1.
Peripheral venous catheter
–
In medicine, a peripheral venous catheter, peripheral venous line or peripheral venous access catheter is a catheter placed into a peripheral vein in order to administer medication or fluids. Upon insertion, the line can be used to draw blood, the catheter is introduced into the vein by a needle, which is subsequently removed while the small tube of the cannula remains in place. The catheter is then fixed by taping it to the patients skin, newer catheters have been equipped with additional safety features to avoid needlestick injuries. Modern catheters consist of polymers such as teflon. In 1950 they consisted of PVC plastic, a peripheral venous catheter is the most commonly used vascular access in medicine. It is given to most emergency room and surgical patients, and before some radiological imaging techniques using radiocontrast, in the United States, more than 25 million patients get a peripheral venous line each year. A peripheral venous catheter is placed in a vein on the hand or arm. It should be distinguished from a central venous catheter which is inserted in a central vein, in children, a local anaesthetic gel is applied to the insertion site to facilitate placement. Insertion of a venous cannula is a procedure that can lead to anxiety. Use of a vapocoolant immediately before cannulation reduces pain during the procedure, infection, phlebitis, extravasation, infiltration, air embolism, hemorrhage and formation of a hematoma may occur. Because of the risk of infection the CDC advises in their guideline that the catheter needs to be replaced every 96 hours. Although these catheters can best not be left in place longer than necessary, expert management has been shown to reduce the complications of peripheral lines. National Cancer Institute, peripheral venous catheter Recommended practices for the insertion and management of peripheral intravenous catheters
2.
Oxygen
–
Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, at standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2. This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20. 8% of the Earths atmosphere, additionally, as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earths crust. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form of oxygen, ozone, strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation, but ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft, the name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle, Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philos work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration, Oxygen was discovered by the Polish alchemist Sendivogius, who considered it the philosophers stone. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion, English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion, Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract De respiratione. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, one part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx. The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the combustion products
3.
Legume
–
A legume is a plant or its fruit or seed in the family Fabaceae. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for their grain seed called pulse, for forage and silage. Well-known legumes include alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupin bean, mesquite, carob, soybeans, peanuts, Fabaceae is the most common family found in tropical rainforests and in dry forests in the Americas and Africa. A legume fruit is a dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel. A common name for type of fruit is a pod, although the term pod is also applied to a number of other fruit types, such as that of vanilla. Legumes are notable in that most of them have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules, for that reason, they play a key role in crop rotation. The term pulse, as used by the United Nations Food and this excludes green beans and green peas, which are considered vegetable crops. Also excluded are seeds that are grown for oil extraction. However, in usage, these distinctions are not always clearly made. Some Fabaceae, such as Scotch broom and other Genisteae, are leguminous but are not called legumes by farmers. Farmed legumes can belong to many classes, including forage, grain, blooms, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure. Most commercially farmed species fill two or more roles simultaneously, depending upon their degree of maturity when harvested, grain legumes are cultivated for their seeds. The seeds are used for human and animal consumption or for the production of oils for industrial uses, grain legumes include beans, lentils, lupins, peas, and peanuts. Like other plant-based foods, pulses contain no cholesterol and little fat or sodium, Legumes are also an excellent source of resistant starch which is broken down by bacteria in the large intestine to produce short-chain fatty acids used by intestinal cells for food energy. Preliminary studies in humans include the potential for regular consumption of legumes in a diet to affect metabolic syndrome. There is evidence that a portion of pulses in a diet may lower blood pressure and reduce LDL cholesterol levels. Some, like alfalfa, clover, vetch, stylo, or Arachis, are sown in pasture, other forage legumes such as Leucaena or Albizia are woody shrub or tree species that are either broken down by livestock or regularly cut by humans to provide livestock feed. Legume species grown for their flowers include lupins, which are farmed commercially for their blooms as well as being popular in gardens worldwide, industrially farmed legumes include Indigofera and Acacia species, which are cultivated for dye and natural gum production, respectively
4.
Trifolium repens
–
Trifolium repens, the white clover, is a herbaceous perennial plant in the bean family Fabaceae. It is native to Europe and central Asia, one of the most widely cultivated types of clover, it has been widely introduced worldwide as a forage crop, and is now also common in most grassy areas of North America and New Zealand. The species includes varieties often classed as small, intermediate and large, according to height, the term “white clover” is applied to the species in general, “Dutch clover” is often applied to intermediate varieties, and “ladino clover” is applied to large varieties. The species name, repens, is Latin for creeping and it is a herbaceous, perennial plant. It is low growing, with heads of flowers, often with a tinge of pink or cream that may come on with the aging of the plant. The heads are generally 1. 5–2 centimetres wide, and are at the end of 7-cm peduncles or flower stalks, the flowers are mostly visited by bumblebees and often by honey bees. The leaves, are trifoliolate, smooth, elliptic to egg-shaped and long-petioled, the stems function as stolons, so white clover often forms mats, with the stems creeping as much as 18 cm a year, and rooting at the nodes. The leaves form the known as shamrock. White clover has been described as the most important forage legume of the temperate zones, symbiotic nitrogen fixation in root nodules of white clover obviates synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use for maintaining productivity on much temperate zone pasture land. Such species mixtures also tend to issues that could otherwise be associated with cyanogenic glycoside intake on pure or nearly pure stands of some white clover varieties. Formononetin and biochanin A play a role in arbuscular mycorrhiza formation on white clover roots, among forage plants, some white clover varieties tend to be favored by rather close grazing, because of their stoloniferous habit, which can contribute to competitive advantage. White clover grows well as a plant among turf grasses, grain crops, pasture grasses. White clover can tolerate close mowing and grazing, and it can grow on different types. As a leguminous and hardy plant, it is considered to be a component of natural or organic pasture management and lawn care due to its ability to fix nitrogen. Natural nitrogen fixing reduces leaching from the soil and by maintaining soil health can reduce the incidence of some diseases that are enhanced by the availability of synthetic fertilizer. For these reasons, it is used as a green manure. Besides making an excellent forage crop for livestock, clovers are a survival food, they are high in proteins, widespread. The fresh plants have been used for centuries as additives to salads and they are not easy for humans to digest raw, however, but this is easily fixed by boiling the harvested plants for 5–10 minutes
5.
Body modification
–
Body modification is the deliberate altering of the human anatomy or human physical appearance. In its broadest definition it includes plastic surgery, socially acceptable decoration, Body parts that are commonly removed by those practicing body nullification are, penis, testicles, clitoris, labia and nipples. Sometimes people who desire a nullification may be diagnosed with body integrity identity disorder or apotemnophilia and this compresses the collarbone and upper ribs but is not medically dangerous. It is a myth that removing the rings cause the neck to flop. Stretched lip piercings - achieved by inserting ever larger plates, such as made of clay used by some Amazonian tribes. Yaeba - the deliberate misaligning or capping of teeth to give a crooked appearance, disfigurement and mutilation are terms used by opponents of body modification to describe certain types of modifications, especially non-consensual ones. Some surgical procedures that modify human genitals are performed with the consent of the patient. The phrase Genital mutilation is sometimes used to describe procedures that individuals are forced to undergo without their informed consent, the phrase has been applied to involuntary castration, male circumcision, and female genital mutilation. Intersex campaigners say that childhood modification of genitals of individuals with intersex conditions without their consent is a form of mutilation. Many use body modification and self-mutilation interchangeably, in many ways self-mutilation is very different than body-modification. Body modification gives one the feeling of pride and excitement, giving one something to show off to others, alternately, those who self-mutilate typically are ashamed of what theyve done and want to hide any evidence of harm. Those who self-mutilate do so in order to themselves, express internal turmoil. The Official Body Modification Organization Body Modification E-Zine Encyclopedia entry showing various inappropriate uses of ear piercing instruments Nail Art
6.
Suspension (body modification)
–
A suspension is the act of suspending a human body from hooks that have been put through body piercings. These piercings are temporary and are performed just prior to the actual suspension, the process is very delicate and is typically done carefully by an experienced individual or professional of the field in order to avoid serious injury. Suspension may require and often has a group who handle preparations. The actual act of being suspended may take up a portion of time compared to the time involved in preparation. The suspendees body is studied to decide the proper placement, number, depending on the position in which the body is to be suspended, multiple hooks are sometimes located around the shoulders, upper arm, and back, as well as around the knees. Finding the proper placement and number involves basic geometry and an acute understanding of human anatomy and physiology. If the number of hooks are too few, the individuals skin will be unable to withstand the bodys weight. The amount of weight that each hook supports must be distributed throughout the entire body. Some also choose to have more dynamic suspensions, where they swing or are pushed around the area, historically, the Okipa ceremony - which includes piercing and suspension - has been a major part of Mandan religious life. In 1832 this complex ceremony about the creation of the earth was glimpsed, the piercing and suspension is only one part of the Okipa ceremony. The territory of the Mandan tribe is located along the banks of the Missouri River, there are two main types of rigging, dynamic and static. Dynamic rigging primarily uses ropes, or something similar, and one piece is used to connect the suspender to the apparatus. In static rigging, each hook is attached to the apparatus separately, the apparatus is usually rigged to a tree, ceiling, scaffolding, etc. using pulleys, a winch or a backhoe. A chest suspension, sometimes referred to as an O-Kee-Pa, is a suspension in which the hook are placed in the chest. Typically two hooks are used for type of suspension. This was initially named after the Okipa ceremony of the Mandan people, however the modern, secular suspension performance is not an accurate replication of the Okipa ceremony. In respect to the Mandan people, the O-Kee-Pa name is no longer used to reference this position. A coma suspension is a suspension in which the hooks are placed in the chest, torso and legs, the name of this position comes from the similar imagery in the movie Coma
7.
Cell (biology)
–
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, the study of cells is called cell biology. Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many such as proteins. Organisms can be classified as unicellular or multicellular, while the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion cells. Most plant and animal cells are only under a microscope. The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the unit for its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago, Cells are of two types, eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular, prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterised by having vital biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus, prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid, most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma which only possess the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, the cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment, some eukaryotic cells also have a cell wall. Inside the cell is the region that contains the genome, ribosomes. The genetic material is found in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular, linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease. Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid, plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes
8.
Neuroscience
–
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition, Cognitive scientists study intelligence and behavior, with a focus on how nervous systems represent, process, and transform information. The typical analysis of cognitive science spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision to logic and planning, the fundamental concept of cognitive science is that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures. The cognitive sciences began as a movement in the 1950s often referred to as the cognitive revolution. A central tenet of science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. An example would be the problem of remembering a phone number, one approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation, or naturalistic observation. A person could be presented with a number and be asked to recall it after some delay of time. Then, the accuracy of the response could be measured, another approach to measure cognitive ability would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works, thus, an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other is imperative. ”This can be provided by a functional level account of the process. Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior, Cognitive scientists work collectively in hope of understanding the mind and its interactions with the surrounding world much like other sciences do. Similarly to the field of psychology, there is doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science. Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists hold a functionalist view of the view that mental states and processes should be explained by their function - what they do. According to the multiple realizability account of functionalism, even non-human systems such as robots, the term cognitive in cognitive science is used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms. The earliest entries for the word cognitive in the OED take it to mean roughly pertaining to the action or process of knowing, the first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato, Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that science has not always been equally concerned with every topic that might bear relevance to the nature. Among philosophers, classical cognitivists have largely de-emphasized or avoided social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, however, with the decline of behaviorism, internal states such as affects and emotions, as well as awareness and covert attention became approachable again. For example, situated and embodied cognition theories take into account the current state of the environment as well as the role of the body in cognition
9.
Clover
–
Clover or trefoil are common names for plants of the genus Trifolium, consisting of about 300 species of plants in the leguminous pea family Fabaceae. They are small annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial herbaceous plants. The leaves are trifoliate, with adnate to the leaf-stalk, and heads or dense spikes of small red, purple, white, or yellow flowers. Other closely related genera often called clovers include Melilotus and Medicago, several species of clover are extensively cultivated as fodder plants. The most widely cultivated clovers are white clover Trifolium repens and red clover Trifolium pratense, in many areas, particularly on acidic soil, clover is short-lived because of a combination of insect pests, diseases and nutrient balance, this is known as clover sickness. When crop rotations are managed so that clover does not recur at intervals shorter than eight years, clover sickness in more recent times may also be linked to pollinator decline, clovers are most efficiently pollinated by bumblebees, which have declined as a result of agricultural intensification. Honeybees can also pollinate clover, and beekeepers are often in demand from farmers with clover pastures. Farmers reap the benefits of increased reseeding that occurs with increased bee activity, beekeepers benefit from the clover bloom, as clover is one of the main nectar sources for honeybees. Trifolium repens, white or Dutch clover, is a perennial abundant in meadows, the flowers are white or pinkish, becoming brown and deflexed as the corolla fades. Trifolium hybridum, alsike or Swedish clover, is a perennial which was introduced early in the 19th century and has now become naturalized in Britain, the flowers are white or rosy, and resemble those of the last species. Trifolium medium, meadow or zigzag clover, a perennial with straggling flexuous stems, clovers occasionally have four leaflets, instead of the usual three. These four-leaf clovers, like other rarities, are considered lucky, clovers can also have five, six, or more leaflets, but these are rarer. The record for most leaflets is 56, set on 10 May 2009 and this beat the 21-leaf clover, a record set in June 2008 by the same discoverer, who had also held the prior Guinness World Record of 18. A common idiom is to be in clover, meaning to live a life of ease, comfort. The cloverleaf interchange is named for the resemblance to the leaflets of a clover when viewed from the air, quattrofolium Edibility of clover, Edible parts and visual identification of wild clover
10.
Trocar
–
A trocar is a medical device that is made up of an obturator, a cannula, and a seal. Trocars are placed through the abdomen during laparoscopic surgery, the trocar functions as a portal for the subsequent placement of other instruments, such as graspers, scissors, staplers, etc. Originally, doctors used trocars to relieve pressure build-up of fluids or gasses, patents for trocars appeared early in the 19th century, although their use dated back possibly thousands of years. By the middle of the 19th century, trocar-cannulas had become sophisticated, trocars are used in medicine to access and drain collections of fluid such as in a patient with hydrothorax or ascites. In modern times, surgical trocars are used to perform laparoscopic surgery and this latter design offers greater patient safety due to the technique used to insert them. Trocar insertion can lead to a puncture wound of an underlying organ resulting in a medical complication. Thus, for instance, a laparoscopic intraabdominal trocar insertion can lead to bowel injury leading to peritonitis or injury to large vessels with hemorrhage. Trocars are also used near the end of the process to provide drainage of bodily fluids. Rather than a round tube being inserted, the three sided knife of the classic trocar would split the skin into three wings which was then easily sutured closed in a less obtrusive way. It is attached to a suction hose, the process of removing gas, fluids, and semi-solids from the body cavities and hollow organs using the trocar is known as aspiration. The instrument is inserted into the body two inches to the left and two inches up from the navel, the bottle is held upside down in the air so as to let gravity take the cavity fluid through the trocar and into the cavities. The embalmer moves the trocar in the manner that he or she used when aspirating the cavities in order to fully and evenly distribute the chemical. After cavity embalming has been finished, the puncture is commonly sealed using a small, plastic object resembling a screw, in acute cases of ruminal tympany in cattle, a wide-bore trocar may be passed through the skin into the rumen to release trapped gas. In non-ruminant species, a trocar may be inserted directly into the stomach of an animal under anaesthesia, to alleviate pain, an illustrated guide to veterinary medical terminology, Volume 1 Mayer, Robert
11.
Cannula transfer
–
While the syringes are not the same as cannulae, the techniques remain relevant. There are two methods of transfer, vacuum, and pressure, both utilize differences in pressures between two vessels to push the fluid through. Often, the difficulty encountered is slow transfer due to the high viscosity of the fluid. Septa are rubber stoppers which seal flasks or bottles and they give an air-tight seal, preventing the ingress of the atmosphere, but are able to be pierced by sharp needles or cannulae. Cannulae are hollow tubes of varying bore, usually 16-22 gauge thick. They are commonly made of steel or PTFE for chemical resistance. Stainless steel cannulae are usually 2–3 feet long, due to their relative inflexibility, the ends are usually sharp and non-coring, allowing them to easily pierce a rubber septum, without being clogged by rubber particles. Flat ends may be chosen on occasion, because they tend to more complete transfer of fluids. Stainless steel cannulae tend to collapse when cut with wire cutters and they are best cut using pipecutters of appropriate size. Other workers recommend deeply scoring the cannula with a triangular file, wide-bore needles of similar gauge are often used. Unlike hypodermic-type needles sometimes used in the laboratory, these needles tend to be reused due to cost. Long needles may be enough to be bent in U-shapes. Polypropylene syringes used for medical applications are least expensive, while the material is relatively solvent-resistant, though they are designed primarily for aqueous solutions, some degradation or leaching by the contents may occur. In particular, the rubber seal may swell and cause the plunger to seize. All-glass gas-tight syringes have better solvent resistance, though tend to leak more than plastic syringes. Greases used on the barrel may leach into the contents, glass syringes with a teflon seal at the plunger are available as well, but they are more expensive. They tend to be used for microsyringes, luer fittings are preferred, as needles are locked in even under higher pressure, e. g. when transferring viscous liquids. Cannulae and needles should be flushed out with an appropriate solvent to prevent undetectable corrosion damage to the stainless steel
12.
Hypodermic needle
–
A hypodermic needle, also called a sharp, is a very thin, hollow tube with a sharp tip which contains a small opening at the pointed end. It is commonly used with a syringe, a device with a plunger. They are used to take samples from the body, for example taking blood from a vein in venipuncture. Large bore hypodermic intervention is useful in catastrophic blood loss or treating shock. A hypodermic needle is used for delivery of liquids, or when the injected substance cannot be ingested, either because it would not be absorbed. There are many routes for an injection, with the arm being a common location. The hypodermic needle also serves an important role in research environments where sterile conditions are required, the hypodermic needle significantly reduces contamination during inoculation of a sterile substrate. The ancient Greeks and Romans knew injection as a method of delivery from observations of snakebites. There are also references to anointing and inunction in the Old Testament as well as the works of Homer, christopher Wren performed the earliest confirmed experiments with crude hypodermic needles, performing intravenous injection into dogs in 1656. These experiments consisted of using animal bladders and goose quills to administer drugs such as opium intravenously to dogs, Wren and others’ main interest was to learn if medicines traditionally administered orally would be effective intravenously. Elsholtz of Berlin were the first to experiment with injections in humans and these early experiments were generally ineffective and in some cases fatal. Injection fell out of favor for two centuries, the 19th century saw the development of medicines that were effective in small doses, such as opiates and strychnine. This spurred a renewed interest in direct, controlled application of medicine, some controversy surrounds the question of priority in hypodermic medication. Dr. Francis Rynd is generally credited with the first successful injection in 1844, Dr. Alexander Wood’s main contribution was the all-glass syringe in 1851, which allowed the user to estimate dosage based on the levels of liquid observed through the glass. Wood used hypodermic needles and syringes primarily for the application of localized, subcutaneous injection, simultaneous to Wood’s work in Edinburgh, Dr. Charles Pravaz of Lyon also experimented with sub-dermal injections in sheep using a syringe of his own design. Pravaz designed a syringe measuring 3 cm long and 5 mm in diameter, Dr. Charles Hunter, a London surgeon, is credited with the coining of the term hypodermic to describe subcutaneous injection in 1858. The name originates from two Greek words, hypo, under, and derma, skin, Hunter and Wood were involved in lengthy legal disputes over not only the origin of the modern hypodermic needle, but also because of their disagreement to the medicine’s effect once administered. Dr. Wood can be credited with the popularization and acceptance of injection as a medical technique, as well as the widespread use
