1.
Cantilever (figure skating)
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The cantilever is a figure skating element. Similar to the eagle, the skater travels along a deep edge. With knees bent, the skater bends his or her back backwards and it was invented by Werner Groebli, better known as Mr. Frick, a long-time show skater with Ice Follies. More recently, it one of Ilia Klimkins signature moves
2.
Beam (structure)
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A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beams axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending, the loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beams support points. The total effect of all the acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile, length, historically beams were squared timbers but are also metal, stone, or combinations of wood and metal such as a flitch beam. Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads, the loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members. In light frame construction joists may rest on beams, in carpentry a beam is called a plate as in a sill plate or wall plate, beam as in a summer beam or dragon beam. In engineering, beams are of types, Simply supported - a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no moment resistance. Fixed - a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation, over hanging - a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end. Double overhanging - a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on both ends, continuous - a beam extending over more than two supports. Cantilever - a projecting beam fixed only at one end, trussed - a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss. In the beam equation I is used to represent the moment of area. It is commonly known as the moment of inertia, and is the sum, about the axis, of dA*r^2, where r is the distance from the neutral axis. Therefore, it not just how much area the beam section has overall. The greater I is, the stiffer the beam in bending, internally, beams experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress, there are some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them, then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates a moment, and, in turn
3.
Truss
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In engineering, a truss is a structure that consists of two-force members only, where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object. A two-force member is a component where force is applied to only two points. In this typical context, external forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members that are either tensile or compressive. For straight members, moments are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes, as is necessary for the links to be two-force members. A planar truss is one all members and nodes lie within a two dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes that extend into three dimensions. The top beams in a truss are called top chords and are typically in compression, the beams are called bottom chords. The interior beams are called webs, and the areas inside the webs are called panels, Truss derives from the Old French word trousse, from around 1200, which means collection of things bound together. The term truss has often used to describe any assembly of members such as a cruck frame or a couple of rafters. One engineering definition is, A truss is a single plane framework of individual structural member connected at their ends of forms a series of triangle to span a large distance, a truss consists of typically straight members connected at joints, traditionally termed panel points. Trusses are typically composed of triangles because of the stability of that shape. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed, in comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape. The joint at which a truss is designed to be supported is commonly referred to as the Munter Point, the simplest form of a truss is one single triangle. This type of truss is seen in a roof consisting of rafters and a ceiling joist. Because of the stability of this shape and the methods of used to calculate the forces within it. The traditional diamond-shape bicycle frame, which utilizes two conjoined triangles, is an example of a simple truss, a planar truss lies in a single plane. Planar trusses are used in parallel to form roofs and bridges. The depth of a truss, or the height between the upper and lower chords, is what makes it an efficient structural form, a solid girder or beam of equal strength would have substantial weight and material cost as compared to a truss. For a given span, a deeper truss will require less material in the chords, an optimum depth of the truss will maximize the efficiency
4.
Concrete slab
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A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal slabs of steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4 and 20 inches thick, are most often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving. Sometimes these thinner slabs, ranging from 2 inches to 6 inches thick, are called mud slabs, in many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building. These can either be ground-bearing or suspended slabs, in high rise buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level. On the technical drawings, reinforced concrete slabs are often abbreviated to r. c. c. slab or simply r. c, there are two main thermal considerations. The first is the question of insulating a floor slab, in older buildings, concrete slabs cast directly on the ground can drain heat from a room. In modern construction, concrete slabs are usually cast above a layer of such as expanded polystyrene. However, there are still uses for an uninsulated slab, typically in outbuildings which are not heated or cooled to room temperature. In those cases, casting the slab directly onto a substrate will maintain the slab at or near the temperature of the substrate throughout the year. The second consideration is the thermal mass, which applies to walls and floors. It is a disadvantage where the rooms are heated intermittently and require a response, as the concrete takes time to warm up. But it is an advantage in climates with large temperature swings. For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio, in all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated, Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This improves strength and prevents the slab from bending under its own weight, the corrugations run across the short dimension, from side to side. A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction, a waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions and it looks hollow from bottom. Reinforcement design A one-way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement only in its short-direction because the moment along long axes is so small that it can be neglected. When the ratio of the length of long direction to short direction of a slab is greater than 2 it can be considered as a one way slab. Long direction = ly Short direction = lx One way slab IF ly/lx >2 A two-way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement in both directions, if the ratio of the lengths of long and short side is less than two then moment in both direction should be considered in design
5.
Structural load
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Structural loads or actions are forces, deformations, or accelerations applied to a structure or its components. Loads cause stresses, deformations, and displacements in structures, assessment of their effects is carried out by the methods of structural analysis. Excess load or overloading may cause failure, and hence such possibility should be either considered in the design or strictly controlled. Mechanical structures, such as aircraft, satellites, rockets, space stations, ships, engineers often evaluate structural loads based upon published regulations, contracts, or specifications. Accepted technical standards are used for testing and inspection. Dead loads are static forces that are constant for an extended time. They can be in tension or compression, the term can refer to a laboratory test method or to the normal usage of a material or structure. Live loads are usually unstable or moving loads and these dynamic loads may involve considerations such as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of fluids, etc. An impact load is one time of application on a material is less than one-third of the natural period of vibration of that material. Cyclic loads on a structure can lead to damage, cumulative damage. These loads can be repeated loadings on a structure or can be due to vibration, structural loads are an important consideration in the design of buildings. Building codes require that structures be designed and built to safely resist all actions that they are likely to face during their service life, minimum loads or actions are specified in these building codes for types of structures, geographic locations, usage and materials of construction. Structural loads are split into categories by their originating cause, in terms of the actual load on a structure, there is no difference between dead or live loading, but the split occurs for use in safety calculations or ease of analysis on complex models. To meet the requirement that design strength be higher than maximum loads, building codes prescribe that, for structural design and these load factors are, roughly, a ratio of the theoretical design strength to the maximum load expected in service. The dead load includes loads that are constant over time, including the weight of the structure itself. The roof is also a dead load, dead loads are also known as permanent or static loads. Building materials are not dead loads until constructed in permanent position, iS875-1987 give unit weight of building materials, parts, components. Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of short duration and these dynamic loads may involve considerations such as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of fluids and material fatigue
6.
Shear stress
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A shear stress, often denoted τ, is defined as the component of stress coplanar with a material cross section. Shear stress arises from the vector component parallel to the cross section. Normal stress, on the hand, arises from the force vector component perpendicular to the material cross section on which it acts. The formula to calculate average shear stress is force per unit area, τ = F A, where, τ = the shear stress, F = the force applied, A = the cross-sectional area of material with area parallel to the applied force vector. Pure shear stress is related to shear strain, denoted γ, by the following equation, τ = γ G where G is the shear modulus of the isotropic material. Here E is Youngs modulus and ν is Poissons ratio, beam shear is defined as the internal shear stress of a beam caused by the shear force applied to the beam. The beam shear formula is known as Zhuravskii shear stress formula after Dmitrii Ivanovich Zhuravskii who derived it in 1855. Shear stresses within a structure may be calculated by idealizing the cross-section of the structure into a set of stringers. Dividing the shear flow by the thickness of a portion of the semi-monocoque structure yields the shear stress. Any real fluids moving along solid boundary will incur a shear stress on that boundary, the no-slip condition dictates that the speed of the fluid at the boundary is zero, but at some height from the boundary the flow speed must equal that of the fluid. The region between two points is aptly named the boundary layer. For all Newtonian fluids in laminar flow the shear stress is proportional to the rate in the fluid where the viscosity is the constant of proportionality. However, for non-Newtonian fluids, this is no longer the case as for these fluids the viscosity is not constant, the shear stress is imparted onto the boundary as a result of this loss of velocity. Specifically, the shear stress is defined as, τ w ≡ τ = μ ∂ u ∂ y | y =0. For an isotropic Newtonian flow it is a scalar, while for anisotropic Newtonian flows it can be a second-order tensor too. On the other hand, given a shear stress as function of the flow velocity, the constant one finds in this case is the dynamic viscosity of the flow. On the other hand, a flow in which the viscosity were and this nonnewtonian flow is isotropic, so the viscosity is simply a scalar, μ =1 u. This relationship can be exploited to measure the shear stress
7.
Post and lintel
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In architecture, post and lintel is a building system where strong horizontal elements are held up by strong vertical elements with large spaces between them. This is usually used to hold up a roof, creating an open space beneath. The horizontal elements are called by a variety of names including lintel, header, architrave or beam, the use of wider elements at the top of the post, called capitals, to help spread the load, is common to many traditions. The trabeated system is a principle of Neolithic architecture, Ancient Indian architecture, Ancient Greek architecture. Other trabeated styles are the Persian, Lycian, Japanese, traditional Chinese, and ancient Chinese architecture, especially in northern China, the traditions are represented in North and Central America by Mayan architecture, and in South America by Inca architecture. In all or most of these traditions, certainly in Greece and India, the earliest versions developed using wood, timber framing, also using trusses, remains common for smaller buildings such as houses to the modern day. The biggest disadvantage to a post and lintel construction is the weight that can be held up. Ancient Roman architectures development of the allowed for much larger structures to be constructed. As with the Roman temple portico front and its descendents in later classical architecture, the classical orders of Greek origin were in particular retained in buildings designed to impress, even though they usually had little or no structural role. In architecture, a post-and-lintel or trabeated system refers to the use of horizontal beams or lintels which are borne up by columns or posts, the name is from the Latin trabs, beam, influenced by trabeatus, clothed in the trabea, a ritual garment. In India the style was used originally for wooden construction, but later the technique was adopted for stone structures for decorated load-bearing, post and lintel construction is one of four ancient structural methods of building, the others being the corbel, arch-and-vault, and truss. The two posts are under compression from the weight of the lintel above, the lintel will deform by sagging in the middle because the underside is under tension and the topside is under compression
8.
Cantilever bridge
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A cantilever bridge is a bridge built using cantilevers, structures that project horizontally into space, supported on only one end. Engineers in the nineteenth century understood that a bridge that was continuous across multiple supports would distribute the loads among them and this would result in lower stresses in the girder or truss and meant that longer spans could be built. Several nineteenth century engineers patented continuous bridges with hinge points mid-span, the use of a hinge in the multi-span system presented the advantages of a statically determinate system and of a bridge that could handle differential settlement of the foundations. Engineers could more easily calculate the forces and stresses with a hinge in the girder, heinrich Gerber was one of the engineers to obtain a patent for a hinged girder and is recognized as the first to build one. The Hassfurt Bridge over the Main river in Germany with a span of 124 feet was completed in 1867 and is recognized as the first modern cantilever bridge. The High Bridge of Kentucky by C, the Kentucky River Bridge spanned a gorge that was 275 feet deep and took full advantage of the fact that falsework, or temporary support, is not needed for the main span of a cantilever bridge. The most famous early cantilever bridge is the Forth Bridge and this bridge held the record for longest span in the world for seventeen years, until it was surpassed by the Quebec Bridge. Benjamin Baker illustrated the principles of the suspended span cantilever in the photo on the left. The suspended span, where Kaichi Watanabe sits, is seen in the center, the need to resist compression of the lower chord is seen in the use of wooden poles while the tension of the upper chord is shown by the outstretched arms. The action of the foundations as anchors for the cantilever is visible in the placement of the counterweights. A simple cantilever span is formed by two arms extending from opposite sides of an obstacle to be crossed, meeting at the center. In a common variant, the span, the cantilever arms do not meet in the center, instead. The suspended span may be built off-site and lifted into place, thus, in a bridge built on two foundation piers, there are four cantilever arms, two which span the obstacle, and two anchor arms which extend away from the obstacle. Because of the need for strength at the balanced cantilevers supports. The Commodore Barry Bridge is an example of type of cantilever bridge. Steel truss cantilevers support loads by tension of the upper members, commonly, the structure distributes the tension via the anchor arms to the outermost supports, while the compression is carried to the foundations beneath the central towers. Many truss cantilever bridges use pinned joints and are statically determinate with no members carrying mixed loads. Prestressed concrete balanced cantilever bridges are built using segmental construction
9.
Balcony
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A balcony is a platform projecting from the wall of a building, supported by columns or console brackets, and enclosed with a balustrade, usually above the ground floor. The traditional Maltese balcony is a closed balcony projecting from a wall. By contrast, a Juliet balcony does not protrude out of the building and it is usually part of an upper floor, with a balustrade only at the front, like a small Loggia. Modern Juliet balconies often involve a metal barrier placed in front of a window which can be opened. Sometimes balconies are adapted for ceremonial purposes, e. g. that of St. Peters Basilica at Rome, inside churches, balconies are sometimes provided for the singers, and in banqueting halls and the like for the musicians. A unit with a regular balcony will have doors that open up onto a patio with railings. A French balcony is actually a false balcony, with doors that open to a railing with a view of the courtyard or the surrounding scenery below. In theatres, the balcony was formerly a stage-box, but the name is now confined to the part of the auditorium above the dress circle. One of the most famous uses of a balcony is in traditional stagings of the scene that has come to be known as the scene in William Shakespeares tragedy, Romeo. Manufacturers names for their balcony designs often refer to the origin of the design, italian balcony, Spanish balcony, Mexican balcony, Ecuadorian balcony
10.
Corbel
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In architecture a corbel is a structural piece of stone, wood or metal jutting from a wall to carry a superincumbent weight, a type of bracket. A corbel is a piece of material in the wall. A piece of projecting in the same way was called a tassel or a bragger in the UK. The technique of corbelling, where rows of corbels deeply keyed inside a support a projecting wall or parapet, has been used since Neolithic, or New Stone Age. A console is more specifically an S-shaped scroll bracket in the classical tradition, keystones are also often in the form of consoles. Whereas corbel is rarely used outside architecture, console is used for furniture, as in console table. The word corbel comes from Old French and derives from the Latin corbellus, a diminutive of corvus, similarly, the French refer to a bracket-corbel, usually a load-bearing internal feature, as a corbeau. Norman corbels often have an appearance, although they may be elaborately carved with stylised heads of humans, animals or imaginary beasts. Similarly, in the Early English period, corbels were sometimes carved, as at Lincoln Cathedral. Corbels sometimes end with a point apparently growing into the wall, or forming a knot, in the later periods the carved foliage and other ornaments used on corbels resemble those used in the capitals of columns. Throughout England, in work, wooden corbels abound, carrying window-sills or oriel windows in wood. The corbels carrying balconies in Italy and France were sometimes of great size and richly carved, taking a cue from 16th-century practice, the Paris-trained designers of 19th-century Beaux-Arts architecture were encouraged to show imagination in varying corbels. A corbel table is a moulded string course supported by a range of corbels. Sometimes these corbels carry a small arcade under the string course, as a rule the corbel table carries the gutter, but in Lombard work the arcaded corbel table was utilized as a decoration to subdivide the storeys and break up the wall surface. In Italy sometimes over the corbels will form a moulding, in modern chimney construction, a corbel table is constructed on the inside of a flue in the form of a concrete ring beam supported by a range of corbels. The corbels can be either in-situ or pre-cast concrete, the corbel tables described here are built at approximately ten metre intervals to ensure stability of the barrel of refractory bricks constructed thereon. In medieval architecture the technique was used to support upper storeys or a parapet projecting forward from the wall plane and this later became a decorative feature, without the openings. Corbelling supporting upper stories and particularly supporting projecting corner turrets subsequently became a characteristic of the Scottish baronial style, medieval timber-framed buildings often employ jettying, where upper stories are cantilevered out on projecting wooden beams in a similar manner to corbelling
11.
Forth Bridge
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The Forth Bridge is a cantilever railway bridge over the Firth of Forth in the east of Scotland,9 miles west of Edinburgh City Centre. It is considered an iconic structure and a symbol of Scotland and it was designed by the English engineers Sir John Fowler and Sir Benjamin Baker. It is sometimes referred to as the Forth Rail Bridge to distinguish it from the Forth Road Bridge, construction of the bridge began in 1882 and it was opened on 4 March 1890 by the Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII. The bridge spans the Forth between the villages of South Queensferry and North Queensferry and has a length of 8,094 feet. When it opened it had the longest single bridge span in the world. It continues to be the worlds second-longest single cantilever span, with a span of 1,709 feet, the bridge and its associated railway infrastructure are owned by Network Rail Infrastructure Limited. Prior to the construction of the bridge, ferry boats were used to cross the Firth. In 1806, a pair of tunnels, one for direction, was proposed. Experiments in late 1864 with weighted caissons achieved a pressure of 5 tons/ft2 on the silt, encouraging Bouch to continue with the design. In August 1865, Richard Hodgson, chairman of the NBR, proposed that the Company invest GB£18,000 to try a different kind of foundation, as the weighted caissons had not been successful. Bouch proposed using a large platform underneath the piers,80 by 60 by 7 feet weighed down with 10,000 tonnes of pig iron which would sink the wooden platform to the level of the silt. The platform was launched on 14 June 1866 after some difficulty in getting it to move down the greased planks it rested on, and then moored in the harbour for six weeks pending completion. In September 1866, a Committee of Shareholders investigating rumours of financial difficulties found that accounts had been falsified, and the chairman, by mid-1867 the NBR was nearly bankrupt, and all work on the Forth and Tay bridges was stopped. The North British Railway took over the ferry at Queensferry in 1867, after the Tay Bridge collapsed in 1879, confidence in Bouch dried up and the work stopped. After the disaster, which occurred in high winds for which Bouch had not properly accounted, the Board of Trade imposed a lateral wind allowance of 56 lbs/ft2. Bouchs design was abandoned on 13 January 1881, and Sir John Fowler, W. H. Barlow and T. E. Harrison. The Forth Bridge is 8,094 feet in length, and it consists of two main spans of 1,700 feet, two side spans of 680 ft, and 15 approach spans of 168 ft. Each main span consists of two 680 ft cantilever arms supporting a central 350 feet span truss, the weight of the bridge superstructure was 50,513 long tons, including the 6.5 million rivets used
12.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
13.
Truss bridge
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A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss, a structure of connected elements usually forming triangular units. The connected elements may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic loads, Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern bridges. The basic types of truss bridges shown in this article have simple designs which could be analyzed by 19th-. A truss bridge is economical to construct because it uses materials efficiently, the nature of a truss allows the analysis of the structure using a few assumptions and the application of Newtons laws of motion according to the branch of physics known as statics. For purposes of analysis, trusses are assumed to be pin jointed where the components meet. This assumption means that members of the truss will act only in tension or compression, a more complex analysis is required where rigid joints impose significant bending loads upon the elements, as in a Vierendeel truss. The central vertical member stabilizes the upper member, preventing it from buckling. If the top member is sufficiently stiff then this element may be eliminated. If the lower chord is sufficiently resistant to bending and shear, the vertical elements may be eliminated. The ability to distribute the forces in various ways has led to a variety of truss bridge types. In other cases the appearance of the structure may take on greater importance, a pure truss can be represented as a pin-jointed structure, one where the only forces on the truss members are tension or compression, not bending. This is used in the teaching of statics, by the building of bridges from spaghetti. Spaghetti is brittle and although it can carry a modest tension force, a model spaghetti bridge thus demonstrates the use of a truss structure to produce a usefully strong complete structure from individually weak elements. In 1820 a simple form of truss, Towns lattice truss, was patented, few iron truss bridges were built in the United States before 1850. Truss bridges became a type of bridge built from the 1870s through the 1930s. Examples of these still remain across the US, but their numbers are dropping rapidly. As metal slowly started to replace timber, wrought iron bridges in the US started being built on a scale in the 1870s. Bowstring truss bridges were a common truss design during this time, companies like the Massillon Bridge Company of Massillon, Ohio and the King Bridge Company of Cleveland, Ohio became well-known, as they marketed their designs to cities and townships
14.
Timber framing
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Timber framing and post-and-beam construction are methods of building with heavy timbers rather than dimensional lumber such as 2x4s. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating structures using heavy squared-off and it is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier. The method comes from making out of logs and tree trunks without modern high tech saws to cut lumber from the starting material stock. Since this building method has been used for thousands of years in parts of the world. These styles are categorized by the type of foundation, walls, how and where the beams intersect, the use of curved timbers. Three basic types of frames in English-speaking countries are the box frame, cruck frame. The distinction presented here is the load is carried by the exterior walls. Purlins are also in a timber frame. A cruck is a pair of crooked or curved timbers which form a bent or crossframe, more than 4,000 cruck frame buildings have been recorded in the UK. Several types of frames are used, more information follows in English style below. True cruck or full cruck, blades, straight or curved, base cruck, tops of the blades are truncated by the first transverse member such as by a tie beam. Raised cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and extend to the ridge, middle cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and are truncated by a collar. Upper cruck, blades land on a tie beam, very similar to knee rafters, jointed cruck, blades are made from pieces joined near eaves in a number of ways. See also, hammerbeam roof End cruck is not a style, aisled frames have one or more rows of interior posts. These interior posts typically carry more load than the posts in the exterior walls. This is the concept of the aisle in church buildings, sometimes called a hall church. However, a nave is often called an aisle, and three-aisled barns are common in the U. S. the Netherlands, aisled buildings are wider than the simpler box-framed or cruck-framed buildings, and typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as variations of a Ständerhaus, the frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building
15.
Jettying
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Jettying is a building technique used in medieval timber-frame buildings in which an upper floor projects beyond the dimensions of the floor below. This has the advantage of increasing the space in the building without obstructing the street. Jettied floors are also termed jetties, in the U. S. the most common surviving colonial version of this is the garrison house. Most jetties are external, but some early Medieval houses were built with internal jetties, a jetty is an upper floor that depends on a cantilever system in which a horizontal beam, the jetty bressummer, supports the wall above and projects forward beyond the floor below. The bressummer itself rests on the ends of a row of jetty beams or joists which are supported by jetty plates, jetty joists in their turn were slotted sideways into the diagonal dragon beams at angle of 45° by means of mortise and tenon joints. The overhanging corner posts are often reinforced by curved jetty brackets, the origins of jettying is unclear but some reasons put forward for their purpose are, To gain space. The structural advantage of the jettied wall counteracting forces in the joists or tying a stone wall together To shelter the walls of the house from the weather. Uses shorter timbers, a due to timber shortages and difficult handling of long timbers especially in city streets. As a status symbol or. symbol of wealth and status, jetties were popular in the 16th century but banned in Rouen in 1520 relating to air circulation and the plague, and London in 1667 relating to the great fire. They are considered a Gothic style, structurally, jetties are of several types, Framed on multiple joists. Framed on brackets added to the posts, hewn jetty also called a false jetty, Framed on projections of the posts rather than on cantilevered beams. The less substantial studs of the close studding along the walls above, the jetty beams are morticed at 45° into the sides of the dragon beams. They are the constituents of the cantilever system and they determine how far the jetty projects the jetty-plates. The jetty-plate itself is supported by the posts of the recessed floor below. Jettying was used for timber-framed buildings, but was succeeded by cantilever which are used for the reason as jettying. This is often utilised on buildings which are on a narrow plot, the Pennsylvania barn in the U. S. has a distinctive cantilever called a forebay, not a jetty. The traditional Turkish house is a house with a cantilevered or supported overhang called a cumba. The House of Opus Craticum built before 79 A. D. in Roman Herculaneum has a supported cantilever, cantilever – modern buildings still use cantilevered floors, but the term jettying is rarely used
16.
Pennsylvania barn
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A Pennsylvania barn is a type of banked barn built in the US from about 1790 to 1900. The styles most distinguishing feature is the presence of an overshoot or forebay and these barns were banked, that is set into a hillside to ensure easy access to both the basement and the level above. Almost all Pennsylvania barns have gable roofs, but the forebay, barn scholar Robert Ensminger classified the Pennsylvania barn into three types, Standard Pennsylvania, Sweitzer, and Extended Pennsylvania barns. The Pennsylvania style barns were built west of Pennsylvania and in Canada. The Standard Pennsylvania barn is the most numerous and widely distributed class of the Pennsylvania barns and these were built between 1790 and 1890. The key characteristic in identifying this type is the forebay is built in a way that the end is symmetrical with both front and rear walls being the same height. Sweitzer barns are known as Swetzer or Swisser. The name reflects the barns probable origin from Switzerland, the Sweitzer is the original Pennsylvania barn and was originally a log crib-type barn built between 1730 and 1850. The distinguishing feature of type of forebay barn is that the forebay projects in a way that the gable end is asymmetrical
17.
Log cabin
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A log cabin is a dwelling constructed of logs, especially a less finished or architecturally sophisticated structure. Log cabins have an ancient history in Europe, and in America are often associated with first generation home building by settlers, construction with logs was described by Roman architect Vitruvius Pollio in his architectural treatise De Architectura. He noted that in Pontus, dwellings were constructed by laying logs horizontally overtop of each other and filling in the gaps with chips, historically log cabin construction has its roots in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Although their origin is uncertain, the first log structures were probably being built in Northern Europe by the Bronze Age. C. A. Weslager describes Europeans as having. accomplished in building several forms of log housing, having different methods of corner timbering, Log saunas or bathhouses of this type are still found in rural Finland. By stacking tree trunks one on top of another and overlapping the logs at the corners and they developed interlocking corners by notching the logs at the ends, resulting in strong structures that were easier to make weather-tight by inserting moss or other soft material into the joints. As the original coniferous forest extended over the coldest parts of the world, the insulating properties of the solid wood were a great advantage over a timber frame construction covered with animal skins, felt, boards or shingles. Over the decades, increasingly complex joints were developed to ensure more weather tight joints between the logs, but the profiles were still based on the round log. It was also common to replace individual logs damaged by dry rot as necessary, the Wood Museum in Trondheim, Norway, displays fourteen different traditional profiles, but a basic form of log construction was used all over North Europe and Asia and later imported to America. Log construction was especially suited to Scandinavia, where straight, tall tree trunks are readily available, with suitable tools, a log cabin can be erected from scratch in days by a family. As no chemical reaction is involved, such as hardening of mortar, many older towns in Northern Scandinavia have been built exclusively out of log houses, which have been decorated by board paneling and wood cuttings. Today, construction of log cabins as leisure homes is a fully developed industry in Finland. Modern log cabins often feature fiberglass insulation and are sold as prefabricated kits machined in a factory, Log cabins are mostly constructed without the use of nails and thus derive their stability from simple stacking, with only a few dowel joints for reinforcement. This is because a log cabin tends to compress slightly as it settles, nails would soon be out of alignment and torn out. In the present-day United States, settlers may have first constructed log cabins by 1638, historians believe that the first log cabins built in North America were in the Swedish colony of Nya Sverige in the Delaware River and Brandywine River valleys. Many of its colonists were actually Forest Finns, because Finland was a part of Sweden at that time. New Sweden only briefly existed before it became the Dutch colony of New Netherland, the Swedish-Finnish colonists quick and easy construction techniques not only remained, but spread. Later German and Ukrainian immigrants also used this technique, the Scots and Scots-Irish had no tradition of building with logs, but they quickly adopted the method
18.
Falsework
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This usage is specifically called centering. The British Standards of practice for falsework, BS5975,1982, until the turn of the 20th century almost all falsework was constructed from timber. To compensate for shortages in different regions and to rationalize labor and material usage. The major developments include the design of devices, transitions to other spanning beams such as steel pipes or profiles or reusable timber beams. During the same period many different scaffolding systems were being developed around the world and these consisted of welded frames that could be slotted or clipped together to form access or support towers. The reduction in time and complexity led to reduced labor costs. Further developments have made scaffolding systems even easier to use, stronger systems have been introduced that either incorporate horizontal restraints at more levels or use stronger tubes or connections. Materials from which falsework systems are manufactured have also diversified from traditional steel, in the UK, BS5975 gives recommendations for the design and use of falsework on construction sites. It was first introduced by the British Standards Institute in March 1982 and was revised in March 1996. The code is currently under revision again, a copy was released in late 2007. Fabrication, Metalworkers fabricate a falsework section from pipe and beams, erection, A section is lifted to a vertical position with the assistance of two forklift operators. Placement, The section is guided into position by a ground crew, completed Falsework, Decking and some formwork has been added. When the supports are complete, wood beams and plywood or reusable metal forms will be placed, reinforcing and tenon conduits added, after curing and any tenon tensioning, wedges will be removed and forms and falsework disassembled. A certain type of bridge, the suspension bridge, must be supported during construction
19.
Truss arch bridge
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A truss arch bridge combines the elements of the truss bridge and the arch bridge. The actual resolution of forces will depend upon the design, if no horizontal thrusting forces are generated this becomes an arch-shaped truss, essentially a bent beam – see moon bridge for an example. If horizontal thrust is generated but the apex of the arch is a pin joint, if no hinge exists at the apex, it will normally be a two-hinged arch. In the Iron Bridge shown below, the structure of each frame emulates the kind of structure that previously had made of wood. Such rigid structures were developed in the 20th century as the Vierendeel truss. The Iron Bridge, the first metal bridge of any kind, maria Pia Bridge, Gustave Eiffels pioneering two-hinge arch. Hurricane Deck Bridge, the last remaining truss-type bridge on Lake of the Ozarks in central Missouri, i-35W Mississippi River bridge bridge that collapsed in 2007 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. Navajo Bridge and newer bridge of the general construction, each built as unsupported cantilevers joined with a central pin
20.
Navajo Bridge
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Navajo Bridge is a pair of steel spandrel arch bridges that cross the Colorado River near Lees Ferry in northern Arizona. The ferry site had been chosen as the relatively easy access to the river for both northbound and southbound travellers. By the 1920s, automobile traffic began using the service though it was not considered a safe and reliable crossing as adverse weather. The dedication of the bridge was on June 14–15,1929 with an official name of the Grand Canyon Bridge. The state legislature changed the name to Navajo Bridge five years later in 1934, the original bridge was closed to vehicular traffic and opened only for pedestrian and equestrian use once the new bridge was opened in 1995. Construction of the original Navajo Bridge began in 1927, and the bridge opened to traffic in 1929, the steel spandrel bridge design was constructed by the Kansas City Structural Steel Company. During construction, worker Lane McDaniel died after falling 470 feet to the Colorado River below, supervisors had rejected the idea of rigging safety netting, believing that it would catch on fire from falling hot rivets. The original bridge is 834 feet in length, with a height of 467 feet from the canyon floor. The roadway offers an 18-foot surface width with a capacity of 22.5 tons. By 1990, however, officials decided that the flow was too great for the original bridge. The bridge had become part of U. S. Route 89A. Deciding on a solution was difficult, due to the local interests. Issues included preservation of sacred Navajo land, endangered plant species in Marble Canyon, the original proposal called for merely widening and fortifying the bridge, but this was ultimately rejected as not able to meet contemporary federal highway standards. Replacement became the option, and it was eventually decided to entirely discontinue vehicular traffic on the original bridge. A new bridge would be built next to the original and have a considerably similar visual appearance. The new steel bridge was commissioned by the Arizona Department of Transportation and the Federal Highway Administration. A formal dedication was held on September 14,1995, the original bridge has been designated as a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark, and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 13,1981
21.
Cable-stayed bridges
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A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers, from which cables support the bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables run directly from the tower to the deck. The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans longer than cantilever bridges and this is the range where cantilever bridges would rapidly grow heavier if the span were lengthened, while suspension bridge cabling would not be more economical if the span were shortened. Cable-stayed bridges have been known since the 16th century and used widely since the 19th, early examples often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs, including the famous Brooklyn Bridge. The design fell from favor through the 20th century as larger gaps were bridged using pure suspension designs, Cable-stayed bridges date back to 1595, where designs were found in Machinae Novae, a book by Venetian inventor Fausto Veranzio. Their designers found that the combination of technologies created a stiffer bridge, john A. Roebling took particular advantage of this to limit deformations due to railway loads in the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge. Eduardo Torroja designed an aqueduct at Tempul in 1926. Albert Caquots 1952 concrete-decked cable-stayed bridge over the Donzère-Mondragon canal at Pierrelatte is one of the first of the modern type, the steel-decked Strömsund Bridge designed by Franz Dischinger is, therefore, more often cited as the first modern cable-stayed bridge. Other key pioneers included Fabrizio de Miranda, Riccardo Morandi, early bridges from this period used very few stay cables, as in the Theodor Heuss Bridge. However, this involves substantial erection costs, and more modern structures tend to use many more cables to ensure greater economy, Cable-stayed bridges may appear to be similar to suspension bridges, but in fact, they are quite different in principle and in their construction. In suspension bridges, large main cables hang between the towers and are anchored at each end to the ground and this can be difficult to implement when ground conditions are poor. The main cables, which are free to move on bearings in the towers, before the deck is installed, the cables are under tension from their own weight. Along the main cables smaller cables or rods connect to the bridge deck, as this is done, the tension in the cables increases, as it does with the live load of traffic crossing the bridge. The tension on the cables is transferred to the ground at the anchorages. Difference between types of bridges In the cable-stayed bridge, the towers are the primary load-bearing structures which transmit the loads to the ground. A cantilever approach is used to support the bridge deck near the towers. The mono design uses a cable from its towers and is one of the lesser-used examples of the class. In the harp or parallel design, the cables are nearly parallel so that the height of their attachment to the tower is proportional to the distance from the tower to their mounting on the deck
22.
Segmental bridge
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As its name implies, a segmental bridge is a bridge built in short sections, i. e. one piece at a time, as opposed to traditional methods that build a bridge in very large sections. The bridge is made of concrete that is either cast-in-place or precast concrete and these bridges are very economical for long spans, especially when access to the construction site is restricted. They are also chosen for their aesthetic appeal, the first segmental concrete bridge, built in 1950, was cast-in-place across the Lahn River in Balduinstein, Germany. The first precast segmental concrete bridge, built in 1962, crossed the Seine River in France, the sequence of construction is similar to traditional concrete bridge building, i. e. build the support towers, build the temporary falsework, build the deck, perform finish work. The principal differences are as follows, The support towers may be built segmentally, often this is accomplished using slip-form construction, where the falsework moves upward following sequential concrete pours. The falsework uses the newly constructed concrete as the basis for moving upward, after the towers are built, a superstructure is built atop the towers. This superstructure serves as the point for building the deck. The deck is now constructed sequentially, beginning at the tower, in cast-in-place bridges, the falsework is connected to the previously installed concrete and allowed to cantilever freely. Next, the permanent reinforcing steel and supports are installed, finally, the concrete is placed and cured, freeing the falsework to be moved. In pre-cast bridges, the segment is constructed on the ground. As the new segment is suspended in place by the crane, each segment of the bridge designed to accept connections from both preceding and succeeding segments. The process in step 3 is repeated until the span is completed, linn Cove Viaduct in the Blue Ridge Mountains, North Carolina Manwel Dimech Bridge in St. Julians, Malta. This bridge connects the two parts of Regional Road and pass over Għomar Valley, portions of the Interstate 4 – Selmon Expressway Connector in Tampa, Florida LoBuono, J. Assembly required-The instructions for building New Jersey’s first segmental bridge
23.
Torque
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Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force. Just as a force is a push or a pull. Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt, the symbol for torque is typically τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When it is called moment of force, it is denoted by M. The SI unit for torque is the newton metre, for more on the units of torque, see Units. This article follows US physics terminology in its use of the word torque, in the UK and in US mechanical engineering, this is called moment of force, usually shortened to moment. In US physics and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, Torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of an object. The definition of states that one or both of the angular velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the term used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis. For example, a force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill bit accelerating from rest. By contrast, a force on a beam produces a moment, but since the angular momentum of the beam is not changing. Similarly with any force couple on an object that has no change to its angular momentum and this article follows the US physics terminology by calling all moments by the term torque, whether or not they cause the angular momentum of an object to change. The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers, the term torque was apparently introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884. A force applied at an angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the levers fulcrum is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from the fulcrum. More generally, the torque on a particle can be defined as the product, τ = r × F, where r is the particles position vector relative to the fulcrum. Alternatively, τ = r F ⊥, where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle, any force directed parallel to the particles position vector does not produce a torque
24.
Frank Lloyd Wright
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Frank Lloyd Wright was an American architect, interior designer, writer, and educator, who designed more than 1,000 structures,532 of which were completed. Wright believed in designing structures that were in harmony with humanity and its environment and this philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater, which has been called the best all-time work of American architecture. Wright was a leader of the Prairie School movement of architecture and developed the concept of the Usonian home and his creative period spanned more than 70 years. In addition to his houses, Wright designed original and innovative offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, museums and he often designed interior elements for these buildings as well, including furniture and stained glass. Wright wrote 20 books and many articles and was a lecturer in the United States. His colorful personal life made headlines, most notably for the 1914 fire. Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as the greatest American architect of all time, Frank Lloyd Wright was born Frank Lincoln Wright in the farming town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, United States, in 1867. His father, William Carey Wright, was an orator, music teacher, occasional lawyer, William Wright met and married Anna Lloyd Jones, a county school teacher, the previous year when he was employed as the superintendent of schools for Richland County. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister, Anna was a member of the large, prosperous and well-known Lloyd Jones family of Unitarians, who had emigrated from Wales to Spring Green, Wisconsin. One of Annas brothers was Jenkin Lloyd Jones, who would become an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Western United States, both of Wrights parents were strong-willed individuals with idiosyncratic interests that they passed on to him. According to his biography, his mother declared when she was expecting that her first child would grow up to build beautiful buildings and she decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infants ambition. In 1870 the family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts, where William ministered to a small congregation, in 1876, Anna visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia where she saw an exhibit of educational blocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. The blocks, known as Froebel Gifts, were the foundation of his innovative kindergarten curriculum, Anna, a trained teacher, was excited by the program and bought a set with which young Wright spent much time playing. The blocks in the set were geometrically shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions, the Wright family struggled financially in Weymouth and returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison, where William taught music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society, although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music, especially the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, with his children. Soon after Wright turned 14, his parents separated, Anna had been unhappy for some time with Williams inability to provide for his family and asked him to leave. The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of physical affection, William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again. At this time he changed his name from Lincoln to Lloyd in honor of his mothers family
25.
Fallingwater
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Fallingwater or the Kaufmann Residence is a house designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright in 1935 in rural southwestern Pennsylvania,43 miles southeast of Pittsburgh. The home was built partly over a waterfall on Bear Run in the Mill Run section of Stewart Township, Fayette County, Pennsylvania, in the Laurel Highlands of the Allegheny Mountains. The house was designed as a home for the family of Liliane Kaufmann and her husband, Edgar J. Kaufmann. Time cited it after its completion as Wrights most beautiful job and it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966. At age 67, Frank Lloyd Wright was given the opportunity to design, Edgar Kaufmann, Sr. was a Pittsburgh businessman and president of Kaufmanns Department Store. His son, Edgar Kaufmann, jr. studied architecture briefly under Wright, Edgar Sr. had been prevailed upon by his son and Wright to subsidize the cost of a 12-foot-square model of Wrights Broadacre City. The model was displayed at an Industrial Arts Exposition in the Forum at the Rockefeller Center starting on April 15,1935. After the New York exposition, Kaufmann Sr. arranged to have the model displayed in Pittsburgh at an exposition titled New Homes for Old, the exposition opened on June 18 on the 11th floor of Kaufmanns store. The Kaufmanns lived in “La Tourelle”, a French Norman estate designed by Pittsburgh architect Benno Janssen in the Fox Chapel suburb in 1923 for Edgar J. Kaufmann, the Kaufmanns owned property outside Pittsburgh with a waterfall and cabins they used as a rural retreat. When these cabins deteriorated, Mr. Kaufmann contacted Wright, on December 18,1934, Wright visited Bear Run and asked for a survey of the area around the waterfall. One was prepared by Fayette Engineering Company of Uniontown, Pennsylvania, including all the boulders, trees, and topography. As reported by Wrights apprentices at Taliesin, Kaufmann Sr and he could not wait to see Wrights plans. Wright had told Kaufmann in earlier communication that he had working on the plans. After breakfast that morning, amid a group of very nervous apprentices, Wright intended to build the home above the falls, rather than below them to afford a view of the cascades as he had expected. It is said that Kaufmann was initially upset that Wright had designed the house to sit atop the falls. He had wanted the house located on the bank of Bear Run. He had told Wright that was his favorite aspect of the Bear Run property, one problem of building was that the location of the north bank of Bear Run was not large enough to provide a foundation for a typically built Wright house. The Kaufmanns planned to entertain large groups of people, so the house would need to be larger than the plot allowed, also, Mr. and Mrs. Kaufmann requested separate bedrooms, as well as a bedroom for their adult son and an additional guest room
26.
Elland Road
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Elland Road is a football stadium in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England, which has been the home of Leeds United F. C. since the clubs foundation in 1919. The stadium is the 13th largest football stadium in England, the ground has hosted FA Cup semi-final matches as a neutral venue, and England international fixtures, and was selected as one of eight Euro 96 venues. Elland Road was used by rugby league club Hunslet in the mid-1980s, the stadium has hosted concerts, including performances by rock bands Queen, U2, Happy Mondays and the Kaiser Chiefs. Elland Road has four stands – the Revie Stand, the East Stand, the South Stand and the John Charles Stand–, the record attendance of 57,892 was set on 15 March 1967 in an FA Cup 5th round replay against Sunderland. This was before the stadium became a venue as stipulated by the Taylor Report. The first occupants were Holbeck Rugby Club who moved from Holbeck Recreation Ground after buying the Old Peacock Ground from Bentleys for £1,100, the club erected a new stand in readiness for the 1898–99 season. The ground eventually became simply as Elland Road. Helens and the ground was put on the market, after a meeting at the Griffin Hotel in Boar Lane in August, a new club, Leeds City, was formed and it was agreed that the Elland Road ground would be rented for the upcoming season. The lease was signed on 13 October 1904, for a rent of £75 per year, the club had an option to buy the ground for £5,000 in March 1905, but in November, the price was reduced to £4,500. After Citys first season in the Football League, the built an 5. Attendances were rising, culminating in over 22,500 people cramming into the stadium to watch a local derby with Bradford City on 30 December, an expansion programme continued and the clubs directors ensured that the initial success was built upon, employing a ground committee to oversee developments. In February 1906,3,961 square yards of land on the Churwell, the committee built a 4, 000-seater grandstand which the Lord Mayor, Joseph Hepworth unveilled before a match against Chelsea on 17 November. The project cost £3,000 and over half a mile of steel was used, there was a training track for the players that ran the length of the stand, dressing and officials rooms and a motor garage. Drainage work was carried out on the pitch to prevent it from becoming waterlogged, City experienced financial hardships jeopardising the clubs future but after much uncertainty an offer of £1,000 and an annual rental of £250 was accepted for the ground. The ground was used during the Great War as a venue for drill, City started that season brightly, but scandal arose involving illegal payments to players during the war years and the club was expelled from the Football League after only eight games. This led some local businessmen to contemplate digging up the clay deposits under the pitch, Yorkshire Amateurs became the tenants, and that club played there for a brief spell saving the ground from development. In 1920, Yorkshire Amateurs sold Elland Road to the newly formed Leeds United for £250, in the 1920s, the South Stand terrace was covered with a wooden barrel-shaped roof and came to be known as the Scratching Shed. Another stand was built on the east side terracing called the Lowfields, no significant changes were made to Elland Road in the 1930s, and 1940s, although it did see some large attendances
27.
Roof
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A roof is part of a building envelope. It is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or shelter which provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain or snow, the word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering. In most countries a roof protects primarily against rain, a verandah may be roofed with material that protects against sunlight but admits the other elements. The roof of a garden conservatory protects plants from cold, wind, and rain, a roof may also provide additional living space, for example a roof garden. Old English hrof roof, ceiling, top, summit, heaven, sky, also figuratively, highest point of something, there are no apparent connections outside the Germanic family. English alone has retained the word in a sense, for which the other languages use forms corresponding to OE. In many parts of the ceramic tiles have been the predominant roofing material for centuries. Other roofing materials include asphalt, coal tar pitch, EPDM rubber, Hypalon, polyurethane foam, PVC, slate, Teflon fabric, TPO, and wood shakes and shingles. The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support and how the space is bridged. The pitch is the angle at which the roof rises from its lowest to highest point, most US domestic architecture, except in very dry regions, has roofs that are sloped, or pitched. Although modern construction such as drainpipes may remove the need for pitch, roofs are pitched for reasons of tradition. So the pitch is dependent upon stylistic factors, and partially to do with practicalities. Some types of roofing, for example thatch, require a steep pitch in order to be waterproof, other types of roofing, for example pantiles, are unstable on a steeply pitched roof but provide excellent weather protection at a relatively low angle. In regions where there is rain, an almost flat roof with a slight run-off provides adequate protection against an occasional downpour. Drainpipes also remove the need for a sloping roof, a person that specializes in roof construction is called a roofer. The shape of roofs differs greatly from region to region, the main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate and the materials available for roof structure and the outer covering. The basic shapes of roofs are flat, mono-pitched, gabled, hipped, butterfly, there are many variations on these types. Roofs constructed of sections that are sloped are referred to as pitched roofs
28.
Old Trafford
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Old Trafford is a football stadium in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, England, and the home of Manchester United. It is about 0.5 miles from Old Trafford Cricket Ground, future expansion is likely to involve the addition of a second tier to the South Stand, which would raise the capacity to around 95,000. The stadiums record attendance was recorded in 1939, when 76,962 spectators watched the FA Cup semi-final between Wolverhampton Wanderers and Grimsby Town and it also hosted football matches at the 2012 Summer Olympics, including womens international football for the first time in its history. Before 1902, Manchester United were known as Newton Heath, during time they first played their football matches at North Road. However, both grounds were blighted by wretched conditions, the pitches ranging from gravel to marsh, while Bank Street suffered from clouds of fumes from its neighbouring factories. Including the purchase of the land, the construction of the stadium was originally to have cost £60,000 all told. The subsidy would have come to the sum of £10,000, however, despite guarantees for the loan coming from the club itself and two local breweries, both chaired by club chairman John Henry Davies, the Cheshire Lines Committee turned the proposal down. The CLC had planned to build a new station adjacent to the new stadium, the station – Trafford Park – was eventually built, but further down the line than originally planned. The CLC later constructed a modest station with one timber-built platform immediately adjacent to the stadium and it was initially named United Football Ground, but was renamed Old Trafford Football Ground in early 1936. It was served on match days only by a service of steam trains from Manchester Central railway station. It is currently known as Manchester United Football Ground, construction was carried out by Messrs Brameld and Smith of Manchester and development was completed in late 1909. The stadium hosted its game on 19 February 1910, with United playing host to Liverpool. However, the side were unable to provide their fans with a win to mark the occasion. A journalist at the game reported the stadium as the most handsomest, the most spacious, as a football ground it is unrivalled in the world, it is an honour to Manchester and the home of a team who can do wonders when they are so disposed. Before the construction of Wembley Stadium in 1923, the FA Cup Final was hosted by a number of different grounds around England including Old Trafford. The first of these was the 1911 FA Cup Final replay between Bradford City and Newcastle United, after the tie at Crystal Palace finished as a no-score draw after extra time. Bradford won 1–0, the goal scored by Jimmy Speirs, in a match watched by 58,000 people, the grounds second FA Cup Final was the 1915 final between Sheffield United and Chelsea. Sheffield United won the match 3–0 in front of nearly 50,000 spectators, most of whom were in the military, leading to the final being nicknamed the Khaki Cup Final
29.
Miami Stadium
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Miami Stadium was a baseball stadium in Miami, Florida. It was primarily used for baseball, and was the field of the Miami Marlins minor league baseball team. It opened in 1949 and held 13,500 people and it was also used as the Spring training home of the Brooklyn and Los Angeles Dodgers from 1950–1958. The Dodgers played their first game as the Los Angeles Dodgers at the ballpark when they opened their 1958 spring training schedule against the Phillies on March 8,1958 in front of 5,966 fans and it was used during the spring by the Baltimore Orioles from 1959–1990. At the time of its construction, Miami Stadium was remarkably modern and well-appointed, on June 6,1958, Orioles president James Keelty Jr. reached agreement with Miami Marlins president George B. Storer to move the Orioles spring training home from Scottsdale, Arizona to Miami Stadium for the 1959 spring training season, on May 25,1990, the Orioles announced that the team would move their spring training home games from Miami Stadium to Bradenton and Sarasota in 1991. The Orioles had trained at Twin Lakes Park in Sarasota prior to spring games in 1989 and 1990. The stadium was located on the bounded by Northwest 23rd Street, Northwest 10th Avenue. A distinguishing feature of the ballpark was a high arched roof over the grandstand, in contrast to the typical styles of either flat and slightly sloping. This design enabled the ballpark to have a roof that covered most of the area without any posts blocking the spectators view. Al López Field in Tampa, Florida employed a similar design with a less dramatic curve. The Miami City Commission voted unanimously in favor of the renaming in February 1987, the ballpark became known officially as Bobby Maduro Miami Stadium in honor to the famous Cuban baseball entrepreneur Bobby Maduro. Said Maduros widow Marta to herself, Gordo, they know who you are. When the Florida Marlins were established in 1993, the new club opted for Joe Robbie Stadium, the home of the Miami Dolphins football team, the City of Miami had proposed razing the stadium and selling the property for warehouses. But a sale price of $1.6 million plus demolition cost of $725,000, the City rezoned the property in 1998 for housing. St. Martin Affordable Housing Inc. purchased the 12. 6-acre property from the City of Miami for $2.1 million in 1999 to raze the stadium, a large apartment complex now stands where the stadium was. Estadio Quisqueya, in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic is an almost exact replica of the stadium, a PBS documentary, White Elephant, What Is There To Save. was produced in 2007 about the stadiums history. Bobby Maduro Miami Stadium appears in the EA Sports game MVP06, digital Ballparks, Miami Stadium An article about Miami Stadium
30.
St James' Park
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St. James Park is a football stadium in Newcastle upon Tyne, England. It is the home of Championship club Newcastle United F. C, with a seating capacity of 52,405 it is the seventh largest football stadium in England. St James Park has been the ground of Newcastle United since 1892 and has been used for football since 1880. Throughout its history, the desire for expansion has caused conflict with local residents and this has led to proposals to move at least twice in the late 1960s, and a controversial 1995 proposed move to nearby Leazes Park. Reluctance to move has led to the distinctive lop-sided appearance of the present-day stadiums asymmetrical stands, in addition to professional football, the stadium has hosted charity football events and rock concerts, and been used as a set for film and reality television. The site of St. Leazes Terrace was built c1830 by notable Newcastle residents, the site was also near the gallows of the city, last used in 1844, lending the Gallowgate End its name. The first football team to play at St James Park was Newcastle Rangers in 1880 They moved to a ground at Byker in 1882, Newcastle West End took over the ground in 1886. West End were wound up in 1892 and effectively merged into their rivals Newcastle East End, local residents opposition to football being played at St James dated back to the first games in the Football League following the building of the first small stand at the Gallowgate End. A redeveloped Gallowgate and further stands followed in 1899, bringing the first official capacity to 30,000, while the stadium is now synonymous with the Black and Whites, Newcastle United actually played in red and white at St James Park until 1904. In 1905, a doubling of capacity to 60,000, with a stand on the Barrack Road. The second-ever rugby league test match, and first test victory by Great Britain, was played at the ground in 1908 against the touring Australian Kangaroos side on 23 January 1909. Between 1920 and 1930, plans were drawn up for a stand by notable football architect Archibald Leitch. However, after planning disputes, all that was achieved was a roof over the Leazes Terrace side. Floodlights were constructed in the 1950s, with the first match played using them held on 25 February 1953 against Celtic, in the late 1960s further attempts were made to develop the site, and the council proposed a multi-use sports development of St. James Park. This was rejected as not financially viable, plans were drawn up by the club for a move to a stadium in Gosforth, or even a groundshare with Sunderland A. F. C. in a new stadium on Wearside. These plans were withdrawn in 1971 after agreement to redevelop St James Park was finally reached, after mediation by the then Minister for Sport, in 1972, work started on the East Stand,50 years after it was last permitted to be developed. In 1978 the Leazes End was demolished, but relegation and financial difficulties meant the new stand was not built, investigations following the Bradford City stadium fire in 1985 identified a need to replace the ageing West Stand, which was demolished in 1986. Its replacement, the Milburn Stand, was named in honour of Jackie Milburn, further development was again shelved for lack of finance
31.
Newcastle upon Tyne
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Newcastle is the most populous city in the North East and forms the core of the Tyneside conurbation, the eighth most populous urban area in the United Kingdom. Newcastle is a member of the English Core Cities Group and is a member of the Eurocities network of European cities. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it became a county of itself, the regional nickname and dialect for people from Newcastle and the surrounding area is Geordie. Newcastle also houses Newcastle University, a member of the Russell Group, the city developed around the Roman settlement Pons Aelius and was named after the castle built in 1080 by Robert Curthose, William the Conquerors eldest son. The city grew as an important centre for the trade in the 14th century. The port developed in the 16th century and, along with the lower down the River Tyne, was amongst the worlds largest shipbuilding and ship-repairing centres. Newcastles economy includes corporate headquarters, learning, digital technology, retail, tourism and cultural centres, among its icons are Newcastle United football club and the Tyne Bridge. Since 1981 the city has hosted the Great North Run, a marathon which attracts over 57,000 runners each year. The first recorded settlement in what is now Newcastle was Pons Aelius and it was given the family name of the Roman Emperor Hadrian, who founded it in the 2nd century AD. This rare honour suggests Hadrian may have visited the site and instituted the bridge on his tour of Britain, Pons Aelius population at this period was estimated at 2,000. Fragments of Hadrians Wall are visible in parts of Newcastle, particularly along the West Road, the course of the Roman Wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort in Wallsend—the walls end—and to the supply fort Arbeia in South Shields. After the Roman departure from Britain, completed in 410, Newcastle became part of the powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, conflicts with the Danes in 876 left the river Tyne and its settlements in ruin. After the conflicts with the Danes, and following the 1088 rebellion against the Normans, Monkchester was all, because of its strategic position, Robert Curthose, son of William the Conqueror, erected a wooden castle there in the year 1080. The town was known as Novum Castellum or New Castle. The wooden structure was replaced by a castle in 1087. The castle was again in 1172 during the reign of Henry II. Much of the keep which can be seen in the city dates from this period. Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was Englands northern fortress, incorporated first by Henry II, the city had a new charter granted by Elizabeth in 1589
32.
Newcastle United F.C.
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Newcastle United Football Club is an English professional association football club based in Newcastle upon Tyne. Following the clubs most recent relegation from the top-flight during the 2015–16 season, Newcastle returned to the Football Leagues 2nd tier, the Championship, for the 2016–17 campaign. Newcastle United was founded in 1892 by the merger of Newcastle East End and Newcastle West End, the ground was developed into an all-seater stadium in the mid-1990s and now has a capacity of 52,354. They have won four League Championship titles, six FA Cups and a Charity Shield, as well as the 1969 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, Newcastle United has the ninth highest total of trophies won by an English club. The clubs most successful period was between 1904 and 1910, when they won an FA Cup and three of their First Division titles. The club were successful in the Premier League in the 1990s and early 2000s, but have been mostly struggling since the 2006–07 season. Newcastle has a local rivalry with Sunderland, and the two clubs have engaged in the Tyne–Wear derby since 1898. The clubs traditional kit colours are black and white striped shirts, black shorts and their traditional crest takes elements of the city coat of arms, which features two grey seahorses. The club has been owned by Mike Ashley since 2007, succeeding long term chairman, the club is the seventeenth highest revenue producing club in the world in terms of annual revenue, generating €169. 3m in 2015. Historically, Newcastles highest placing was in 1999 when they were the fifth highest revenue producing club in the world. The first record of football being played on Tyneside dates from 3 March 1877 at Elswick Rugby Club, later that year, Newcastles first football club, Tyne Association, was formed. The origins of Newcastle United Football Club itself can be traced back to the formation of a club by the Stanley Cricket Club of Byker in November 1881. This team was renamed Newcastle East End F. C. in October 1882, to avoid confusion with the club in Stanley. Rosewood F. C. of Byker merged with Newcastle East End a short time later, in 1886, Newcastle East End moved from Byker to Heaton. In August 1882, Newcastle West End F. C. formed from West End Cricket Club, and in May 1886, the two clubs became rivals in the Northern League. In 1889, Newcastle East End became a team, before becoming a limited company the following March. However, on the hand, Newcastle West End were in serious financial trouble. With only one club in the city for fans to support
33.
Radio masts and towers
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Radio masts and towers are, typically, tall structures designed to support antennas for telecommunications and broadcasting, including television. There are two types, guyed and self supporting structures. They are among the tallest man-made structures, masts are often named after the broadcasting organizations that originally built them or currently use them. In the case of a mast radiator or radiating tower, the whole mast or tower is itself the transmitting antenna, the terms mast and tower are often used interchangeably. However, in engineering terms, a tower is a self-supporting or cantilevered structure. Broadcast engineers in the UK use the same terminology, in US broadcast engineering, a tower is an antenna structure attached to the ground, whereas a mast is a vertical antenna support mounted on some other structure. Masts tend to be cheaper to build but require an extended area surrounding them to accommodate the guy wires, Towers are more commonly used in cities where land is in short supply. There are a few designs that are partly free-standing and partly guyed, called additionally guyed towers. For example, The Gerbrandy tower consists of a tower with a guyed mast on top. The few remaining Blaw-Knox towers do the opposite, they have a lower section surmounted by a freestanding part. Until August 8,1991, the Warsaw radio mast was the worlds tallest supported structure on land, there are over 50 radio structures in the United States that are 600 m or taller. The steel lattice is the most widespread form of construction and it provides great strength, low weight and wind resistance, and economy in the use of materials. Lattices of triangular cross-section are most common, and square lattices are also widely used, guyed masts are often used, the supporting guy lines carry lateral forces such as wind loads, allowing the mast to be very narrow and simply constructed. When built as a tower, the structure may be parallel-sided or taper over part or all of its height, when constructed of several sections which taper exponentially with height, in the manner of the Eiffel Tower, the tower is said to be an Eiffelized one. The Crystal Palace tower in London is an example, guyed masts are sometimes also constructed out of steel tubes. This construction type has the advantage that cables and other components can be protected from weather inside the tube and these masts are mainly used for FM-/TV-broadcasting, but sometimes also as mast radiator. The big mast of Mühlacker transmitting station is an example of this. A disadvantage of this mast type is that it is more affected by winds than masts with open bodies
34.
Guy-wire
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A guy-wire, guy-line, or guy-rope, also known as simply a guy, is a tensioned cable designed to add stability to a free-standing structure. They are used commonly in ship masts, radio masts, wind turbines, utility poles, fire service extension ladders used in church raises, a thin vertical mast supported by guy wires is called a guyed mast. Structures that support antennas are frequently of a construction and are called towers. One end of the guy is attached to the structure, and they are installed radially, usually at equal angles about the structure, in trios and quads. As the tower leans a bit due to the force, the increased guy tension is resolved into a compression force in the tower or mast. For example, antenna masts are often held up by three guy-wires at 120° angles, conductive guy cables for radio antenna masts may disturb the radiation pattern of the antenna, so their electrical characteristics must be included in the design. The guys supporting a sailboat mast are called standing rigging and in modern boats are stainless steel wire rope, guys are rigged to the bow and stern, usually as a single guy. Lateral guys attach to chain plates port and starboard attached to the hull, multiple guys are usually installed with spreaders to help keep the mast straight. Temporary guys are used on a sailboat, a fore-guy is a term for a line attached to. On a modern sloop-rigged sailboat with a spinnaker, the spinnaker pole is the spar most commonly controlled by one or more guys. Guys are particularly needed on dead-end poles, where a straight section of wire line ends. The lower end where the cable enters the ground is often encased in a length of yellow plastic reflector to make it more visible, in urban areas where the ground area around the pole is restricted, a variation called a sidewalk guy is often used. In this type the guy line extends diagonally from the top of the pole to a horizontal spar brace extending out from the middle of the pole, and from this it continues vertically to the ground. Thus the bottom part of the guy is vertical and does not obstruct headroom, an alternative to guy-wires sometimes used on dead-end poles is a push-brace pole, a second pole set at an angle in the ground which butts diagonally against the side of the vertical pole. Electromagnetic fields from the antennas complicate the design of guys that support mast antennas, conductive metal guy-wires whose lengths are near to quarter wavelength multiples of the transmitted frequency can distort the radiation pattern of the antenna. This also applies to guy wires of neighboring masts or metal structures situated nearby, to prevent this, each guy wire is divided by strain insulators into multiple sections, each segment non-resonant at the transmitted wavelength. Cylindrical or egg-shaped porcelain Johnny ball insulators are usually used, non-conductive guys of Kevlar fiber or extruded fiberglass rod are frequently used to not disturb the radiation pattern of the antennas. The strength and low stretch properties of Kevlar fiber approaches that of steel, however, Kevlar is very susceptible to ultraviolet degradation so it is enclosed in a UV resistant plastic sheath
35.
Chimney
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A chimney is a structure that provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack, the space inside a chimney is called a flue. Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships, in the United States, the term smokestack is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys or ship chimneys, and the term funnel can also be used. The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue gases to the environment via stack effect. Additionally, the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact on the immediate surroundings, in the case of chemically aggressive output, a sufficiently tall chimney can allow for partial or complete self-neutralization of airborne chemicals before they reach ground level. The dispersion of pollutants over an area can reduce their concentrations. Romans used tubes inside the walls to draw out of bakeries. The earliest extant example of an English chimney is at the keep of Conisbrough Castle in Yorkshire, however, they did not become common in houses until the 16th and 17th centuries. Smoke hoods were a method of collecting the smoke into a chimney. Another step in the development of chimneys was the use of built in ovens which allowed the household to bake at home, industrial chimneys became common in the late 18th century. Chimneys in ordinary dwellings were first built of wood and plaster or mud, since then chimneys have traditionally been built of brick or stone, both in small and large buildings. Early chimneys were of a brick construction. Later chimneys were constructed by placing the bricks around tile liners, to control downdrafts, venting caps with a variety of designs are sometimes placed on the top of chimneys. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the used to extract lead from its ore produced large amounts of toxic fumes. Lead and silver deposits formed on the inside of these long chimneys, todays central heating systems have made chimney placement less critical, and the use of non-structural gas vent pipe allows a flue gas conduit to be installed around obstructions and through walls. In fact, most modern high-efficiency heating appliances do not require a chimney, such appliances are generally installed near an external wall, and a noncombustible wall thimble allows a vent pipe to run directly through the external wall. On a pitched roof where a chimney penetrates a roof, flashing is used to seal up the joints, the down-slope piece is called an apron, the sides receive step flashing and a cricket is used to divert water around the upper side of the chimney underneath the flashing. Industrial chimneys are commonly referred to as flue gas stacks and are generally external structures and they are generally located adjacent to a steam-generating boiler or industrial furnace and the gases are carried to them with ductwork
36.
Pierre Pflimlin Bridge
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The Pierre Pflimlin Bridge is a 957 m long motorway bridge over the river Rhine between Germany and France, south of Strasbourg / Kehl. It is named after Pierre Pflimlin, a former French prime minister and it was funded in cooperation between France, Germany and the European Union. Planned for several decades, it was built during the late 1990s and early 2000s by the construction companies Bilfinger Berger, the central segments were built in balanced cantilever, cast-in-place fashion, extending outwards from each of the two pylon islands constructed in the stream. A concrete volume of 18.000 m3,760 t of prestressing steel, the pylons were constructed on caissons floated into place and secured with 50 m deep foundation piles, and are designed to withstand earthquakes and ship impacts. The hollow construction of all bridge segments has both pre-stressed and post-stressed components, realized by the French specialist construction company Freyssinet, the formwork was provided by PERI. The funding for its construction was provided to 55. 5% by France,38. 6% by Germany and 5. 9% by the European Union, the bridge carries two traffic lanes and two pedestrian / cycle routes. Due to the Schengen Agreement, there are no controls on the bridge. Bilfinger Berger Max Früh Pierre-Pflimlin Bridge at Structurae
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Formwork
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Formwork is the term given to either temporary or permanent molds into which concrete or similar materials are poured. In the context of concrete construction, the falsework supports the shuttering molds, Formwork comes in several types, Traditional timber formwork. The formwork is built on site out of timber and plywood or moisture-resistant particleboard and it is easy to produce but time-consuming for larger structures, and the plywood facing has a relatively short lifespan. It is still used extensively where the costs are lower than the costs for procuring reusable formwork. It is also the most flexible type of formwork, so even where other systems are in use and this formwork is built out of prefabricated modules with a metal frame and covered on the application side with material having the wanted surface structure. The two major advantages of formwork systems, compared to traditional timber formwork, are speed of construction and these interlocking and modular systems are used to build widely variable, but relatively simple, concrete structures. The panels are lightweight and very robust and they are especially suited for similar structure projects and low-cost, mass housing schemes. This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of insulating concrete forms, ″Coffor″ is a structural stay-in-place formwork system to build constructions in concrete. It is composed of two filtering grids reinforced by vertical stiffeners and linked by articulated connectors that can be folded for transport. A standard panel 1.10 m x 2.70 m weighs 32.7 kg, after Coffor is placed, concrete is poured between the grids, excess water of concrete is eliminated by gravity and air is also eliminated. Coffor remains in the construction after concrete is poured and acts as reinforcement, any type of construction can be built with Coffor, individual houses, multi-story buildings including high-rise buildings, industrial, commercial or administrative buildings. Several types of works can be done with Coffor. Coffor is delivered completely assembled from the factory, no assembly is necessary on the construction site. This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of prefabricated fiber-reinforced plastic forms and these are in the shape of hollow tubes, and are usually used for columns and piers. Some of the earliest examples of concrete slabs were built by Roman engineers, because concrete is quite strong in resisting compressive loads, but has relatively poor tensile or torsional strength, these early structures consisted of arches, vaults and domes. The most notable concrete structure from this period is the Pantheon in Rome, to mould this structure, temporary scaffolding and formwork or falsework was built in the future shape of the structure. These building techniques were not isolated to pouring concrete, but were and are used in masonry. Similar to the method, but stringers and joist are replaced with engineered wood beams
38.
Howrah Bridge
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Howrah Bridge is a propped cantilever bridge with a suspended span over the Hooghly River in West Bengal, India. Commissioned in 1943, the bridge was named the New Howrah Bridge. On 14 June 1965 it was renamed Rabindra Setu after the great Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore and it is still popularly known as the Howrah Bridge. The bridge is one of four on the Hooghly River and is a symbol of Kolkata. The other bridges are the Vidyasagar Setu, the Vivekananda Setu, the third-longest cantilever bridge at the time of its construction, the Howrah Bridge is currently the sixth-longest bridge of its type in the world. He reported on 29 March with large-scale drawings and estimates that, The foundations for a bridge at Calcutta would be at a considerable depth, the impediment to shipping would be considerable. A good place for the bridge was at Pulta Ghat about a dozen miles north of Calcutta where a bed of stiff clay existed at no great depth under the river bed, a suspended-girder bridge of five spans of 400 feet and two spans of 200 feet would be ideal. In view of the traffic across the Hooghly river, a committee was appointed in 1855-56 to review alternatives for constructing a bridge across it. The plan was shelved in 1859-60, to be revived in 1868, when it was decided that a bridge should be constructed, eventually a contract was signed with Sir Bradford Leslie to construct a pontoon bridge. Different parts were constructed in England and shipped to Calcutta, where they were assembled, the assembling period was fraught with problems. The bridge was damaged by the great cyclone on 20 March 1874. A steamer named Egeria broke from her moorings and collided head-on with the bridge, the bridge was completed in 1874, at a total cost of ₹2.2 million, and opened to traffic on 17 October of that year. The bridge was then 1528 ft. long and 62 ft. wide, initially the bridge was periodically unfastened to allow steamers and other marine vehicles to pass through. Before 1906, the used to be undone for the passage of vessels during daytime only. Since June of that year it started opening at night for all vessels except ocean steamers, from 19 August 1879, the bridge was illuminated by electric lamp-posts, powered by the dynamo at the Mullick Ghat Pumping Station. As the bridge could not handle the increasing load, the Port Commissioners started planning in 1905 for a new improved bridge. In 1906 the Port Commission appointed a committee headed by R. S, highet, Chief Engineer, East Indian Railway and W. B. MacCabe, Chief Engineer, Calcutta Corporation. It extended tenders to 23 firms for its design and construction, prize money of £3,000 was declared for the firm whose design would be accepted
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India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
40.
Canton Viaduct
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Canton Viaduct is a blind arcade cavity wall railroad viaduct built in 1834-35 in Canton, Massachusetts, for the Boston and Providence Railroad. At its completion, it was the longest and tallest railroad viaduct in the world, today and it has been in continuous service for 181 years, it now carries high-speed passenger and freight rail service. The Canton Viaducts walls are similar to the ancient curtain wall of Rhodes with rusticated stone and it supports a train deck about 60 feet above the Canton River, the east branch of the Neponset River. The stream pool passes through six semi-circular portals in the viaduct, the viaduct was the final link built for the B&Ps then 41-mile mainline between Boston, Massachusetts, and Providence, Rhode Island. Today, the viaduct serves Amtraks Northeast Corridor, as well as Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority Providence/Stoughton Line commuter trains. It sits 0.3 miles south of Canton Junction, at milepost 213.74, reckoned from Pennsylvania Station in New York City, the Canton Viaduct was erected in 1835 by the B&P, one of the first New England railroads, shortly after its 1831 founding. Wales, one of the families of Boston, and owner of the T. B. Shipping Company, was the first president of the B&P, The Taunton Branch Railroad, due to his friendship with prominent New England families, including the Revere family, they were able to bring the Canton Viaduct to fruition. Wales & Co. clipper ships brought raw materials for manufacturing companies from its dock, without the influence of individuals such as Thomas B. Wales, Joseph Warren Revere, owner of the Revere Copper Company and major stockholders, There were better routes through other towns for the location of the railroad line from Boston to Providence. The other influencing factor that caused the Canton Viaduct to be built was an accident in 1832 on the Granite Railroad. The original plans called for the use of inclined planes to cross the Canton River Valley, but they were changed after the plane accident. This unique viaduct was designed by a U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Officer and he was assisted by engineers, Major George Washington Whistler, Major General Isaac Ridgeway Trimble and General William Raymond Lee. The viaduct was built by the Dodd & Baldwin company from Pennsylvania, around this time, Russia was interested in building railroads. Tsar Nicholas I sent workmen to draw extensive diagrams of the Canton Viaduct and he later summoned Whistler to Russia as a consulting engineer to design the Moscow–Saint Petersburg Railway, on which two viaducts were modeled after the Canton Viaduct. A scale model viaduct of similar design is on display at the Oktyabrsky Railroad Museum in St. Petersburg and this Canton Viaduct is the first and possibly only viaduct to use both a blind arcade and cavity wall structure. The structure is referred to as a multiple arch bridge. Although the deck arches appear to extend through to other side, they do not, the deck arches support the spandrels, deck, coping and parapets, they are not tied to the longitudinal walls
41.
Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River
42.
Jenga
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Jenga is a game of physical skill created by Leslie Scott, and currently marketed by Parker Brothers, a division of Hasbro. Players take turns removing one block at a time from a tower constructed of 54 blocks, each block removed is then placed on top of the tower, creating a progressively taller structure. The name jenga is derived from a Swahili word meaning build, Jenga is played with 54 wooden blocks. Each block is three times longer than its width, and one fifth as thick as its length 1.5 cm ×2.5 cm ×7.5 cm. Blocks have small, random variations from these dimensions so as to create imperfections in the stacking process, once the tower is built, the person who built the tower gets the first move. Moving in Jenga consists of taking one and only one block from any level of the tower, only one hand should be used at a time when taking blocks from the tower. Blocks may be bumped to find a loose block that will not disturb the rest of the tower, any block that is moved out of place must be returned to its original location before removing another block. The turn ends when the person to move touches the tower or after ten seconds. The game ends when the falls, or if any piece falls from the tower other than the piece being knocked out to move to the top. The winner is the last person to remove and place a block. A British national, Scott was born in East Africa, where she was raised speaking English and Swahili, before moving to live in Ghana, West Africa. Scott launched the game she named and trademarked as Jenga at the London Toy Fair in January 1983 and sold it through her own company, the blocks of the first sets of Jenga were manufactured for Scott by the Camphill Village Trust in Botton, Yorkshire. The V&A Museum of Childhood has exhibited one of the sets of Jenga since 1982. In 1984, Robert Grebler, an entrepreneur from California who was the brother of a friend of Scott, contacted her. Convinced of Jengas potential, Grebler had invited two cousins to form Pokonobe Associates with him in 1985 to increase distribution of Jenga, Pokonobe then licensed Irwin Toy to sell Jenga in Canada and to be master licensees worldwide. Irwin Toy licensed Jenga to Schaper in the United States and when company was bought by Hasbro. Eventually, Hasbro became licensee in most countries around the world, today, according to Leslie Scott, over 50 million Jenga games, equivalent to more than 2.7 billion Jenga blocks, have been sold worldwide. The packaging copy of one edition of the Jenga game claims that Robert Grebler may have built the tallest Jenga tower ever at 40 2⁄3 levels, Grebler built the tower in 1985 while playing with an original Jenga set produced by Leslie Scott in the early 1980s
43.
Busan Cinema Center
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The Busan Cinema Center is the official, exclusive venue of the Busan International Film Festival, where its opening and closing ceremonies take place, located in Centum City, Busan, South Korea. The about USD150 million center opened on September 29,2011 almost three years after construction began, as of July 2013, it has the Guinness World Record for the longest cantilever roof. The center was designed by the Austrian architectural design firm Coop Himmelbau, the center comprises three buildings, Biff Theater with the Small Roof, and Dureraum Square with the Big Roof. The Busan Cinema Center, built on a 32,137 m² plot, occupies 54,335 m² of performance, dining, entertainment, the center has two steel roofs. The Big Roof is 163 m long x 60 m wide with an 85 m cantilever portion, the Small Roof covering the outdoor theater BIFF Theater has a span of 70 m and an area of 66 m x 100 to 120 m and weighs 1,236 tons. The Big Roof is the longest cantilever roof certified by Guinness World Records, the ceilings of the Big and Small Roofs are clad with 23,910 and 18,690 LED lights respectively
44.
Riverplace Tower
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The Riverplace Tower is a 28-floor office building on the south bank of the St. Johns River in Jacksonville, Florida. At the time of its construction, it was the tallest building in the state of Florida and was the landmark in Jacksonvilles skyline. On April 18,2012, the American Institute of Architectss Florida Chapter placed the building on its list of Florida Architecture,100 Years,100 Places as the Riverplace Tower / Formerly Gulf Life Tower. The Auchter Company, Jacksonville’s oldest general construction contractor, built the 542,000 ft2 Gulf Life Tower for the Gulf Life Insurance Company in 1966 and it was designed by the notable architect, Welton Becket and KBJ Architects. When completed in 1967, it was the tallest precast, post-tensioned concrete structure in the world and it remained Floridas tallest for five years until Miamis One Biscayne Tower was constructed in 1972. It was Jacksonvilles tallest for eight years until the Independent Life Building was built in 1974, in 2007,40 years after its construction, Riverplace Tower was still the 5th tallest building in Jacksonville. Gulf Life Insurance Company was merged into American General Life of Houston in 1991, American General wanted $30 million, but the building was 24 years old and no longer a class “A” property. Several prospective buyers looked at the building, but the property stayed on the market for more than two years, for tax reasons, American General was desperate to sell during 1993 and accepted a cash offer from Gate Petroleum for substantially less than their asking price. Shortly thereafter, Gate began a renovation of the entire building. Building occupancy was 40% when the closed, within two years from the completion of the renovation, it had soared to nearly 95% and the building was restored to its former prominence. The banner sign at the top of the building originally displayed Gulf Life in 1967, after Gulf Life was acquired by American General in 1991, it was changed to SouthTrust, and the structure was known as the SouthTrust Building. When SouthTrust and Wachovia merged in 2005, the Wachovia signage was installed, since 1968, the University Club of Jacksonville has occupied the buildings top floor. The private club is available members and their guests, or ClubCorp affiliates, there are approximately 1,300 members, business executives of both genders, older, long-term associates, and young professionals. The facility is a hub for networking and entertaining clients, as well as providing conference rooms, the club also offers two full service athletic facilities, one co-ed and one for men only. The Gate River Run Hall of Fame was established in 2002 and is located on the concourse level. Memorabilia from the event, which began in 1978, is on display, plaques for each of the 12 persons inducted into the HOF are on display. The Southbank Grille is a restaurant located on the second floor of the tower. The concrete grid on the outside of the building is the support needed to hold up the structure
45.
Jacksonville, Florida
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Jacksonville is a seaport city and the seat of Duval County, Florida, United States. With an estimated 868,031 residents as of 2015, Jacksonville is the most populous city in both the state of Florida and the southeastern United States. It is estimated to be the 12th most populous city in the United States and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States. The Jacksonville metropolitan area has a population of 1,603,497 and is the 34th largest in the United States and fourth largest in the state of Florida. The city is situated on the banks of the St. Johns River, in the First Coast region of North Florida, prior to European settlement, the Jacksonville area was inhabited by Native American people known as the Timucua. In 1564, the French established the colony of Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St. Johns River. In 1822, a year after the United States gained Florida from Spain, Jacksonville is the cultural, commercial and financial center of North Florida. A major military and civilian deep-water port, the citys riverine location supports two United States Navy bases and the Port of Jacksonville, Floridas third largest seaport. The two US Navy bases, Blount Island Command and the nearby Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Jacksonville is also home to several colleges and universities, including University of North Florida, Jacksonville University and Florida State College at Jacksonville. The area of the city of Jacksonville has been inhabited for thousands of years. In the 16th century, the beginning of the era, the region was inhabited by the Mocama. At the time of contact with Europeans, all Mocama villages in present-day Jacksonville were part of the powerful chiefdom known as the Saturiwa, centered around the mouth of the St. Johns River. One early map shows a village called Ossachite at the site of what is now downtown Jacksonville, French Huguenot explorer Jean Ribault charted the St. Johns River in 1562 calling it the River of May because he discovered it in May. Ribault erected a column near present-day Jacksonville claiming the newly discovered land for France. In 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière established the first European settlement, Fort Caroline, philip II of Spain ordered Pedro Menéndez de Avilés to protect the interest of Spain by attacking the French presence at Fort Caroline. On September 20,1565, a Spanish force from the nearby Spanish settlement of St. Augustine attacked Fort Caroline, the Spanish renamed the fort San Mateo, and following the ejection of the French, St. Augustines position as the most important settlement in Florida was solidified. The location of Fort Caroline is subject to debate but a reconstruction of the fort was established on the St. Johns River in 1964. Spain ceded Florida to the British in 1763 after the French and Indian War, the British introduced the cultivation of sugar cane, indigo and fruits as well the export of lumber
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Welton Becket
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Welton David Becket was an American architect who designed many buildings in Los Angeles, California. Becket was born in Seattle, Washington and graduated from the University of Washington program in Architecture in 1927 with a Bachelor of Architecture degree. He moved to Los Angeles in 1933 and formed a partnership with his University of Washington classmate Walter Wurdeman and Angelean architect Charles F. Plummer. Their first major commission was the Pan-Pacific Auditorium in 1935, which won them residential jobs from James Cagney, Robert Montgomery, the successor firm Wurdeman and Becket went on to design Bullocks Pasadena and a couple of corporate headquarters. In 1987, his firm was acquired by Ellerbe Associates, and the firm continued as Ellerbe Becket until the end of 2009. It is now known as Ellerbe Becket, an AECOM Company, with The Walt Disney Company and the United States Steel Corporation, Beckets firm co-designed Disneys Contemporary Resort, which opened in 1971 at Walt Disney World Resort. The Contemporary was designed as a 14-story steel A-frame with a monorail running through the building, Welton Becket was elected a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects in 1952. Beckets sons, Welton MacDonald Becket & Bruce Becket, are practicing architects. S
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