauncey and Dearborn recommended to Armstrong that when the ice on the lake thawed, after capturing York, they would then attack Fort George. Although York was the Provincial capital of Upper Canada, it was far less important than Kingston as a military objective, Armstrong, by now back in Washington, nevertheless acquiesced in this change of plan as Dearborn might well have better local information. Historians such as John R. Elting have pointed out that this effectively reversed Armstrongs original strategy
28.
Siege of Fort Meigs
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The Siege of Fort Meigs took place during the War of 1812, in northwestern Ohio. A small British army with support from Indians attempted to capture the recently constructed fort to forestall an American offensive against Detroit, an American sortie and relief attempt failed with heavy casualties, but the British failed to capture the fort and were forced to raise the siege. In the early days of the War of 1812, an American Army under Brigadier General William Hull surrendered following the Siege of Detroit, to recover Detroit, the Americans formed the Army of the Northwest. Brigadier General James Winchester briefly commanded the Army before William Henry Harrison was commissioned Major General in the regular United States Army, Harrisons advance was hampered by bad weather and shortage of supplies. On 22 January 1813, the detachment of his army was defeated at the Battle of Frenchtown. Two of the most important were Fort Meigs on the Maumee River, Harrison descended the Maumee to the site of Fort Meigs with an army which ultimately numbered 4,000 men and began construction of the fort on 1 February 1813. He found the officer he had left in charge, Joel B, leftwich, had left with all his men because the enlistment period of the militia units assigned to the task had expired. Construction had halted, and the wood that had cut was being used as firewood. As the enlistments of Harrisons Ohio and Kentucky militia were also about to expire, Harrison disbanded his force and departed for Cincinnati, Ohio and he left Engineer Major Eleazer D. Wood to complete the construction of the fort. The fort was on the bank of the Maumee, near the Miami Rapids. Across the river were the ruins of the old British Fort Miami, Fort Meigs occupied an area of 8 acres, the largest constructed in North America to that date. The perimeter consisted of a picket fence, linking eight blockhouses. The north face was protected by the Maumee, and the east and west faces by ravines, the south face was cleared of all timber to create an open glacis. The poor weather of early spring prevented a British attack while the fort was still vulnerable, instead, he decided upon an attack on Fort Meigs, to disrupt American preparations for a summer campaign and hopefully capture supplies. Harrison received word of Procters preparations, and hastened down the Maumee with 300 reinforcements and he had persuaded Isaac Shelby, the Governor of Kentucky, to call up a brigade of 1,200 Kentucky militia under Brigadier General Green Clay. Clays brigade followed Harrison down the Maumee, but had not reached the fort before it was besieged, Procters force disembarked at the mouth of the Maumee on 26 April. His force consisted of 31 men of the Royal Artillery,423 men of the 41st Regiment of Foot,63 men of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment,16 men from other units, and 462 Canadian militia. He also had roughly 1,250 Native American warriors led by Shawnee chief Tecumseh and his artillery consisted of two 24-pounder guns which had been captured at Detroit, nine lighter guns and two gunboats mounting 9-pounder guns
29.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
30.
York, Upper Canada
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The Town of York was the second capital of the district of Upper Canada and the predecessor to Toronto. It was established in 1793 by Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe as a location for the capital of Upper Canada, while he made plans to build a capital near todays London. Simcoe renamed the location York after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, Simcoe gave up his plan to build a capital at London, and York became the permanent capital of Upper Canada on February 1,1796. That year Simcoe returned to Britain and was replaced by Peter Russell. The original townsite was a compact ten blocks near the mouth of the Don River, government buildings and a law court were established. Yonge Street was built, connecting York to the Holland River to the north, to the east, Kingston Road was built to the mouth of the Trent River. In 1797, the site was expanded to the west to allow for public buildings. One of the new areas public functions, a market, was started in 1803. It continues today as St. Lawrence Market, the garrison was attacked during the War of 1812. As the British Army retreated, it blew up the garrison, leading to the death of numerous American soldiers, the victorious Americans sacked the town and burned down the government buildings. The Americans chose not to occupy the town and the British eventually returned without conflict, a retribution attack was made on the American capital of Washington. After the war was over, the continued to grow, expanding to the west, leaving the original town site. A new parliament building was erected, near the location, but this burned down. A permanent fort, Fort York, was built on the site of the garrison, Dundas Street was built to connect York to towns to the west. In the 1820s, the experienced a surge of immigrants. By 1830, this led to a political conflict which would later lead to the 1837 Upper Canada Rebellion. By 1701, the Iroquoian villages that had established along the north shore of Lake Ontario during the sixteenth century had been abandoned. The name Toronto is derived from indigenous sources, a portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, the Toronto Carrying-Place Trail, led to widespread use of the name
31.
Nottawasaga River
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The Nottawasaga River is a river in Simcoe County and Dufferin County in Central Ontario, Canada. It is part of the Great Lakes Basin, and is a tributary of Lake Huron, the river takes its name from the Algonquin words for Iroquois and river outlet. The Nottawasaga Rivers headwaters originate in the Niagara Escarpment, Simcoe Uplands, Oak Ridges Moraine, the area of the drainage basin is 3,361 square kilometres, and as well as Dufferin County and Simcoe County, is located in Grey County and the Regional Municipality of Peel. The Nottawasaga River is the home of HMS Nancy, a merchant schooner taken into the Royal Navy during the War of 1812. It met three American warships, Niagara, Tigress and Scorpion, the small ship lost the battle but Lt. Miller Worsley and crew escaped. They rowed 360 miles to Fort Michilimackinac and three days later, Worsley returned with 92 men to take the Tigress and Scorpion, since her sinking, an island formed around the Nancy. The hull is now preserved in a museum at Nancy Island Historic Site which is a part of Wasaga Beach Provincial Park, fish ladders allow rainbow trout to reach spawning grounds on the upper river. The river is under the auspices of the Nottawasaga Valley Conservation Authority, mcIntyre Creek Little Marl Creek Marl Creek Willow Creek Mad River Bear Creek Pine River Boyne River Innisfil Creek Sheldon Creek List of rivers of Ontario Nottawasaga Valley Conservation Authority
32.
Battle of Mackinac Island (1814)
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The Battle of Mackinac Island was a British victory in the War of 1812. Before the war, Fort Mackinac had been an important American trading post in the straits between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron and it was important for its influence and control over the Native American tribes in the area, which was sometimes referred to in historical documents as Michilimackinac. The British meanwhile abandoned their own defences at St. Joseph Island, for the rest of the year and through much of 1813, the British hold on Mackinac was secure since they also held Detroit, which the Americans would have to recapture before attacking Mackinac. In February 1814, Lieutenant Colonel Robert McDouall of the Glengarry Light Infantry was ordered to re-establish communications with Mackinac, McDoualls first task was to open a new supply line from York via Yonge Street and Lake Simcoe to the Nottawasaga River, which flows into Georgian Bay. The Nottawasaga was selected in preference to the established post at Penetanguishene on Matchedash Bay, even though the navigation from the Nottwasaga was obstructed by rocks and shoals. McDoualls party consisted of ninety men of the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles, most of whom were accustomed to serving as marines, on 19 April, McDoualls batteaux began descending the river with the Newfoundlanders, artillerymen and sailors, and reached the Lake on 25 April. He arrived at Mackinac on 18 May, carrying a quantity of provisions for the hungry garrison. A few days later he was reinforced by another 200 Native Americans, McDouall ordered the defences of the island to be strengthened. The existing fort was situated on a ridge which dominated the harbour on the side of the island, but was itself overlooked by another wooded ridge. In 1812, the British had dragged artillery to this ridge to compel the fort to surrender, McDoualls troops built a stockade and blockhouse on the upper ridge, naming the new fortification Fort George. The expedition to recover Mackinac was prepared at Detroit, and Brigadier General Duncan McArthur established Fort Gratiot at the end of Lake Huron as an advanced base. William Clark, Governor of the Missouri Territory, meanwhile led an expedition to establish a fort at Prairie du Chien on the Mississippi River, news that the Americans had occupied Prairie du Chien arrived at Mackinac on 21 June. McDouall was compelled to weaken his garrison by despatching an expedition under William McKay to recover the post. As the weather was foggy and the Americans had no pilots familiar with the area and they then sailed to St. Joseph Island, which had been the original British military post in 1812, but found it had been abandoned. They burned the empty post, and also the Canadian North West Company trading post at Sault Sainte Marie, the Americans finally arrived off Mackinac on 26 July. Their delayed arrival had given McDouall ample warning, and he had reinforced his defences by calling in the last two companies of militia left to defend St. Joseph Island and Sault Ste. The American ships attempted to bombard the fort for two days, with most of the shot falling harmlessly in vegetable gardens around the fort, Sinclair discovered that the new British blockhouse, Fort George, stood too high for the naval guns to reach. A dense fog forced the American squadron away from the island for a week
33.
Nova Scotia Fencibles
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Not to be confused with the Royal Fencible American Regiment Nova Scotia Fencibles were a military regiment raised in Nova Scotia, Canada, in 1803. The unit had red uniforms with yellow facings, the Nova Scotia Fencibles were the only regiment stationed in Newfoundland in 1812. Although posted to Kingston in Upper Canada in 1814, the regiment did not see action and was disbanded in 1816, the Regiment had marched from Kingston to Quebec and had embarked there for Nova Scotia. Four soldiers, two wives, and two children lost their lives, all others were saved, contemporary accounts referred to the regiment as the Royal Nova Scotia Regiment, which had, however, been disbanded some years earlier. Harry Piers, The Fortieth Regiment, Raised at Annapolis Royal in 1717, And Five Regiments Subsequently Raised in Nova Scotia, Nova Scotia Historical Society, general Francis Aug. Wetherall, Colonel of His Majestys Nova Scotia Regiment of Fencibles. Certify that the bearer hereof. is hereby discharged, Canadian units of the War of 1812 Military history of Nova Scotia Regular British and Canadian Regiments in the Canadas
34.
Kingston, Ontario
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Kingston is a city in Eastern Ontario, Canada. It is located on the end of Lake Ontario, at the beginning of the St. Lawrence River. The city is located midway between Toronto and Montreal, the Thousand Islands tourist region is nearby to the east. Kingston is nicknamed the Limestone City because of the heritage buildings constructed using local limestone. This outpost, called Fort Cataraqui or Fort Frontenac, became a focus for settlement, after the British conquered New France, the village was renamed Kingston. Kingston was named the first capital of the Province of Canada on February 10,1841, while its time as a political centre was short, Kingston has remained an important military installation. Kingston was the county seat of Frontenac County until 1998, Kingston is now a separated municipality from the County of Frontenac. A number of origins of Cataraqui, Kingstons original name, have been postulated, one is that it is derived from the Iroquois word that means the place where one hides. The name may also be derivations of Native words that mean impregnable, muddy river, place of retreat, clay bank rising out of the water or where the rivers and lake meet. Cataraqui today refers to an area around the intersection of Princess Street and Sydenham Road, Cataraqui is also the name of a municipal electoral district. Cataraqui was referred to as the Kings Town or Kings Town by 1787 in honour of King George III, the name was shortened to Kingston in 1788. Archaeological evidence suggests that people lived in the Kingston region as early as the Archaic Period, evidence of Late Woodland Period early Iroquois occupation also exists. The first more permanent encampments by aboriginal people in the Kingston area began about 500 AD, the group that first occupied the area before the arrival of the French was probably the Wyandot people, who were later displaced by Iroquoian groups. At the time the French arrived in the Kingston area, Five Nations Iroquois had settled along the shore of Lake Ontario. By 1700, the north shore Iroquois had moved south, european commercial and military influence and activities centered on the fur trade developed and increased in North America in the 17th century. Fur trappers and traders were spreading out from their centres of operation in New France, French explorer Samuel de Champlain visited the Kingston area in 1615. Settlement resumed in the early 1780s when the area soon to be called Kingston became a centre for Loyalist refugees who fled north because of the American Revolutionary War. The survey would also determine whether Cataraqui was suitable as a base since nearby Carleton Island on which a British navy base was located had been ceded to the Americans after the war
35.
Saint Lawrence River
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The Saint Lawrence River is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. The Saint Lawrence River flows in a roughly north-easterly direction, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean and forming the primary drainage outflow of the Great Lakes Basin. It traverses the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and is part of the boundary between Ontario, Canada, and the U. S. state of New York. This river also provides the basis of the commercial Saint Lawrence Seaway, the estuary begins at the eastern tip of Île dOrléans, just downstream from Quebec City. The river becomes tidal around Quebec City, the St. Lawrence River runs 3,058 kilometres from the farthest headwater to the mouth and 1,197 km from the outflow of Lake Ontario. The farthest headwater is the North River in the Mesabi Range at Hibbing, the average discharge below the Saguenay River is 16,800 cubic metres per second. At Quebec City, it is 12,101 m3/s, the average discharge at the rivers source, the outflow of Lake Ontario, is 7,410 m3/s. The St. Lawrence River includes Lake Saint-Louis south of Montreal, Lake Saint Francis at Salaberry-de-Valleyfield, pierre Archipelago and the smaller Mingan Archipelago. Other islands include Île dOrléans near Quebec City and Anticosti Island north of the Gaspé and it is the second longest river in Canada. Lake Champlain and the Ottawa, Richelieu, Saguenay, and Saint-François rivers drain into the St. Lawrence. The St. Lawrence River is in an active zone where fault reactivation is believed to occur along late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic normal faults related to the opening of Iapetus Ocean. The faults in the area are related and are called the Saint Lawrence rift system. According to the United States Geological Survey, the St. Lawrence Valley is a province of the larger Appalachian division, containing the Champlain. However, in Canada, where most of the valley is, it is considered part of a distinct Saint Lawrence Lowlands physiographic division. Lawrence River itself was Jacques Cartier, at that time, the land along the river was inhabited by the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, at the time of Cartiers second voyage in 1535. Because Cartier arrived in the estuary on St. Lawrences feast day, the St. Lawrence River is partly within the U. S. and as such is that countrys sixth oldest surviving European place-name. The earliest regular Europeans in the area were the Basques, who came to the St Lawrence Gulf, the Basque whalers and fishermen traded with indigenous Americans and set up settlements, leaving vestiges all over the coast of eastern Canada and deep into the Saint Lawrence River. Basque commercial and fishing activity reached its peak before the Armada Invencibles disaster, initially, the whaling galleons from Labourd were not affected by the Spanish defeat
36.
Royal Nova Scotia Regiment
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The Royal Nova Scotia Regiment was a battalion of infantry raised in 1793 to defend British interests in the colony of Nova Scotia during the Wars of the French Revolution. The unit was commanded by Col. John Wentworth, the lieutenant-governor of the colony, in spite of having no military experience, Wentworth was to be colonel of the regiment. The regiment was to serve as a Fencible unit, for defense only. The men were to be paid and equipped like regular soldiers, they would be, in effect, Wentworth went to work on this project with enthusiasm. By May 28,350 men had been enlisted, Wentworth was keen to have his regiment given the prefix Royal, and in October Dundas granted this, but without special sanction. Many of the officers of the RNSR were veterans of the earlier war, for example, Samuel Bayard, named as Lt. Col. en second, had served as a captain in the Kings Orange Rangers. Maj. George H. Monk and Cpts, jones Fawson and John Solomon had held the same ranks in the Royal NS Volunteers, while Cpt. Hector Maclean had served with the 84th Highlanders, there was a labour shortage in Nova Scotia at that time, and many Halifax merchants, led by John Butler Butler, began to protest to Wentworth that his recruiting efforts were driving up wages. Wentworth also faced difficulties from Maj. Gen. of Foot and this state of affairs was finally ended in May 1794 with the arrival of Prince Edward, the Duke of Kent, to take over as C-in-C of the Kings Forces in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Wentworth and the Prince were to form a friendship over the coming years, a fairly large detachment, successively under command of Cpt. Aldridge, and Lt. Van Cortlandt, was at St. Johns, NL from Aug.1794 until Nov,1795, assisting in the raising, other detachments were at Annapolis Royal, Windsor, and Sydney. There were wanting 273 to complete the establishment, a detachment of 40 -50 men was always stationed the Princes residence as a sort of guard of honour. The men at Kavenaughs Island guarded French prisoners from La Felix, a ship captured at St. Domingo in 1794, the island was renamed in honour of Dundas after the war. A rotation of men, from 14 to 36 at a time, served as marines aboard His Majestys armed snow Earl of Moira and these were probably the only men of the Regiment to see combat. Prince Edward took almost as much pride in the regiment as Wentworth did, however, he also saw it as a source of recruits for his own 7th Regt. of Foot. Wentworth was horrified, in part because the Prince was known as a severe disciplinarian. He wrote in protest to the Duke of Portland, who sent a mild reprimand to the Prince ordering him not to use the RNSR as a nursery or recruiting fund, fear of being drafted into the Fusileers caused recruiting to dry up for several months. On Nov.16,1797, the frigate HMS Tribune was wrecked during a gale off Herring Cove
37.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
38.
Fredericton
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Fredericton is the capital of the Canadian province of New Brunswick. The city is situated in the portion of the province along the Saint John River. One of the urban centres in New Brunswick, the city had a population of 56,224 in the 2011 census. It is the third-largest city in the province after Moncton and Saint John, the city hosts the annual Harvest Jazz & Blues Festival, attracting regional and international jazz, blues, rock, and world artists. Fredericton is also an important and vibrant center point for the regions top visual artists, many of New Brunswicks notable artists live, Fredericton has also been home to some great historical Canadian painters as well, including Goodridge Roberts, and Molly and Bruno Bobak. As a provincial capital, its economy is tied to the sector, however. The city has the highest percentage of residents with an education in the province. The earliest known inhabitation of the dates back 12,000 years, according to archaeologists. Excavations unearthed a campsite with firepit and more than 600 artifacts including stone tool fragments, the area of the present-day city of Fredericton was first used for seasonal farming by the Maliseet peoples. Maliseet cultivated food plants including, beans, pumpkins, Jerusalem artichokes, ground nuts, in the mid-18th century their principal village of Aucpaque was located several kilometres upriver from the site of present-day Fredericton. The first European contact was by the French in the late 17th century, Joseph Robineau de Villebon received a land grant and was appointed governor of Acadia. During King Williams War, Villebon built Fort Nashwaak on the side of the Saint John River. For most of the war, Fort Nashwaak served as the capital of the French colony of Acadia, French and English hostilities continued along the border. Within weeks of an attack of French and Indigenous forces launched from Fort Nashwaak on Pemaquid, Maine, in 1696, an expedition under command of Major Benjamin Church set out to destroy Fort Nashwaak. Commander Villebon had been alerted and prepared his defences, on 18 October, the British troops arrived near the fort, landed three cannons, and assembled earthworks on the south bank of the Nashwaak River. For two days gunfire was exchanged, with the advantage going to the better-sited Acadian guns. The New Englanders were defeated, with 8 soldiers killed and 17 wounded, the Acadians sustained losses of one killed and two wounded. After Villebons death in 1700 and a flood that destroyed several French farms in the area
39.
Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor
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The Second Battle of Sackets Harbor or simply the Battle of Sackets Harbor, took place on 29 May 1813, during the War of 1812. A British force was transported across Lake Ontario and attempted to capture the town and they were repulsed by American regulars and militia. In the early weeks of the War, the British had seized control of the Great Lakes. In September 1812 U. S. Navy Captain Isaac Chauncey was ordered to command of naval forces on Lakes Ontario. At the start of the season of 1813, the main American forces on the border between the United States and Canada had been concentrated at Sackets Harbor. Instead they proceeded to attack York, the Provincial capital of Upper Canada, on 27 April, the Americans won the Battle of York, temporarily occupying and looting the town. They then withdrew to Fort Niagara near the mouth of the Niagara River, late in 1812, Captain James Lucas Yeo had been appointed by the Admiralty to command the British naval force on the Great Lakes. He arrived at Quebec on 5 May 1813, and proceeded up the Saint Lawrence River to Kingston with a party of 150 naval officers and sailors. On the way, he overtook and joined the Governor General of Canada, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, Prevost and Yeo arrived at Kingston on 15 May. On 25 May, Chaunceys squadron was sighted off Fort George, the British commander there, Brigadier General John Vincent, immediately sent a dispatch vessel to Kingston with the information. On learning of Chaunceys presence off Fort George, Yeo and Prevost realised that the American squadron, there was an opportunity to capture Sackets Harbor, and deliver a decisive blow which would ensure that the British gained naval supremacy on the lake. The British force set out late on 27 May and arrived off Sackets Harbor early the next morning, the wind was very light, which made it difficult for Yeo to manoeuvre close to the shore. He was also unfamiliar with the conditions and depths of water. Shortly before midday on May 28, the troops began rowing ashore, in case they might be Chaunceys fleet, the attack was called off, and the troops returned to the ships. The strange sails proved to belong to twelve bateaux carrying troops from the 9th, regiments of Infantry from Oswego to Sackets Harbor. The British sent out three large canoes full of Native American warriors and a carrying a detachment of the Glengarry Light Infantry to intercept them. The British force caught up with the convoy off Stoney Point on Henderson Bay, as the British opened fire, the Americans, who were mostly raw recruits, landed their bateaux at Stoney Point and fled into the woods. The Natives pursued them through the trees and hunted them down, after about half an hour, during which they lost 35 men killed, the surviving United States troops regained their vessels and raised a white flag
40.
Siege of Fort Erie
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The Siege of Fort Erie was one of the last and most protracted engagements between British and American forces during the Niagara campaign of the American War of 1812. From 4 August to 21 September 1814, the Americans successfully defended Fort Erie against a British army, during the siege, the British suffered heavy casualties in a failed storming attempt and also suffered from sickness and exposure in their rough encampments. Unaware that the British were about to abandon the siege, the American garrison later launched a sortie to destroy the British siege batteries, during which both sides again suffered heavy losses. After the British abandoned the siege, the reinforced American army followed up cautiously, but with the onset of winter and shortage of supplies they withdrew, the Americans under Major General Jacob Brown had crossed the Niagara River and captured Fort Erie on 3 July 1814. After defeating a British force at the Battle of Chippawa they advanced north, on 25 July, the bloody but indecisive Battle of Lundys Lane was fought, during which Brown was severely wounded. Following the battle, the outnumbered American troops, now under the command of Brigadier General Eleazer Wheelock Ripley, Ripley advocated abandoning the Fort and retreating across the Niagara but Brown overruled him and summoned Brigadier General Edmund P. Gaines from Sacketts Harbor to assume command. The British, under the command of Lieutenant General Gordon Drummond, had themselves been hard hit at Lundys Lane, Drummond nevertheless claimed that the Americans had been forced to retreat in disorder and he intended to drive them from the Canadian side of the Niagara. His troops followed the Americans slowly and reached the fort on 4 August, Drummonds division numbered 3,000 but Drummond himself complained about the quality of the troops and the degree to which the units were composed of mixed-up detachments and companies. His slow advance gave the Americans vitally needed time to reorganise, the original British fort consisted of two two-story barrack buildings with fortified cannon bastions connected to them. The barracks were connected by a stone curtain with the main gate located in the centre. The rear of the fort consisted of an open terreplein, raised 6 feet above the base of the dry ditch which surrounded the fort, the redoubts were incomplete and offered little protection. The front of the fort was protected by an earth wall with a forward gun emplacement. This was complemented by a gun emplacement in the centre redan, the fort contained a total of six guns. The dry ditch surrounding the fort had a 9 feet high wall in the centre. This wall was angled outwards and was sharpened to prevent any enemy from leaping into the ditch, which also had sharpened sticks placed up and down the walls to help impale or wound enemy soldiers. The ditch was used as a dump and a sewer by the defenders, creating a slippery and smelly swamp at the base that would slow enemy attacks. The Americans had made significant improvements to the defenses of the fort since its capture, abatis were placed in front of the earth walls. By the close of the siege, the Americans had made the even stronger by building three log blockhouses in the rear of the fort and had also strengthened the defences and redoubts
