1.
B.N. Morris Canoe Company
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The B. N. Morris Canoe Company of Veazie, Maine, produced wood and canvas canoes from 1891 until fire destroyed the factory late in 1919. The shapeliness, style, and workmanship of the Morris canoes, the men behind the B. N. Morris Canoe Company were Bert Morris and his older brother, Charles. Initially, canoes were built in a shop behind the Morris family home in Veazie, the building was four stories high, with a different aspect of canoe construction completed on each floor. Although Morris was not the first to market canvas-covered canoes, it was among the first to distribute through a system of dealerships, in the early years of the twentieth century, Morris began offering a less expensive factory-direct line of canoes under the name Veazie Canoe Company. These canoes were identical to those carrying the B. N. Morris name with the exception of being trimmed in ash or maple rather than high grade mahogany, the evening of December 15,1919, a fire, described in The Bangor Daily News as. Very spectacular, lighting up the country for miles around, destroyed the B. N. Morris factory complex, both articles assure the public that the factory would be rebuilt, but it was not. The factorys office building survived the fire and is today the office of a Veazie motel known as The Stucco Lodge, the canoe was offered in four models, much the same in appearance but with variations in depth and width. Customers could customize their canoe with longer decks and a paint job. Early in the century, Morris began to advertise that his canoes were all one grade mahogany-trimmed vessels. A second company, the Veazie Canoe Company, was developed to offer a less expensive factory-direct model trimmed in hardwoods other than mahogany, models and types Special Indian, Prior to approximately 1905, this was the name of one of the two Morris models. Special Indian, Extra Beam, Prior to approximately 1905, this was the name of the wider of Morriss canoe models and its catalog image is used as the logo of the Wooden Canoe Heritage Association. Model A, Model A, is for use, and will be found efficient, safe, staunch and comfortable, principally due to the flat floor, full rounded sides. Its dimensions are moderate and pleasing in lines, and from its first appearance on the market up to this day and this model is built with two styles of ends, the Special, or so-called Torpedo ends, and the Standard Ends. Model B, Model B, which is a development, has been very much appreciated by those who desire a canoe with greater capacity. It has been on the market a number of years, with an increase in demand. Its lines in general are very pleasing, and its qualities are exceptional. It is also a very fine canoe to equip for rowing, Model C, Model C, carries about the same dimensions as Model A, except that it has less tumble-home and sharper lines for and aft. It is a fairly speedy canoe, Model D, Model D is a design with more freeboard and less tumble-home
2.
Abbe Museum
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The Abbe Museum is a museum with two locations in Bar Harbor, Maine, on Mount Desert Island. The museum is dedicated to exploring the history and culture of Maines Native people and it has one location at 26 Mount Desert Street in the center of Bar Harbor, and a second location at Sieur de Monts in Acadia National Park. Stone artifacts include projectile points, bone artifaces include harpoons, hooks, combs, also included are large number of baskets, and a powder horn attributed to the Penobscot chief Orono. The core of the collection was made the pioneering radiologist Robert Abbe, the Sieur de Monts building was designed by Edmund M. Gilchrist, and was completed in 1928. It is believed to be the only example of Mediterranean architecture in the state. National Register of Historic Places listings in Hancock County, Maine National Register of Historic Places listings in Acadia National Park Abbe Museum web site
3.
Bar Harbor, Maine
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Bar Harbor is a town on Mount Desert Island in Hancock County, Maine, United States. As of the 2010 census, its population is 5,235, Bar Harbor is a popular tourist destination in the Down East region of Maine and home to the College of the Atlantic, Jackson Laboratory, and MDI Biological Laboratory. Prior to a catastrophic 1947 fire the town was a summer colony for the super-affluent elite. Bar Harbor is home to the largest parts of Acadia National Park, including Cadillac Mountain, the highest point within twenty-five miles of the coastline of the Eastern United States. The town is served by the Hancock County-Bar Harbor Airport, which has flights on Cape Air and PenAir to Boston, as well as flights to Newark and Portland. The town of Bar Harbor was founded on the northeast shore of Mount Desert Island, the Wabanaki seasonally fished, hunted and gathered berries, clams, and other shellfish in the area. They spoke of Bar Harbor as Man-es-aydik or Ah-baysauk, leaving piles of shells as evidence of this abundance. In early September 1604, French explorer Samuel de Champlain ran aground on a rock ledge believed to be just off Otter Cliffs, Champlain named the island Isles des Monts Deserts, meaning island of barren mountains—now called Mount Desert Island, the largest in Maine. The community was first settled by Europeans in 1763 by Israel Higgins and John Thomas and incorporated on February 23,1796 as Eden, after Sir Richard Eden, early industries included fishing, lumbering and shipbuilding. With the best soil on Mount Desert Island, it also developed agriculture, in the 1840s, its rugged maritime scenery attracted the Hudson River School and Luminism artists Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, William Hart and Fitz Henry Lane. Inspired by their paintings, journalists, sportsmen and rusticators followed, agamont House, the first hotel in Eden, was established in 1855 by Tobias Roberts. Birch Point, the first summer estate, was built in 1868 by Alpheus Hardy, by 1880, there were 30 hotels, including the Mira Monte Inn, a historic landmark that would later survive a massive fire, in 1947. Tourists were arriving by train and ferry to the Gilded Age resort that would rival Newport, a glimpse of their lifestyles was available from the Shore Path, a walkway skirting waterfront lawns. Yachting, garden parties at the Pot & Kettle Club, others enjoyed horse-racing at Robin Hood Park-Morrell Park. President William Howard Taft played golf in 1910 at the Kebo Valley Golf Club. On March 3,1918, Eden was renamed Bar Harbor, after the sand and gravel bar, visible at low tide, the name would become synonymous with elite wealth. It was the birthplace of vice-president Nelson Rockefeller on July 8,1908, Bar Harbor was also used for naval practices during World War II. More specifically, Bald Porcupine Island was used to fire live torpedoes, on October 10,1944 the submarine USS Piper fired 12 live torpedoes at the island
4.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
5.
Watercraft
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Watercraft are water-borne vehicles including ships, boats, hovercraft and submarines. Watercraft usually have propulsive capability and hence are distinct from a device that merely floats. Most watercraft would be described as either a ship or a boat, however, there are numerous craft which many people would consider neither a ship nor a boat, such as, surfboards, underwater robots, seaplanes, jetskis and torpedoes. Although ships are larger than boats, the distinction between those two categories is not one of size per se. Ships are typically large ocean-going vessels, whereas boats are smaller, and typically travel most often on inland or coastal waters. A rule of thumb says a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship cant fit on a boat, local law and regulation may define the exact size that distinguishes a ship from a boat. A merchant ship is any floating craft that transports cargo for the purpose of earning revenue, in that context, the term watercraft is rarely used to describe any individual object, rather the term serves to unify the category that ranges from jet skis to aircraft carriers. Such a vessel may be used in saltwater and freshwater, for pleasure, recreation, physical exercise, commerce, in general, the purpose of a water vehicle identifies its utility with a maritime industry sub-sector. The design from which a vehicle is created usually seeks to achieve a balance between internal capacity, speed and seaworthiness. Propulsion is the application of technology in watercraft. Current technological development seeks to identify cheaper, renewable and less polluting sources of propulsion for watercraft of all shapes and sizes, secondary applications of technology in watercraft have been those of used structural materials, navigation aids, and in the case of warships, weapon systems. Watercraft registration is the registration of a watercraft with a government authority, identification consists of an alphanumeric string called a vessel registration number that is issued in the United States by the states Department of Motor Vehicles. Navigation aids have varied over time, from observation, to mechanical mechanisms. Since the early 20th century, there has been a development in technologies which allow force projection from a naval task force to a land objective using marine infantry. The Canadian Museum of Civilization - Native Watercraft in Canada A History of Recreational Small Watercraft Recreational Watercraft
6.
Paddle
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A paddle is a tool used for pushing against liquids, either as a form of propulsion in a boat or as an implement for mixing. Paddles commonly used in canoes consist of a wooden, fibreglass, carbon fibre or metal rod with a handle on one end, paddles for use in kayaks are longer, with a blade on each end, they are handled from the middle of the shaft. Kayak paddles having blades in the plane are called un-feathered. Paddles with blades in different planes are called feathered, feathered paddles are measured by the degree of feather, such as 30,45, or even 90 degrees. Many modern paddles are made of two pieces which can be snapped together in either feathered or unfeathered settings, the shaft is normally straight but in some cases a crank is added with the aim of making the paddle more comfortable and reducing the strain on the wrist. In addition, weight savings are more desirable at the ends of the rather than in the middle. Cheaper kayak paddles have a shaft while more expensive ones use a lighter fibreglass or carbon fibre shaft. Some paddles have a smaller diameter shaft for people with smaller hands, Paddle length varies with a longer paddle being better suited for stronger people, taller people, and people using the paddle in a wider kayak. Some paddle makers have an online paddle size calculator, blades vary in size and shape. A blade with a surface area may be desirable for a strong person with good shoulder joints. Some paddle makers offer blades in three sizes, for this reason white or yellow blades may offer a safety advantage over black or blue blades. Of course, kayakers should wear a headlamp or have other lighting on their kayak under conditions of limited lighting. However, if an operator must look straight into a sun low in the sky to see a kayaker. Highly reflective water resistant tape may be affixed to the paddle blades, the paddle is held with two hands, some distance apart from each other. For normal use, it is drawn through the water front to back to drive the boat forwards. The two blades of a paddle are dipped alternately on either side of the kayak. Gloves may be worn to prevent blistering for long periods of paddling, on mechanical paddle steamers, the motorized paddling is not done with a mass of paddles or oars but by rotating one or a few paddle wheels. Racing paddles also have special designs and they are generally less flat and are curved to catch more water which will enable racing paddlers to maximize the efficiency of their stroke
7.
Kayak
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A kayak is a small, narrow watercraft which is propelled by means of a double-bladed paddle. The word kayak originates from the Greenlandic language, where it is the word qajaq, in the UK the term canoe is often used when referring to a kayak. The traditional kayak has a deck and one or more cockpits. Kayaks are also being sailed, as well as propelled by means of electric motors. The kayak was first used by the indigenous Aleut, Inuit, Yupik, kayaks were originally developed by the Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut. They used the boats to hunt on inland lakes, rivers and coastal waters of the Arctic Ocean, North Atlantic, Bering Sea and these first kayaks were constructed from stitched seal or other animal skins stretched over a wood or whalebone-skeleton frame. Kayaks are believed to be at least 4,000 years old, the oldest existing kayaks are exhibited in the North America department of the State Museum of Ethnology in Munich. Native people made many types of boat for different purposes, the baidarka, developed by indigenous cultures in Alaska, was also made in double or triple cockpit designs, for hunting and transporting passengers or goods. An umiak is an open sea canoe, ranging from 17 to 30 feet, made with seal skins. It is considered a kayak although it was originally paddled with single-bladed paddles, native builders designed and built their boats based on their own experience and that of the generations before them, passed on through oral tradition. A special skin jacket, Tuilik, was laced to the kayak. This enabled the eskimo roll to become the method of regaining posture after capsizing, especially as few Inuit could swim. Inuit kayak builders had specific measurements for their boats, the length was typically three times the span of his outstretched arms. The width at the cockpit was the width of the builders hips plus two fists, the typical depth was his fist plus the outstretched thumb. Thus typical dimensions were about 17 feet long by 20–22 inches wide by 7 inches deep and this measurement system confounded early European explorers who tried to duplicate the kayak, because each kayak was a little different. Most of the Aleut people in the Aleutian Islands eastward to Greenland Inuit relied on the kayak for hunting a variety of seals, though whales. Skin-on-frame kayaks are still being used for hunting by Inuit people in Greenland, because the smooth and flexible skin glides silently through the waves. In other parts of the home builders are continuing the tradition of skin on frame kayaks, usually with modern skins of canvas or synthetic fabric
8.
Canoe sprint
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Canoe sprint is a sport in which athletes race canoes or kayaks on calm water. Race categories vary by the number of athletes in the boat, the length of the course, Canoe sprints are sometimes referred to as flat water racing. The distances recognized by the ICF for international canoe sprint races are 200m, 500m and these races take place on straight courses with each boat paddling in its own designated lane. Longer marathon races do exist, notably the 5000m - these usually have athletes starting in a pack at a start line before paddling around a set course with marked turning points. For each race a number of heats, semi-finals and a final may be necessary, the sport is governed by the International Canoe Federation. The International Canoe Federation is the worldwide canoeing organization and creates the rules for the different disciplines of canoe/kayak competition. The ICF recognizes several competitive and non-competitive disciplines of canoeing, of which Sprint, on the whole, Europe has dominated the sport, winning over 90 per cent of all available medals. The official boats recognized by the ICF as International Boats are, K1, K2, K4, C1, C2 and C4, originally, width restrictions were also enforced, these were revoked in 2000, spurring a flurry of innovations in boat designs. Modern boats are made of carbon fiber, aramid fiber with epoxy resin. In a kayak, the paddler is seated in the direction of travel, kayaks have a rudder for steering and course adjustment, which is operated by the feet of the paddler in the front. The paddle used is usually a wing paddle - wing paddles have blades which are shaped to resemble a wing or spoon, creating lift and increasing the power and stability of the stroke. In Canada, a racing class exists for the C-15 or WC or War Canoe, an antiquated boat class is the C-7, resembling a large C4 which was debuted by the ICF with little success. For racing canoes, the blade is short and broad. The shaft will typically be longer than a canoe paddle. More recent designs of canoe racing paddles often have a bent shaft
9.
Whitewater canoeing
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Whitewater canoeing is the sport of paddling a canoe on a moving body of water, typically a whitewater river. Whitewater canoeing can range from simple, carefree gently moving water, to demanding, River rapids are graded like ski runs according to the difficulty, danger or severity of the rapid. Whitewater grades range from I or 1 to VI or 6, Grade/Class I can be described as slightly moving water with ripples. Grade/Class VI can be described as severe or almost unrunnable whitewater, the canoe used in casual whitewater canoeing is different from those used in whitewater racing. Traditionally, canoes were made of bark, sewn with tree roots. Early whitewater boats were made of wood followed by aluminium and later fiberglass or kevlar, followed by more exotic materials including spectra, vectran. Boats can range in size from barely long enough to hold the paddler, up to 12 ft or longer for solo boats, paddling on rivers, lakes and oceans is as old as the Stone Age. The raft, the catamaran, the canoe and the kayak evolved depending on the needs, the modern day canoe most likely originated about 8,000 years ago. The Greek, Herodotus, 484-425 BC, wrote in his diaries about boats with which merchandise was brought from Armenia to Babylon. The boats were made of a framework that was covered with animal skins. Mules hauled the precious skins back to Armenia, the Scot, John MacGregor published in 1866 the book A Thousand Miles in the Roy Rob Canoe. The timing was right and the became a resounding success. There are several sub-categories in whitewater canoeing, River running can be thought of as a tour down a river, River running includes short day trips as well as longer multi-day trips. Canoes with gear typically are not commonly used above class IV whitewater without portages, sometimes, open touring canoes with gear used on multi-day trips are fitted with fabric spraycovers. Whitewater racing is the aspect of this sub-category, racing canoes down a river as fast as possible. Creeking is perhaps best thought of as a subcategory of river running, involving very technical and difficult rapids, creek boats usually have increased rocker, or rise, on the bow to go up and over obstacles and obstructions within the river. Extreme racing is a form of this aspect of whitewater canoeing, in which canoers race down steep sections. Slalom is a competitive form of canoeing, and the only whitewater event to appear in the Olympic Games
10.
Playboating
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Specialised canoes or kayaks known as playboats are often used, but any boat can be used for playing. The moves and tricks are similar to those performed by snowboarders, surfers or skaters. With modern playboats it is possible to get the kayak and the paddler completely airborne while performing tricks, the competitive side of playboating is known as freestyle kayaking. Playspots are typically stationary features on rivers, in standing waves, hydraulic jumps, holes and stoppers. Basic moves consist of front- and back-surfing, spins through any of the three axes, air screws, cartwheels and air loops, stalls with the vertical on either end. The playboater usually aims to stay surfing the feature after performing each move, more complex moves are made up of combinations of these moves. These moves are scored by the International Canoe Federation, and are used in official competitions worldwide and these moves were more popular before short playboats were invented, but remain the foundation of several current moves. Ender An ender is performed by sinking the bow of the boat deep into swift moving water, popup A popup is an ender, followed by quickly leaning back to cause the boat to pop up out of the water like a cork. Pirouette A pirouette is when the boater turns during an ender, squirt A basic squirt is performed when crossing a strong eddyline. As soon as the crosses the eddyline, a back sweep is performed while dropping the upstream edge of the stern. The stern of the boat should sink, and the boat will rotate in the direction of the currents and you can then develop this into a cartwheel. Double pump This is the move at the beginning of a making the boat go up on its side. Mystery Move The paddler completely submerges the kayak and themself, front Surf A front surf involves remaining on a feature of the river without being washed downstream. From this position, many moves can be initiated, Back Surf A back surf is identical to the front surf, but with the boat facing downstream. This is most often accomplished by transitioning through a move such as a spin, cartwheel, Back surfing is slightly harder than front surfing. Side Surf A side surf is done with the boat oriented perpendicular to the current, the paddler must lean downstream and raise their upstream edge to maintain this position. This move is easier to learn because it is the position a kayak will move. Carving Carving involves moving back and forth across the face of a feature and this is accomplished by tilting the boat at an angle while using the paddle to press against the water near the downstream end of the boat
11.
Canoeing at the Summer Olympics
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Canoeing and kayaking have been featured as competition sports in the Summer Olympic Games since the 1936 Games in Berlin, although they were demonstration sports at the 1924 Games in Paris. There are two disciplines of canoeing in Olympic competition, slalom and sprint, two styles of boats are used in this sport, canoes with 1 or 2 canoers and kayaks with 1,2 or 4 kayakers. This leads to the designation of each event. For example, C-1 is a singles event and K-2 is a kayak doubles event. Races are usually 500 metres or 1000 metres long, although there were also 10 km events from 1936 to 1956, the other events for men at 200 m will be C-1, K-1, and K-2. This was confirmed at their 2009 Board of Directors meeting in Windsor, Berkshire, the following tables shows which events were contested at each Games. Updated after the 2016 Summer Olympics List of Olympic venues in canoeing
12.
Dugout canoe
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A dugout canoe or simply dugout is a boat made from a hollowed tree trunk. Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon, monoxylon is Greek -- mono- + ξύλον xylon -- and is mostly used in classic Greek texts. In Germany they are called einbaum, some, but not all, pirogues are also constructed in this manner. Dugouts are the oldest boats archaeologists have found, dating back about 8,000 years to the Neolithic Stone Age and this is probably because they are made of massive pieces of wood, which tend to preserve better than, e. g. bark canoes. Along with bark canoe and hide kayak, dugout boats were used by indigenous peoples of the Americas. Construction of a dugout begins with the selection of a log of suitable dimensions, sufficient wood needed to be removed to make the vessel relatively light in weight and buoyant, yet still strong enough to support the crew and cargo. Specific types of wood were often preferred based on their strength, durability, the shape of the boat is then fashioned to minimize drag, with sharp ends at the bow and stern. First the bark is removed from the exterior, before the appearance of metal tools, dugouts were hollowed out using controlled fires. The burnt wood was removed using an adze. Another method using tools is to chop out parallel notches across the span of the wood, then split out. Once hollowed out, the interior was dressed and smoothed out with a knife or adze, more primitive designs keep the trees original dimensions, with a round bottom. However, it is possible to carefully steam the sides of the hollow log until they are pliable, for travel in the rougher waters of the ocean, dugouts can be fitted with outriggers. One or two smaller logs are mounted parallel to the hull by long poles. In the case of two outriggers, one is mounted on either side of the hull, the Dufuna canoe from Nigeria is an 8000-year-old dugout, the oldest boat discovered in Africa, and the third-oldest worldwide. African Teak is the timber favoured for their construction, though this comprises a number of different species, dugouts are called pirogues in Francophone areas of Africa. A 8000-year-old dugout canoe was found by archaeologists in Kuahuqiao, Zhejiang Province and this is the earliest canoe found in Asia. The Moken, an group that lives in Myanmars Mergui Archipelago. It is now on display in front of the Municipal Town Hall, here many dugouts were made from linden wood, for several reasons
13.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
14.
Composite material
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The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for reasons, common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter. More recently, researchers have begun to actively include sensing, actuation, computation and communication into composites. The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding environments, the earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. Ancient brick-making was documented by Egyptian tomb paintings, wattle and daub is one of the oldest man-made composite materials, at over 6000 years old. Concrete is also a material, and is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic metres of concrete are made each year—more than one metre for every person on Earth. 2181–2055 BC and was used for death masks Cob Mud Bricks, concrete was described by Vitruvius, writing around 25 BC in his Ten Books on Architecture, distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of lime mortars. For structural mortars, he recommended pozzolana, which were volcanic sands from the beds of Pozzuoli brownish-yellow-gray in colour near Naples. Natural cement-stones, after burning, produced cements used in concretes from post-Roman times into the 20th century, the glass fiber is relatively strong and stiff, whereas the polymer is ductile. Thus the resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, flexible, concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of loose stones held with a matrix of cement. Concrete is a material, and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force. However, concrete cannot survive tensile loading, therefore, to give concrete the ability to resist being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high stretching forces, are often added to concrete to form reinforced concrete. Fibre-reinforced polymers or FRPs include carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer or CFRP, and glass-reinforced plastic or GRP, if classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short fiber thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There are numerous thermoset composites, including paper composite panels, many advanced thermoset polymer matrix systems usually incorporate aramid fibre and carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix. Shape memory polymer composites are high-performance composites, formulated using fibre or fabric reinforcement and they can also be reheated and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties. These composites are ideal for such as lightweight, rigid, deployable structures, rapid manufacturing. Although high strain composites exhibit many similarities to shape memory polymers, Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix composites or ceramic matrix composites, which includes bone, cermet and concrete
15.
Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
16.
Sail
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A sail derives power from the wind to provide motive power for sailing craft, including sailing ships, sailboats, windsurfers, ice boats, and sail-powered land vehicles. Sails mobilize lift and drag properties as air passes along the surface, in most cases sails are supported directly by a mast rigidly attached to the sailing craft or on a wire stay attached to the mast, however some craft employ a flexible mount for a mast. Sails also employ spars and battens to help determine their shape, as a result, sails come in a variety of shapes that include both triangular and quadrilateral configurations, usually with curved edges that promote three-dimensional curvature of the sail. Kites also power certain sailing craft, but do not employ a mast to support the airfoil and are beyond the scope of this article, sailing craft employ two types of rig, the square rig and the fore-and-aft rig. The square rig carries the primary driving sails are carried on horizontal spars and these spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the square rig is aerodynamically most efficient when running. A fore-and-aft rig consists of sails that are set along the line of the rather than perpendicular to it. Vessels so rigged are described as fore-and-aft rigged, archaeological studies of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture ceramics show use of sailing boats from the sixth millennium onwards. Excavations of the Ubaid period in Mesopotamia provides direct evidence of sailing boats, Sails from ancient Egypt are depicted around 3200 BCE, where reed boats sailed upstream against the River Niles current. Ancient Sumerians used square rigged sailing boats at about the same time, the proto-Austronesian words for sail, lay, and other rigging parts date to about 3000 BCE when this group began their Pacific expansion. Greeks and Phoenicians began trading by ship by around 1,200 BCE, northern Europeans were resistant to adopting the fore-and-aft rig, despite having seen its use in the course of trade and during the Crusades. The lateen sail proved to have better performance for smaller vessels. Aerodynamic forces on sails depend on speed and direction and the speed. The direction that the craft is traveling with respect to the wind is called the point of sail. The speed of the craft at a point of sail contributes to the apparent wind —the wind speed. Depending on the alignment of the sail with the apparent wind, for apparent wind angles aligned with the entry point of the sail, the sail acts as an airfoil and lift is the predominant component of propulsion. For apparent wind angles behind the sail, lift diminishes and drag increases as the predominant component of propulsion, because of limitations on speed through the water, displacement sailboats generally derive power from sails generating lift on points of sail that include close-hauled through broad reach. Downwind sailing with a spinnaker Each rig is configured in a sail plan, a sail plan is a set of drawings, usually prepared by a naval architect which shows the various combinations of sail proposed for a sailing ship
17.
Outrigger
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An outrigger is a projecting structure on a boat, with specific meaning depending on types of vessel. An outrigger describes any contraposing float rigging beyond the side of a boat to improve the vessels stability, if a single outrigger is used it is usually but not always windward. In an outrigger canoe and in such as the proa. The outrigger is positioned rigidly and parallel to the hull so that the main hull is less likely to capsize. If only one outrigger is used on a vessel, its weight reduces the tendency to capsize in one direction, on a keelboat, outrigger refers to a variety of structures by which the running rigging may be attached outboard of the boats hull. The Racing Rules of Sailing generally prohibit such outriggers, though they are permitted on specific classes. In fishing from vessels, an outrigger is a pole or series of poles that allow boats to trawl more lines in the water without tangling, in a rowing boat or galley, an outrigger is a triangular frame that holds the rowlock away from the saxboard to optimize leverage. Wing-riggers are made by manufacturers of racing shells which are reinforced arcs or form a single projection akin to aircraft wings instead of conventional thin metal triangular structures. Outrigger canoe Outrigger canoe racing Racing shell Sailing canoe Training wheels
18.
Outboard motor
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An outboard motor is a propulsion system for boats, consisting of a self-contained unit that includes engine, gearbox and propeller or jet drive, designed to be affixed to the outside of the transom. They are the most common motorized method of propelling small watercraft, as well as providing propulsion, outboards provide steering control, as they are designed to pivot over their mountings and thus control the direction of thrust. The skeg also acts as a rudder when the engine is not running, unlike inboard motors, outboard motors can be easily removed for storage or repairs. In order to eliminate the chances of hitting bottom with an outboard motor and this helps when traveling through shallow waters where there may be debris that could potentially damage the motor as well as the propeller. Large outboards are usually bolted to the transom, and are linked to controls at the helm, small outboard motors, up to 15 horsepower or so are easily portable. They are affixed to the boat via clamps, and thus moved from boat to boat. These motors typically use a manual system, with throttle and gearshift controls mounted on the body of the motor. To provide auxiliary power for sailboats, for trolling aboard larger craft, in this application, the motor is frequently installed on the transom alongside and connected to the primary outboard to enable helm steering. In addition many small manufacturers have begun offering variants with power trim/tilt. Pump-jet propulsion is available as an option on most outboard motors, although less efficient than an open propeller, they are particularly useful in applications where the ability to operate in very shallow water is important. They also eliminate the dangers of an open propeller. The first known outboard motor was a small 5 kilogram electric unit designed around 1870 by Gustave Trouvé, later about 25 petrol powered outboards may have been produced in 1896 by American Motors Co—but neither of these two pioneering efforts appear to have had much impact. The Waterman outboard engine appears to be the first real gasoline-powered outboard offered for sale, the inboard boat motor firm of Caille Motor Company of Detroit were instrumental in making the cylinder and engines. The most successful early outboard motor, was created by Norwegian-American inventor Ole Evinrude in 1909, between 1909 and 1912, Evinrude made thousands of his outboards and the three horse units were sold around the world. His Evinrude Outboard Co. was spun off to other owners, the 1920s were the first high-water mark for the outboard with Evinrude, Johnson, ELTO, Atwater Lockwood and dozens of other makers in the field. Historically, a majority of outboards have been two-stroke powerheads fitted with a due to the designs inherent simplicity, reliability, low cost. Drawbacks include increased pollution, due to the volume of unburned gasoline and oil in their exhaust. In the early 1980s Honda Motor Co. introduced its first four-stroke powerhead, in 1984, Yamaha introduced their first four-stroke powerhead
19.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
20.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
21.
Frances Anne Hopkins
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Frances Anne Hopkins was a British painter. She was the third of Frederick William Beecheys five children, in 1858, she married a Hudsons Bay Company official, Edward Hopkins, whose work took him to North America. While sailing, she was able to sketch extensively, therefore, Hopkins was active in the field of painting, during the 1860s and 70s. Her best-known works are large paintings made from her sketches. She portrayed a voyageurs life in the mid-nineteenth century, Hopkins, however, remained unknown not until recently. At the same time, considering that, she was an artist placed in a context where gender-imposed restrictions were prevalent. In fact, Frances Anne Hopkins was dubbed as a woman who staked out an identity based on difference, the Hopkins’ family soon returned to England in 1870 where she lived until her death. Hopkins was an artist able to record an important aspect of Canadian history, Frances Anne Hopkins was the daughter of Frederick William Beechey, a hydrographer and a Rear Admiral in the Royal Navy, and Charlotte Stapleton. She was born in London, England on 2 February 1838, Hopkins was from an upper middle-class family. There is a question whether her status had granted her access to education and she came from a family of artists and Arctic explorers. His father Sir Frederick was a water-colourist, Hopkins aunt Anne Phyllis Beechey who was also known as Lady Beechey was a miniaturist. Her grandfather Sir William Beechey was also a painter and a member of the Royal Academy of Arts. This conjecture of gaining an education, however, has not been supported by any existing records, Hopkins’ paintings and drawings, although, suggest an exemplify of trained artistry, possibly at home. At an early age, she married Edward Martin Hopkins, a Hudsons Bay Company Secretary Governor at St. Saviours Church and he was previously married to Anne Ogden, they had three children together before she died of cholera. His husbands work would bring her on a journey that would provide subjects for her art pieces, Frances Anne Hopkins and her husband Edward Hopkins, along with Edward’s three sons from a previous marriage, moved to Lachine, Lower Canada shortly after their marriage in 1858. The Hopkins family moved to Lachine, as Edward worked there as a secretary for Sir George Simpson, Hopkins’ stay in Lower Canada differed greatly from the lives of her female counterparts in London, who, like Hopkins, were from wealthy English families. In London, these counterparts mostly led “quiet, uneventful lives largely within the precincts of the studio. ”In contrast to that. Some of her subjects included the Hopkins family’s house and garden, which was on the shore of the St. Lawrence River, the next door, the Lachine pier
22.
Island Carib language
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Island Carib, also known as Igneri, was an Arawakan language historically spoken by the Island Caribs of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Island Carib proper became extinct about 1920, but an offshoot survives as Garifuna, despite its name, Island Carib was not closely related to the Carib language of the mainland Caribs. Instead, it appears to have been a development of the Arawakan language spoken by the islands earlier Igneri inhabitants, during the French colonial period, Carib men also spoke a Cariban-derived pidgin amongst themselves. At the time of European contact, the Island Caribs lived throughout the Windward Islands of the Lesser Antilles, contemporary traditions indicated the Caribs had conquered these islands from their previous inhabitants, the Igneri. Because the Island Caribs were thought to have descended from the mainland Caribs of South America, modern scholars have proposed several hypotheses accounting for the prevalence of an Arawak language among the Island Caribs. Scholars such as Irving Rouse suggested that Caribs from South America conquered the Igneri but did not displace them, others doubt there was an invasion at all. Sued Badillo proposed that Igneri living in the Lesser Antilles adopted the Carib identity due to their close economic, in any event, the fact that the Island Caribs language evidently derived from a pre-existing Arawakan variety has led some linguists to term it Igneri. It appears to have been as distinct from Taíno as from mainland Arawak varieties, during the period of French colonization in the 17th century, and possibly earlier, male Island Caribs used a Cariban-based pidgin in addition to the Arawakan Island Carib language. The pidgin was evidently similar to one used by mainland Caribs to communicate with their Arawak neighbors, berend J. Hoff and Douglas Taylor hypothesized that it dated to the time of the Carib expansion through the islands, and that males maintained it to emphasize their origins. However, scholars who doubt the existence of a Carib invasion suggest this pidgin was a later development acquired by contact with the Caribs of the mainland. Island Carib was extinct by the 1920s, but an offshoot, Garifuna, is still spoken by the Garifuna people living mainly in Central America
23.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
24.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
25.
Aboriginal Australians
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Aboriginal Australians are legally defined as people who are members of the Aboriginal race of Australia. Until the 1980s, the legal and administrative criterion for inclusion in this category was race. In the era of colonial and post-colonial government, access to human rights depended upon your race. If you were a full blooded Aboriginal native, the Constitution of Australia, in its original form as of 1901, referred to Aboriginals twice, but without definition. Section 51 gave the Commonwealth parliament power to legislate with respect to the people of any throughout the Commonwealth. The purpose of this provision was to give the Commonwealth power to regulate non-white immigrant workers, the only other reference, Section 127, provided simply that aboriginal natives shall not be counted in reckoning the size of the population of the Commonwealth or any part of it. The purpose of section 127 was to prevent the inclusion of Aboriginal people in section 24 determinations of the distribution of House of Representatives seats amongst the states and territories, after both of these references were removed by the 1967 referendum, the Australian Constitution had no references to Aboriginals. Since that time, there have been a number of proposals to amend the constitution to specifically mention Indigenous Australians, the change to Section 51 gave the Commonwealth parliament the power to make laws specifically with respect to Aboriginal peoples as a race. The case concerned an application of legislation that would preserve cultural heritage of Aboriginal Tasmanians and it was held that Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, together or separately, and any part of either, could be regarded as a race for this purpose. As to the criteria for identifying a person as a member of such a race, Deane said, It is unnecessary, for the purposes of the present case, to consider the meaning to be given to the phrase people of any race in s.51. Plainly, the words have a wide and non-technical meaning, the phrase is, in my view, apposite to refer to all Australian Aboriginals collectively. Any doubt, which might otherwise exist in regard, is removed by reference to the wording of par. The phrase is also apposite to refer to any identifiable racial sub-group among Australian Aboriginals, while Deanes three-part definition reaches beyond the biological criterion to individuals self-identification, it has been criticised as continuing to accept the biological criterion as primary. It has been difficult to apply, both in each of its parts and as to the relations among the parts, biological descent has been a fall-back criterion. If it is to be used to refer to us as a group of people. This has just really crept up on us and we are very happy with our involvement with indigenous people around the world, on the international forum because theyre our brothers and sisters. But we do object to it being used here in Australia and her lecture offered a new perspective on the terms urban, traditional and of Indigenous descent as used to define and categorise Aboriginal Australians. She said, Not only are these categories inappropriate, they serve to divide us, governments insistence on categorising us with modern words like urban, traditional and of Aboriginal descent are really only replacing old terms half-caste and full-blood – based on our colouring
26.
Amazon basin
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The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about 7,500,000 km2 and it is located in the countries of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela. Most of the basin is covered by the Amazon Rainforest, also known as Amazonia, with a 5,500,000 km2 area of dense tropical forest, this is the largest rainforest in the world. The Amazon River rises in the Andes Mountains at the west of the basin with its tributary the Marañón River in Peru. It is usually considered to be the second longest river in the world, however, a team of Brazilian scientists has claimed that the Amazon is the longest river in the world. It covers about 6,400 km before draining into the Atlantic Ocean, the Amazon and its tributaries form the largest volume of water. The Amazon accounts for about 20% of the water carried to the oceans by rivers. Some of the Amazon rainforests are deforested because of the increasing of cattle ranches, the highest point in the watershed of the Amazon is the peak of Yerupajá at 6,635 m. The Amazon basin formerly flowed west to Pacific Ocean until the Andes formed, politically the basin is divided into the Brazilian Amazônia Legal, the Peruvian Amazon, the Amazon region of Colombia and parts of Bolivia, Ecuador and the Venezuelan state of Amazonas. Plant growth is dense and its variety of inhabitants is comparatively high due to the heavy rainfall. Little sunlight reaches the ground due to the roof canopy by plants. The ground remains dark and damp and only shade tolerant vegetation will grow here, orchids and bromeliads exploit trees and other plants to get closer to the sunlight. They grow hanging onto the branches or tree trunks with aerial roots, not as parasites, species of tropical trees native to the Amazon include Brazil nut, rubber tree and Assai palm. More than 1,400 species of mammals are found in the Amazon and its larger mammals include the jaguar, ocelot, capybara and South American tapir. About 1500 bird species inhabit the Amazon Basin, the biodiversity of the Amazon and the sheer number of diverse bird species is given by the number of different bird families that reside in these humid forests. An example of such would be the family, to which the Guianan cock-of-the-rock belong. Birds such as toucans, and hummingbirds are found here. Macaws are famous for gathering by the hundreds along the cliffs of the Amazon River
27.
Hymenaea
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Hymenaea L. is a genus in the flowering plant family Fabaceae. Of fourteen living species in the genus, all but one are native to the tropics of the Americas, some authors place the African species in a separate monotypic genus, Trachylobium. In the neotropics, Hymenaea is distributed through the Caribbean islands, linnaeus named the genus in 1753 in Species Plantarum for Hymenaios, the Greek god of marriage ceremonies. The name is a reference to the paired leaflets, most species of Hymenaea are large trees and they are primarily evergreen. They may grow to a height of 25 m and emerge above the forest canopy, some species will grow both as tall forest trees and as smaller shrubby trees depending on their surrounding habitat. The leaves are bifoliolate, meaning that they have two leaflets attached to the sides of the petiole. The flowers grow in a panicle or corymb type of inflorescence, the pulpy center of the fruits are edible and contain starch. The fruit is sold in markets in the Americas. The leaves may be used to make a tea, the trees produce a dense wood used for timber in making ships and furniture. The thick bark of species is used by indigenous peoples of the Amazon to make canoes. Seeds contain large amounts of a viscous polysaccharide which can be used in several industrial sectors such as food, paper, cosmetic. The trees also make hard resins that are used to manufacture varnish, the resin that is produced in Brazil is known as South American copal, and Hymenaea verrucosa is the source of the valuable Zanzibar copal. Resin may be collected from living trees, or from the soil near the place where a tree once stood, throughout its American range, indigenous peoples use the resin for incense and as a cement. Resin from the extinct species Hymenaea protera is the source of Dominican amber, Hymenaea courbaril has been used as a model organism to study the effect of increased CO2 concentration on the rate of photosynthesis in neotropical regions. When the concentration of CO2 was increased from an ambient reference level of 360ppm to 720ppm, Hymenaea courbaril is a very important species in programmes of recuperation of degraded rain forests in the Neotropics. It appears late in the regeneration process being classified as a late successional or climax species. Costa P. M. F. Dietrich S. M. C, Buckeridge M. S. Effect of atmospheric CO2 enrichment on the establishment of seedlings of jatobá, Hymenaea courbaril L. Biota Neotropica. Carbon sequestration in the rain forest, alternatives using environmentally friendly biotechnology, a Field Guide to the Families and Genera of Woody Plants of Northwest South America
28.
Pacific Northwest canoes
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Masterfully designed canoes of many sizes and forms were made on the Pacific Northwest coast of North America. They were the form of transportation for the indigenous people of the area until long after European colonisation. In recent years, the craft of canoe-making has been revived, like those made in traditional times, they have proved eminently seaworthy. The canoes are made by carving from solid logs, usually of red cedar, typically these boats were widened beyond the original diameter of the log by the spreading of the steam-softened sides. Spreading does more than widen the canoe, it introduces major changes of form throughout the hull which the canoemaker must anticipate in carving the log. The straight and level gunwales bend smoothly out and down, while the ends rise, forming a graceful sheer, in order to spread without splitting, the walls of the hull are made remarkably thin. When the hull is completely carved, water is poured into it to a depth of six inches or so, the resulting steam is confined by covering the open hull with mats. The hot rocks are replaced as needed to keep the water at a boil, the softened sides, heated through by the steam inside and fires outside, begin to move outward, aided by the weight of water and rocks pressing down in the centre. Spreading sticks are tapped into place between the gunwales, and are moved towards the ends and increased in length in the centre as the sides flare outward. When the planned beam and form are reached, the canoe is allowed to cool, the water is removed, and the thwarts, bow and stern blocks, and gunwale caps are fitted and fastened in place. Large travelling and war canoes were often painted with designs associated with the names of the canoes or the crests of the owners, the canoes were used for transport up and down the coast. They were used for trade, as war canoes, and in competitions, emily Carr, who grew up in the early days of Victoria, British Columbia, describes a regatta in which the Indian races were the highlight. The canoes, of ten paddlers and a steersman acting as coxswain, in 1937 Betty Lowman Carey became the first woman to row single-handed the Inside Passage of British Columbia in a dugout canoe. Altogether they travelled some 4,500 miles after two months at sea
29.
Thuja plicata
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Thuja plicata is among the most widespread trees in the Pacific Northwest. It is associated with Douglas-fir and western hemlock in most places where it grows and it is found at the elevation range of sea level to a maximum of 2,290 m above sea level at Crater Lake in Oregon. In addition to growing in forests and mountainsides, western redcedar is also a riparian tree, growing in many forested swamps. The tree is shade-tolerant and able to reproduce under dense shade and it has been introduced to other temperate zones, including western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, the eastern United States, and higher elevations of Hawaii. The species is naturalized in Britain, Thuja plicata is a large to very large tree, ranging up to 65 to 70 m tall and 3 to 4 m in trunk diameter, exceptionally even larger. Trees growing in the open may have a crown that reaches the ground, whereas trees densely spaced together will exhibit a crown only at the top and it is long-lived, some individuals can live well over a thousand years, with the oldest verified being 1460 years. The foliage forms flat sprays with scale-like leaves in opposite pairs, the foliage sprays are green above and green marked with whitish stomatal bands below, they are strongly aromatic, with a scent reminiscent of pineapple when crushed. The individual leaves are 1 to 4 mm long and 1 to 2 mm broad on most foliage sprays, the cones are slender,10 to 18 mm long, and 4 to 5 mm broad, with 8 to 12 thin, overlapping scales. They are green to yellow-green, ripening brown in fall about six months after pollination, the seeds are 4 to 5 mm long and 1 mm broad, with a narrow papery wing down each side. The pollen cones are 3 to 4 mm long, red or purple at first, Thuja plicata is one of two Thuja species native to North America, the other being Thuja occidentalis. The species name derives from the Latin word plicare, meaning folded in plaits or braided. In the American horticultural trade, it is known as the giant arborvitae. Other names include giant redcedar, Pacific redcedar, shinglewood, British Columbia cedar, canoe cedar, arborvitae comes from the Latin for tree of life, coincidentally, Native Americans of the West coast also address the species as long life maker. The Quinault Lake Redcedar was the largest known western redcedar in the world, the Quinault Lake Redcedar was 174 feet tall with a diameter of 19.5 feet at breast height. The Quinault Lake Red Cedar was destroyed by a series of storms in 2014 and 2016 and is now only a glorified stump, the second largest is the Cheewhat Lake Cedar, in Pacific Rim National Park Reserve on Vancouver Island, at 15,870 cubic feet. The tallest known individual is the Willaby Creek Tree south of Lake Quinault,195 feet in height, the fifth known largest was the Kalaloch Cedar in the Olympic National Park, at 12,370 cubic feet, until it was destroyed by storm in March 2014. A redcedar over 71 m tall,4.5 m in diameter and that tree now lies in Giants Grave, a self dug grave created by the force of its own impact. The soft red-brown timber has a tight, straight grain and few knots and it is valued for its distinct appearance, aroma, and its high natural resistance to decay, being extensively used for outdoor construction in the form of posts, decking, shingles, and siding
30.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
31.
Bark (botany)
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Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines, and shrubs, Bark refers to all the tissues outside of the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and consists of the bark and the outer bark. The inner bark, which in older stems is living tissue, the outer bark in older stems includes the dead tissue on the surface of the stems, along with parts of the innermost periderm and all the tissues on the outer side of the periderm. The outer bark on trees which lies external to the last formed periderm is also called the rhytidome, Bark has been used to make cloth, canoes, and ropes and used as a surface for paintings and map making. A number of plants are grown for their attractive or interesting bark colorations. What is commonly called bark includes a number of different tissues, Cork is an external, secondary tissue that is impermeable to water and gases, and is also called the phellem. The cork is produced by the cork cambium which is a layer of active cells which serve as a lateral meristem for the periderm. The cork cambium, which is called the phellogen, is normally only one cell layer thick. The phelloderm, which is not always present in all barks, is a layer of cells formed by, together, the phellem, phellogen and phelloderm constitute the periderm. Cork cell walls contain suberin, a substance which protects the stem against water loss, the invasion of insects into the stem. The cambium tissues, i. e. Phloem is a nutrient-conducting tissue composed of sieve tubes or sieve cells mixed with parenchyma, the cortex is the primary tissue of stems and roots. In stems the cortex is between the layer and the phloem, in roots the inner layer is not phloem. From the outside to the inside of a woody stem. The bark includes through, and is composed of periderm and phloem, as the stem ages and grows, changes occur that transform the surface of the stem into the bark. The epidermis is a layer of cells that cover the plant body, including the stems, leaves, flowers and fruits, in old stems the epidermal layer, cortex, and primary phloem become separated from the inner tissues by thicker formations of cork. Due to the cork layer these cells die because they do not receive water. This dead layer is the rough corky bark that forms around tree trunks, often a secondary covering called the periderm forms on small woody stems and many non woody plants, which is composed of cork, the cork cambium, and the phelloderm
32.
Birch
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A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula, in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae, the genus Betula contains 30 to 60 known taxa of which 11 are on the IUCN2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are a typically rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in northern temperate, Birch species are generally small to medium-sized trees or shrubs, mostly of northern temperate and boreal climates. The simple leaves are alternate, singly or doubly serrate, feather-veined and they often appear in pairs, but these pairs are really borne on spur-like, two-leaved, lateral branchlets. The fruit is a samara, although the wings may be obscure in some species. They differ from the alders in that the female catkins are not woody and disintegrate at maturity, falling apart to release the seeds, unlike the woody, cone-like female alder catkins. The bark of all birches is characteristically marked with long, horizontal lenticels and its decided color gives the common names gray, white, black, silver and yellow birch to different species. The buds form early and are grown by midsummer, all are lateral, no terminal bud is formed. The wood of all the species is close-grained with satiny texture, staminate aments are pendulous, clustered or solitary in the axils of the last leaves of the branch of the year or near the ends of the short lateral branchlets of the year. They form in autumn and remain rigid during the winter. The scales of the staminate aments when mature are broadly ovate, rounded, yellow or orange color below the middle, each scale bears two bractlets and three sterile flowers, each flower consisting of a sessile, membranaceous, usually two-lobed, calyx. Each calyx bears four short filaments with one-celled anthers or strictly, the pistillate aments are erect or pendulous, solitary, terminal on the two-leaved lateral spur-like branchlets of the year. The pistillate scales are oblong-ovate, three-lobed, pale yellow green often tinged with red and these scales bear two or three fertile flowers, each flower consisting of a naked ovary. The ovary is compressed, two-celled, and crowned with two styles, the ovule is solitary. Each scale bear a small, winged nut that is oval. Betula species are organised into five subgenera, pendula and B. pubescens confused, though they are distinct species with different chromosome numbers. This root is derived from *bʰreh₁ǵ- ‘to shine’, in reference to the birchs white bark. The Proto-Germanic rune berkanan is named after the birch, the generic name betula is from Latin, which is a diminutive borrowed from Gaulish betua
33.
Samuel de Champlain
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Samuel de Champlain, The Father of New France, was a French navigator, cartographer, draftsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler. He founded New France and Quebec City on July 3,1608 and he is important to Canadian history because he made the first accurate map of the coast and he helped establish the settlements. Born into a family of mariners, Champlain, while still a man, began exploring North America in 1603 under the guidance of François Gravé Du Pont. Then, in 1608, he established the French settlement that is now Quebec City, Champlain was the first European to explore and describe the Great Lakes, and published maps of his journeys and accounts of what he learned from the natives and the French living among the Natives. He formed relationships with local Montagnais and Innu and later with others farther west, with Algonquin and with Huron Wendat, in 1620, Louis XIII of France ordered Champlain to cease exploration, return to Quebec, and devote himself to the administration of the country. In every way but formal title, Samuel de Champlain served as Governor of New France and he established trading companies that sent goods, primarily fur, to France, and oversaw the growth of New France in the St. Lawrence River valley until his death in 1635. The most notable of these is Lake Champlain, which straddles the border between northern New York and Vermont, extending slightly across the border into Canada. Champlain was born to Antoine Champlain and Marguerite Le Roy, in either Hiers-Brouage, or the city of La Rochelle. He was born on or before August 13,1574 according to a recent baptism record found by Jean-Marie Germe, although Léopold Delayant wrote as early as 1867 that Rainguets estimate was wrong, the books of Rainguet and Laverdière have had a significant influence. The 1567 date was carved on numerous monuments dedicated to Champlain and is regarded as accurate. In the first half of the 20th century, some authors disagreed, in 1978 Jean Liebel published groundbreaking research about these estimates of Champlains birth year and concluded, Samuel Champlain was born about 1580 in Brouage, France. Liebel asserts that some authors, including the Catholic priests Rainguet and Laverdière, Champlain claimed to be from Brouage in the title of his 1603 book, and to be Saintongeois in the title of his second book. The exact location of his birth is also not known with certainty. Born into a family of mariners, Samuel Champlain learned to navigate, draw, make nautical charts and his education did not include Ancient Greek or Latin, so he did not read or learn from any ancient literature. During this time he claimed to go on a secret voyage for the king. By 1597 he was a capitaine dune compagnie serving in a garrison near Quimper, in 1598, his uncle-in-law, a navigator whose ship Saint-Julien was chartered to transport Spanish troops to Cádiz pursuant to the Treaty of Vervins, gave Champlain the opportunity to accompany him. After a difficult passage, he spent some time in Cadiz before his uncle, whose ship was chartered to accompany a large Spanish fleet to the West Indies. His uncle, who gave command of the ship to Jeronimo de Valaebrera and this journey lasted two years, and gave Champlain the opportunity to see or hear about Spanish holdings from the Caribbean to Mexico City
34.
Georgian Bay
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Georgian Bay is a large bay of Lake Huron, located entirely within Ontario, Canada. The main body of the bay lies east of the Bruce Peninsula, to its northwest is the North Channel. Georgian Bay is surrounded by the districts of Manitoulin, Sudbury, Parry Sound and Muskoka, as well as the more populous counties of Simcoe, Grey, the Main Channel separates the Bruce Peninsula from Manitoulin Island and connects Georgian Bay to the rest of Lake Huron. The shores and waterways of the Georgian Bay are the domain of the Anishinaabeg First Nations peoples to the north. The bay was thus a major Algonquian-Huron trade route, Samuel de Champlain, the first European to explore and map the area in 1615–1616, called it La Mer douce, also a reference to the bays freshwater. It was named Georgian Bay by Lieutenant Henry Wolsey Bayfield of the Royal Navy in 1822, Georgian Bay is about 190 kilometres long by 80 kilometres wide. It covers approximately 15,000 square kilometres, making it nearly 80% the size of Lake Ontario. If Georgian Bay were considered a lake in its own right, it would be the fourth largest lake located entirely within Canada after Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake and Lake Winnipeg. Eastern Georgian Bay is part of the edge of the Canadian Shield, granite bedrock exposed by the glaciers at the end of the last ice age. The granite rock formations and windswept eastern white pine are characteristic of the islands, the rugged beauty of the area inspired landscapes by artists of the Group of Seven. The western part of the bay, from Collingwood north, and including Manitoulin, Drummond, Cockburn and St. Joseph islands, there are tens of thousands of islands in Georgian Bay. Most of these islands are along the east side of the bay and are known as the Thirty Thousand Islands. Manitoulin Island, lying along the side of the bay, is the worlds largest island in a freshwater lake. The Trent–Severn Waterway connects Georgian Bay to Lake Ontario, running from Port Severn in the corner of Georgian Bay through Lake Simcoe into Lake Ontario near Trenton. Further north, Lake Nipissing drains into Georgian Bay through the French River, in October 2004, the Georgian Bay Littoral was declared a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO. Archeological records reveal an Aboriginal presence in the regions of the Canadian Shield dating from 11,000 years ago. Evidence of later Paleo-Indian settlements have found on Manitoulin Island. At the time of European contact, the Ojibwe and Ottawa First Nations, the Huron and Tionontati inhabited the lands along the southern coast, having migrated from the northern shores of Lake Ontario
35.
George Catlin
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George Catlin was an American painter, author, and traveler who specialized in portraits of Native Americans in the Old West. Travelling to the American West five times during the 1830s, Catlin was the first white man to depict Plains Indians in their native territory, George Catlin was born in Wilkes-Barre, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. As a child growing up in Pennsylvania, Catlin had spent many hours hunting, fishing and his fascination with Native Americans was kindled by his mother, who told him stories of the western frontier and how she was captured by a tribe when she was a young girl. Years later, a group of Native Americans came through Philadelphia dressed in their colorful outfits and his early work included engravings, drawn from nature, of sites along the route of the Erie Canal in New York State. St. Louis became Catlin’s base of operations for five trips he took between 1830 and 1836, eventually visiting fifty tribes. He visited eighteen tribes, including the Pawnee, Omaha, and Ponca in the south and the Mandan, Hidatsa, Cheyenne, Crow, Assiniboine, there he produced the most vivid and penetrating portraits of his career. Catlin traveled with his Indian Gallery to major cities such as Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and he hung his paintings salon style—side by side and one above another. Visitors identified each painting by the number on the frame, as listed in Catlins catalogue, soon afterward, he began a lifelong effort to sell his collection to the U. S. government. The touring Indian Gallery did not attract the paying public Catlin needed to stay financially sound, in 1839 Catlin took his collection across the Atlantic for a tour of European capitals. As a showman and entrepreneur, he initially attracted crowds to his Indian Gallery in London, Brussels, the French critic Charles Baudelaire remarked on Catlin’s paintings, He has brought back alive the proud and free characters of these chiefs, both their nobility and manliness. Catlin wanted to sell his Indian Gallery to the U. S. government to have his life’s work preserved intact and his continued attempts to persuade various officials in Washington, D. C. to buy the collection failed. In 1852 he was forced to sell the original Indian Gallery, now 607 paintings, the industrialist Joseph Harrison acquired the paintings and artifacts, which he stored in a factory in Philadelphia, as security. Catlin spent the last 20 years of his trying to re-create his collection. This second collection of paintings is known as the Cartoon Collection, in 1841 Catlin published Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians, in two volumes, with approximately 300 engravings. Three years later he published 25 plates, entitled Catlin’s North American Indian Portfolio, from 1852 to 1857 he traveled through South and Central America and later returned for further exploration in the Far West. The record of later years is contained in Last Rambles amongst the Indians of the Rocky Mountains. Paintings of his Spanish American Indians are published, in 1872, Catlin traveled to Washington, D. C. at the invitation of Joseph Henry, the first secretary of the Smithsonian. Until his death later that year in Jersey City, New Jersey, in 1879 Harrison’s widow donated the original Indian Gallery, more than 500 works, along with related artifacts, to the Smithsonian
36.
Quito
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It is located in the Guayllabamba river basin, on the eastern slopes of Pichincha, an active stratovolcano in the Andes mountains. With a population of 2,671,191 according to the last census, Quito is the second most populous city in Ecuador and it is also the capital of the Pichincha province and the seat of the Metropolitan District of Quito. The canton recorded a population of 2,239,191 residents in the 2010 national census, in 2008, the city was designated as the headquarters of the Union of South American Nations. The historic center of Quito has one of the largest, least-altered and best-preserved historic centers in the Americas, Quito and Kraków, Poland, were the first World Cultural Heritage Sites declared by UNESCO, in 1978. The central square of Quito is located about 25 kilometres south of the equator, a monument and museum marking the general location of the equator is known locally as la mitad del mundo, to avoid confusion, as the word ecuador is Spanish for equator. Quitos origins date back to the first millennium, when the Quitu tribe occupied the area, according to Juan de Velascos 1767 book Historia del Reino de Quito, the Quitu were conquered by the Caras tribe, who founded the Kingdom of Quito about 980 AD. For more than four centuries, Quito was ruled under the kings, Caras and their allies were narrowly defeated in the epic battles of Tiocajas and Tixán in 1462, by an army of 250,000 led by Túpac Inca, the son of the Emperor of the Incas. After several decades of consolidation, the Kingdom of Quito became integrated into the Incan Empire, in 1534, the Caras/Quitu people were conquered by the Spanish. Rumiñahui was then executed on January 10,1535, on March 14,1541, Quito was declared a city and on February 14,1556, was given the title Muy Noble y Muy Leal Ciudad de San Francisco de Quito, starting at this point its urban evolution. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a Real Audiencia of Spain and became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and its administration on both Viceroyalties remained to Quito. As with other places colonized by the Spanish, the colonizers promptly established Roman Catholicism in Quito, the first church was in fact built even before the city had been officially founded. In January 1535, the San Francisco Convent was constructed, the first of about 20 churches, the Spanish converted the indigenous population to Christianity and used them as labor for construction. In 1743, after nearly 300 years of Spanish colonization, Quito was a city of about 10,000 inhabitants, on August 10,1809, an independence movement from Spanish domination started in Quito. On that date, a plan for government was established that placed Juan Pío Montúfar as president with various prominent figures in other positions of government. However, this movement was ultimately defeated on August 2,1810. A chain of conflicts concluded on May 24,1822, when Antonio José de Sucre, under the command of Simón Bolívar and their victory marked the independence of Quito and the surrounding areas. In 1833, members of the Society of Free Inhabitants of Quito were assassinated by the government after they conspired against it, and on March 6,1845, later, in 1875, the countrys president, Gabriel García Moreno, was assassinated in Quito. Two years later, in 1877, Archbishop José Ignacio Checa y Barba was killed by poisoning while he was celebrating Mass, in 1882, insurgents arose against the regime of dictator Ignacio de Veintimilla
37.
Cupressus nootkatensis
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Cupressus nootkatensis is a species of trees in the cypress family native to the coastal regions of northwestern North America. This species goes by common names including, Nootka cypress, yellow cypress, Alaska cypress, Nootka cedar, yellow cedar, Alaska cedar. However, this placement does not fit with the morphology and phenology of the cones, genetic evidence, published by Gadek et al. strongly supported its return to Cupressus and exclusion from Chamaecyparis. Published in 1864 but overlooked or ignored by subsequent authors. Little et al. therefore synonymised Xanthocyparis with Callitropsis, the name for these species under the ICBN when treated in a distinct genus. The name Xanthocyparis has now proposed for conservation, and the 2011 International Botanical Congress followed that recommendation. In 2010, Mao et al. performed a detailed molecular analysis. However, this is disputed, as the tree would compose a monophyletic subgenus, the argument that it warrants treatment as a monotypic genus is not without merit, in which case the correct name is Callitropsis nootkatensis. Nootka cypress is native to the west coast of North America, from the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska and it is typically occurring on wet sites in mountains, often close to the tree line, but sometimes also at lower altitudes. Cupressus nootkatensis is a tree growing up to 40 meters tall. The foliage is in flat sprays, with green, 3–5 mm long scale-leaves. The Caren Range on the west coast of British Columbia is home to the oldest Nootka Cypress specimens in the world, in Alaska, where the tree is primarily referred to as yellow cedar, extensive research has been conducted into large-scale die-offs of yellow cedar stands. These studies have concluded that the tree has depended upon heavy coastal snowpacks to insulate its shallow roots from cold Arctic winters, the impacts of climate change have resulted in thinner, less-persistent snowpacks, in turn causing increased susceptibility to freeze damage. This mortality has been observed over 7% of the species range, substantial future mortality is likely due to warming temperatures and decreasing snowpacks. The U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service is reviewing whether to designate the species as threatened or endangered and this species has been considered to be one of the finest timber trees in the world and has been exported to China during the last century. The wood has been used for flooring, interior finish and shipbuilding The various physical properties of the make it an attractive material for both general construction and boat building. Due to its slow growth it is hard and, like other cypress woods it is durable, it offers good dimensional stability, and is resistant to weather, insects. It works easily with hand or machine tools, it turns and it can be fastened with glues, screws, and nails
38.
Quinault people
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The Quinault are a group of Native American peoples from western Washington in the United States. They are a Southwestern Coast Salish people and are enrolled in the federally recognized Quinault Tribe of the Quinault Reservation, the name Quinault is an anglicized version of kʷínayɬ, the name of a village at the mouth of the Quinault River, today called Taholah. The river, village, and people were given the anglicized name Quinault in 1787 by the fur trader Charles William Barkley. It has an area of 819.294 km² and reported a resident population of 1,370 persons as of the 2000 census. The Quinault people settled onto reservation lands after signing the Quinault Treaty with the former Washington Territory in 1856, about 60% of the reservations population lives in the community of Taholah, on the Pacific coast at the mouth of the Quinault River. Motorists are cautioned that it is not possible to traverse the entire reservation on Highway 109, construction of the highway north from Taholah to U. S. Highway 101 was halted in the late 1960s. There is only limited access along the northern coast of the reservation, currently, only enrolled members of the Quinault Indian Nation and their guests are allowed onto the beaches throughout the reservation. However guests are able to obtain access passes that allow them to use the beaches for the day issued. The mixture of members with ethnic ties to the modern Quinault tribe is made up of the Quinault, Hoh, Chehalis, Chinook, Cowlitz, Queets, linguistically, these groups belong to three language families, Chimakuan, Chinookan, and Salishan. The Quinault people have been noted basket makers and weavers, baskets were made from locally available materials such as reeds and grasses, spruce, maple and red cedar, and in many styles suited to the task at hand. For instance, burden baskets made for gathering oysters and other shellfish had an open weave to allow for drainage, Quinault basket artifacts are in many museums in the Northwest and around the world. The following were notable basket weavers of the Quinault prior to 1960, many tribes within the Pacific Northwest receive per capita payments from their tribes but the Quinault Indian Nation currently does not. The economy for Quinault Indian Nation is mainly derived from the Quinault Beach Resort and Casino, timber, Quinault Indian Nation is the largest employer within Grays Harbor County
39.
Ktunaxa
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Four bands form the Ktunaxa Nation and the kindred Shuswap Indian Band in British Columbia. The Kootenai were allied with the Shuswap historically and through intermarriage, another group has federal recognition as the Kootenai Tribe of Idaho. Small populations of Kootenai living in eastern Washington are part of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, the Kutenai language is an isolate, unrelated to the languages of neighboring peoples. Canada - British Columbia Ktunaxa Nation Council Lower Kootenay First Nation St. Marys First Nation Tobacco Plains First Nation, in Montana they are known as Ksanka. Ktunaxa is the autonym or what the people call themselves and it is pronounced Ta-na-ha, with a barely perceptible ‘k’ sound at the beginning of the word. British and American traders adopted and anglicised a term used by the Blackfoot in their language, in some of their tribal organizations and activities, the Ktunaxa identify as Kootenay, or as spelled in Montana, Kootenai. This history focuses on the Creston Band of the Lower Kootenay, scholars have numerous ideas about the origins of the Ktunaxa. One theory is that originally lived on the prairies, and were driven across the Rockies by the competing Blackfoot people or by famine. Some Upper Kootenay participated in a Plains Native lifestyle for part of the year and they were relatively well known to the Blackfoot, and sometimes their relations with them were in the form of violent confrontation over food competition. Some Ktunaxa remained on or returned to the year round, they had a settlement near Fort Macleod. This group of Ktunaxa suffered high mortality rates, partly because of the depredations of the Blackfoot, with numbers sharply reduced, these Plains Ktunaxa returned to the Kootenay region of British Columbia. Some of the Ktunaxa say that their ancestors came originally from the Great Lakes region of Michigan, to date, scholars have not found either archeological or historic evidence to support this account. The Ktunaxa territory in British Columbia has archeological sites with some of the oldest man-made artifacts in Canada and it has not been proven that these artifacts were left by ancestors of the Ktunaxa or by another, possibly Salishan, group. Human occupation of the Kootenay Rockies by 11,500 before the present has been demonstrated by dated sites with evidence of quarrying and flint-knapping, especially of quartzite and tourmaline. This oldest assemblage of artifacts is known as the Goatfell Complex, named after the Goatfell region about 40 km east of Creston, British Columbia on Highway 3. These artifacts have been found at quarries in Goatfell, Harvey Mountain, Idaho, Negro Lake and Kiakho Lake, North Star Mountain just west of Creston on Highway 3, and at Blue Ridge. All these sites are within 50 km of Creston, with the exception of Blue Ridge, in addition, it appears that the technology was local. No evidence supports conjecture that the regions first inhabitants emigrated from this area, choquette concludes that the Ktunaxa today are the descendants of those first people to inhabit the land
40.
Kootenay Lake
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Kootenay Lake is a lake located in British Columbia, Canada and is part of the Kootenay River. The lake has been raised by the Corra Linn Dam and has a system at the southern end. The Kootenay Lake ferry is a year-round toll-free ferry that crosses between Kootenay Bay and Balfour and is the longest free ferry in the world. The lake is a summer tourist destination. Kootenay Lake is a long, narrow and deep fjord-like lake located between the Selkirk and Purcell mountain ranges in the Kootenay region of British Columbia and it is one of the largest lakes in British Columbia, at 104 km in length and 3–5 km in width. It is, in part, a widening of the Kootenay River, although oriented primarily in a north-south configuration, a western arm positioned roughly halfway up the length of the lake stretches 35 km to the City of Nelson. The lake is 532m above sea level, with the adjacent mountains rising up to a maximum of approximately 2700m, the average residence for water in the lake is 1.5 years, although the west arm has a much faster rate of water replacement, about 3–4 days. Kootenay Lake was formed through erosion and, later, glaciation. The erosion began during the late Cretaceous until ice filled the valley in the Pleistocene. When the valley was filled with ice, glaciers from the mountains fed the ice mass. The glacier that occupied what is now the west arm of Kootenay Lake flowed into the Kootenay ice mass, as the ice melted from this glacier, drainage flowed over an area near what is now Nelson, causing the west arm of the lake to drain toward the west. A large moraine formed near what is now the large bend in the Kootenay River near Libby, as ice melted, a lake formed behind the moraine and drained southward over top of it. The southerly drainage over the moraine eventually stopped and the Kootenay River began to follow its present course, Kootenay Lake is part of the traditional territory of the Sinixt and Ktunaxa peoples. These native populations used the lake and associated river systems as part of their seasonal migration, in 1958 the Kootenay Lake Crossing, an electrical power line, was built, running across the north arm of Kootenay Lake. It was destroyed in 1962 by protestors and rebuilt later that year, the lake originally seasonally flooded an approximately 80 km long marsh lying to the lakes south within the Creston Valley. However, this has now been diked and converted to commercial agriculture, a smaller wetland area has been protected in this area. In 1931, Corra Linn Dam was built at the outflow from Kootenay Lake, the dam provides flood control and winter power generation by raising the normal water level by two meters. Just down river is Bonnington Falls, today the site of several hydroelectric dams, in 2003 the lake discharged 16.9 billion cubic metres of water
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Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)
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Sir Alexander Mackenzie was a Scottish explorer. He is known for his crossing of what is now Canada to reach the Pacific Ocean in 1793. This was the first east to west crossing of North America north of Mexico and preceded the Lewis, in 1764, Mackenzie was born at Luskentyre House in Stornoway on the Isle of Lewis. He was the third of the four children born to Kenneth Corc Mackenzie and his wife Isabella MacIver, when only fourteen years old, Mackenzies father served as an ensign to protect Stornoway during the Jacobite rising of 1745. He later became a merchant and held the tack of Melbost, his grandfather being a brother of Murdoch Mackenzie. Educated at the school as Colin Mackenzie, he sailed to New York City with his father to join an uncle, John Mackenzie, in 1774. In 1776, during the American War of Independence, his father and uncle resumed their military duties, by 1778, for his safety as a son of loyalists, young Mackenzie was either sent, or accompanied by two aunts, to Montreal. By 1779, Mackenzie had an apprenticeship with Finlay, Gregory & Co. one of the most influential fur trading companies at Montreal. In 1787, the merged with the North West Company. On behalf of the North West Company Mackenzie travelled to Lake Athabasca where, in 1788 and he had been sent to replace Peter Pond, a partner in the North West Company. From Pond, he learned that the First Nations people understood that the rivers flowed to the northwest. As he ended up reaching the Arctic Ocean on 14 July, the river was later renamed the Mackenzie River in his honour. In 1791, Mackenzie returned to Great Britain to study the new advance in the measurement of longitude, upon his return in 1792, he set out once again to find a route to the Pacific. From there he travelled to a fork on the Peace River arriving 1 November where he and this later became known as Fort Fork. Mackenzie left Fort Fork on 9 May 1793 following the route of the Peace River and he was instead directed to follow a grease trail by ascending the West Road River, crossing over the Coast Mountains and descending the Bella Coola River to the sea. He followed this advice and reached the Pacific coast on 20 July 1793 at Bella Coola, British Columbia, on North Bentinck Arm, thus, he completed the first recorded transcontinental crossing of North America north of Mexico, beating Lewis and Clark by 12 years. He had unknowingly missed meeting George Vancouver at Bella Coola by 48 days and he had wanted to continue westward out of a desire to reach the open ocean, but was stopped by the hostility of the Heiltsuk people. Hemmed in by Heiltsuk war canoes, he wrote a message on a rock near the edge of Dean Channel, using a reddish paint made of vermilion and bear grease
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David Thompson (explorer)
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David Thompson was a British-Canadian fur trader, surveyor, and map-maker, known to some native peoples as Koo-Koo-Sint or the Stargazer. Over Thompsons career, he travelled some 90,000 kilometres across North America, for this historic feat, Thompson has been described as the greatest land geographer who ever lived. Thompson was born in Westminster to recent Welsh migrants, David and he eventually graduated to the Grey Coat mathematical school and was introduced to basic navigation skills which would form the basis of his future career. In 1784, at the age of 14, he entered an apprenticeship with the Hudsons Bay Company. He set sail on 28 May of that year, and left England and he arrived in Churchill and was put to work copying the personal papers of the governor of Fort Churchill, Samuel Hearne. On 23 December 1788, Thompson seriously fractured his leg, forcing him to spend the two winters at Cumberland House convalescing. It was during this time he refined and expanded his mathematical, astronomical. It was also during this time that he lost sight in his right eye and he then entered the employ of the Hudsons Bay Company as a fur trader and in 1792 completed his first significant survey, mapping a route to Lake Athabasca. In recognition of his skills, the company promoted him to surveyor in 1794. Thompsons decision to defect to the North West Company in 1797 without providing the customary one-year notice was not well received by his former employers. However, joining the North West Company allowed Thompson to pursue his interest in surveying and work on mapping the interior of what was to become Canada. By 1798 Thompson had completed a survey of 6,750 km from Grand Portage, through Lake Winnipeg, to the headwaters of the Assiniboine and Mississippi Rivers, in 1798, the company sent him to Red Deer Lake to establish a trading post. The English translation of Lac la Biche-Red Deer Lake-first appeared on the Mackenzie map of 1793, Thompson spent the next few seasons trading based in Fort George, and during this time led several expeditions into the Rocky Mountains. However, a decision was made at the 1806 company meeting to send Thompson back out into the interior, after the general meeting in 1806, Thompson travelled to Rocky Mountain House and prepared for an expedition to follow the Columbia River to the Pacific. In June 1807 Thompson crossed the Rocky Mountains and spent the summer surveying the Columbia basin, Thompson mapped and established trading posts in Northwestern Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Western Canada. Trading posts he founded included Kootenae House, Kullyspell House and Saleesh House and these posts established by Thompson extended North West Company fur trading territory into the Columbia Basin drainage area. The maps he made of the Columbia River basin east of the Cascade Mountains were of high quality. In early 1810, Thompson was returning eastward towards Montreal but while on route at Rainy Lake, received orders to return to the Rocky Mountains and establish a route to the mouth of the Columbia
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Lewis and Clark Expedition
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It began near St. Louis, made its way westward, and passed through the continental divide to reach the Pacific coast. The Corps of Discovery comprised a group of U. S. Army volunteers under the command of Captain Meriwether Lewis and his close friend, Second Lieutenant William Clark. The campaigns secondary objectives were scientific and economic, to study the plants, animal life, and geography. With maps, sketches, and journals in hand, the returned to St. Louis to report its findings to Jefferson. According to Thomas Jefferson himself, one goal was to find the most direct and practicable water communication across this continent, Jefferson also placed special importance on declaring U. S. The expedition made notable contributions to science, but scientific research was not the goal of the mission. During the 19th century, references to Lewis and Clark scarcely appeared in history books even during the United States Centennial in 1876, Lewis and Clark began to gain new attention around the start of the 20th century. Both the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition, in St. Louis, in 2004, a complete and reliable set of the expeditions journals was compiled by Gary E. Moulton. In the 2000s, the bicentennial of the expedition further elevated popular interest in Lewis, as of 1984, no U. S. exploration party was more famous, and no American expedition leaders are more instantly recognizable by name. In the 1780s, while Minister to France, Jefferson met John Ledyard in Paris, like Captain Cook, Jefferson also wished to discover a practical route through the Northwest to the Pacific coast. Alexander Mackenzie had already charted a route in his quest for the Pacific, Mackenzie and his party then became the first on record to cross America north of Mexico to the Pacific, when he arrived near Bella Coola in 1793—a dozen years before Lewis and Clark. Two years into his presidency, Jefferson asked Congress to fund an expedition through the Louisiana territory to the Pacific Ocean and he did not attempt to hide the Lewis and Clark expedition itself from Spanish, French, and British officials, but rather claimed different reasons for the venture. He used a message to ask for funding due to poor relations with the opposition party in Congress. In 1803, Jefferson commissioned the Corps of Discovery, and named U. S. Army Captain Meriwether Lewis its leader, Lewis demonstrated remarkable skills and potential as a frontiersman. As the expedition was gaining approval and funding, Jefferson made efforts to him for the long journey ahead. All the latter qualifications Capt. Lewis has, in 1803, Jefferson sent Lewis to Philadelphia to study medicinal cures under Benjamin Rush, a physician and humanitarian. Jefferson also arranged for Lewis to be educated by Andrew Ellicott. Lewis, however, was not ignorant of science and had demonstrated to Jefferson a marked capacity to learn, at Monticello, Jefferson possessed the largest library in the world on the subject of the geography of the North American continent, and Lewis had full access to that library
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North American fur trade
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The North American fur trade was the industry and activities related to the acquisition, trade, exchange, and sale of animal furs in North America. The 19th-century North American fur trade, when the industry was at its peak of importance, involved the development of elaborate trade networks. The fur trade became one of the economic ventures in North America attracting competition among the French, British, Dutch, Spanish. Indeed, in the history of the United States, capitalizing on this trade. Many Native American societies across the continent came to depend on the fur trade as their source of income. By the mid-1800s, however, changing fashions in Europe brought about a collapse in fur prices, the American Fur Company and some other companies failed. Many Native communities were plunged into poverty and consequently lost much of the political influence they once had. Cartier attempted limited fur trading with the First Nations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and he concentrated on trading for furs used as trimming and adornment. He overlooked the fur that would become the driving force of the fur trade in the north, the beaver pelt, the earliest European trading for beaver pelts dated to the growing cod fishing industry that spread to the Grand Banks of the North Atlantic in the 16th century. The new preservation technique of drying fish allowed the mainly Basque fishermen to fish near the Newfoundland coast, drying fish enabled gathering greater yields, which justified the economic cost and time of long voyages across the Atlantic. The fisherman sought suitable harbors with ample lumber to dry large quantities of cod and this generated their earliest contact with local Aboriginal peoples, with whom the fisherman began simple trading. The fishermen traded metal items for beaver robes made of sewn-together, native-tanned and they used the robes to keep warm on the long, cold return voyages across the Atlantic. These castor gras in French became prized by European hat makers in the half of the 16th century. The transition from a coastal trade into a permanent interior fur trade was formally marked with the foundation of Quebec on the St. Lawrence River in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain. What followed in the first half of the 17th century were strategic moves by both the French and the groups to further their own economic and geopolitical ambitions. Samuel de Champlain led the expansion while centralizing the French efforts, as native peoples had the primary role of suppliers in the fur trade, Champlain quickly created alliances with the Algonquin, Montagnais, and most importantly, the Huron to the west. The latter, an Iroquoian-speaking people, served as middlemen between the French on the St. Lawrence and nations in the pays den haut, Champlain supported the northern groups in their preexisting military struggle with the Iroquois Confederacy to the south. He secured the Ottawa River route to Georgian Bay, greatly expanding the trade, Champlain also sent young French men to live and work among the natives, most notably Étienne Brûlé, to learn the land, language, and customs, as well as to promote trade
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Hudson's Bay Company
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The Hudsons Bay Company, commonly referred to as The Bay, is a Canadian retail business group. HBCs head office is in the Simpson Tower in Toronto, Ontario, the company is listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange under the symbol HBC. It was once the worlds largest landowner, with the area of the Hudson Bay watershed, known as Ruperts Land, having 15% of North American acreage. From its long-time headquarters at York Factory on Hudson Bay, the company controlled the fur trade throughout much of the English, undertaking early exploration, its traders and trappers forged relationships with many groups of aboriginal peoples. Its network of trading posts formed the nucleus for later official authority in areas of Western Canada. By the mid-19th century, the company evolved into a business selling everything from furs to fine homeware. They quickly introduced a new type of client to the HBC – one that shopped for pleasure and not with skins, in July 2008, HBC was acquired by NRDC Equity Partners, which also owns the upmarket American department store Lord & Taylor. From 2008 to 2012, the HBC was run through a company of NRDC, Hudsons Bay Trading Company. Since 2012, the HBC directly oversees its Canadian subsidiaries Hudsons Bay and Home Outfitters, on 29 July 2013, the HBC announced its takeover of Saks, Inc. operator of the Saks Fifth Avenue brand. The merger was completed on 3 November 2013, in September 2015, HBC acquired the German department store chain Galeria Kaufhof and its Belgian subsidiary from Metro Group for $3.2 billion U. S. In May 2016, HBC announced it would expand to the Netherlands by taking over up to 20 former Vroom & Dreesmann sites by 2017, v&D was an historic Dutch department store chain that went bankrupt and shut down in early 2016. HBC said the expansion would cost CAD $340 million and create 2,500 jobs in the stores, the Dutch stores would operate under the Hudsons Bay and Saks Off Fifth brands. In January 2016, HBC announced it would also expand deeper in the space with its acquisition of online flash sales site. In the 17th century the French had a de facto monopoly on the Canadian fur trade with their colony of New France. Assuming this was Hudson Bay, they sought French backing for a plan to set up a trading post on the Bay, despite this refusal, in 1659 Radisson and Groseilliers set out for the upper Great Lakes basin. A year later returned with premium furs, evidence of the potential of the Hudson Bay region. Subsequently, they were arrested for trading without a licence and fined, determined to establish trade in the Hudson Bay, Radisson and Groseilliers approached a group of businessmen in Boston, Massachusetts to help finance their explorations. The Bostonians agreed on the plans merits but their speculative voyage in 1663 failed when their ship ran into pack ice in Hudson Strait, boston-based English commissioner Colonel George Cartwright learned of the expedition and brought the two to England to raise financing
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