1.
Kingdom of Castile
–
The Kingdom of Castile was a large and powerful state on the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region and it began as the County of Castile, an eastern frontier lordship of the Kingdom of León in the 9th century. During the 10th century its counts increased their autonomy, but it was not until 1065 that it was separated from León, between 1072 and 1157 it was again united with León, and after 1230 this union became permanent. Throughout this period the Castilian kings made conquests in southern Iberia at the expense of the Islamic principalities. Castile and León, with their southern acquisitions, came to be known collectively as the Crown of Castile, according to the chronicles of Alfonso III of Asturias, the first reference to the name Castile can be found in a document written during AD800. The name reflects its origin as a march on the frontier of the Kingdom of Asturias, protected by castles. The County of Castile, bordered in the south by the northern reaches of the Spanish Sistema Central mountain system and it was re-populated by inhabitants of Cantabria, Asturias, Vasconia and Visigothic and Mozarab origins. It had its own Romance dialect and customary laws, the areas that they settled didnt extend far from the Cantabrian southeastern ridges, and not beyond the southern reaches of the high Ebro river valleys and canyon gores. Subsequently, the region was subdivided, separate counts being named to Alava, Burgos, Cerezo & Lantarón, the minority of Count García Sánchez led Castile to accept Sancho III of Navarre, married to the sister of Count García, as feudal overlord. García was assassinated in 1028 while in León to marry the princess Sancha, Sancho III, acting as feudal overlord, appointed his younger son Ferdinand as Count of Castile, marrying him to his uncles intended bride, Sancha of León. At the Battle of Tamarón Bermudo was killed, leaving no surviving offspring, in right of his wife, Ferdinand then assumed the royal title as king of León and Castile, for the first time associating the royal title with the rule of Castile. When Ferdinand I died in 1065, the territories were divided among his children, Sancho II became King of Castile, Alfonso VI, King of León and García, King of Galicia, while his daughters were given towns, Urraca, Zamora, and Elvira, Toro. Sancho II allied himself with Alfonso VI of León and together they conquered, Sancho later attacked Alfonso VI and invaded León with the help of El Cid, and drove his brother into exile, thereby reuniting the three kingdoms. Urraca permitted the greater part of the Leonese army to take refuge in the town of Zamora, Sancho laid siege to the town, but the Castilian king was assassinated in 1072 by Bellido Dolfos, a Galician nobleman. As a result, Alfonso VI recovered all his territory of León. This was the union of León and Castile, although the two kingdoms remained distinct entities joined only in a personal union. The sworn oath taken by El Cid before Alfonso VI in Santa Gadea de Burgos regarding the innocence of Alfonso in the matter of the murder of his brother is well known, under Alfonso VI, there was an approach to the rest of Europeans kingdoms, including France. He gave his daughters, Elvira, Urraca and Theresa, in marriage to Raymond of Toulouse, Raymond of Burgundy, in the Council of Burgos in 1080 the traditional Mozarabic rite was replaced by the Roman one
Kingdom of Castile
–
Flag
2.
Heraldry
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The beauty and pageantry of heraldic designs allowed them to survive the gradual abandonment of armour on the battlefield during the seventeenth century. Heraldry has been described poetically as the handmaid of history, the shorthand of history, in modern times, heraldry is used by individuals, public and private organizations, corporations, cities, towns, and regions to symbolize their heritage, achievements, and aspirations. Various symbols have been used to represent individuals or groups for thousands of years, similar emblems and devices are found in ancient Mesopotamian art of the same period, and the precursors of heraldic beasts such as the griffin can also be found. In the Bible, the Book of Numbers refers to the standards and ensigns of the children of Israel, the Greek and Latin writers frequently describe the shields and symbols of various heroes, and units of the Roman army were sometimes identified by distinctive markings on their shields. The Book of Saint Albans, compiled in 1486, declares that Christ himself was a gentleman of coat armour, the medieval heralds also devised arms for various knights and lords from history and literature. Notable examples include the toads attributed to Pharamond, the cross and martlets of Edward the Confessor, and the arms attributed to the Nine Worthies. These too are now regarded as an invention, rather than evidence of the antiquity of heraldry. The development of the modern heraldic language cannot be attributed to an individual, time. Yet no individual is depicted twice bearing the arms, nor are any of the descendants of the various persons depicted known to have borne devices resembling those in the tapestry. A Spanish manuscript from 1109 describes both plain and decorated shields, none of which appears to have been heraldic, in England, from the time of the Norman conquest, official documents had to be sealed. A notable example of an armorial seal is attached to a charter granted by Philip I, Count of Flanders. Seals from the part of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries show no evidence of heraldic symbolism. One of the earliest known examples of armory as it came to be practiced can be seen on the tomb of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. An enamel, probably commissioned by Geoffreys widow between 1155 and 1160, depicts him carrying a shield decorated with six golden lions rampant. He wears a helmet adorned with another lion, and his cloak is lined in vair. A medieval chronicle states that Geoffrey was given a shield of this description when he was knighted by his father-in-law, Henry I, in 1128, but this account probably dates to about 1175. Since Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, it seems reasonable to suppose that the adoption of lions as an emblem by Henry or his sons might have been inspired by Geoffreys shield. Richard is also credited with having originated the English crest of a lion statant and it is from this garment that the phrase coat of arms is derived
Heraldry
–
The German
Hyghalmen Roll was made in the late 15th century and illustrates the German practice of repeating themes from the arms in the crest. (See
Roll of arms).
Heraldry
–
Shields of Magister Militum Praesentalis II. Page from the
Notitia Dignitatum, a medieval copy of a Late Roman register of military commands
Heraldry
–
An extravagant example of marshalling: the 719 quarterings of the
Grenville Armorial at
Stowe.
Heraldry
–
The
Zechariah Seal coat of arms.
3.
Visual pun
–
A visual pun is a pun involving an image or images, often based on a rebus. Visual puns in which the image is at odds with the inscription are common in such as Lost Consonants or The Far Side as well as in Dutch gable stones. For instance the Batenburg stone from Prinsengracht, Amsterdam, shown here, puns on the words baten, european heraldry contains the technique of canting arms, which can be considered punning. In The Muppet Movie, while Kermit and Fozzie are driving, Kermit looks at the map and says they need to turn at the fork in the road. At this point he lowers the map and they see a giant fork in the middle of the road, in Spaceballs, Dark Helmet tries to order his troops to comb the desert for his adversaries. The next scene depicts troopers with giant combs, literally combing the desert, in Super Mario Bros. and Super Mario Bros. The Lost Levels, when Mario picks up a fire flower, fire flower in Japanese is literally 火花, meaning spark, hence he is picking up a spark. In Alice by Jan Švankmajer, there are a number of puns, including, socks in holes, Alice opens a sardine can to reveal a key. In the 1976 version of The Omen, after speaking with Mr. Thorn, the logo of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program is a stylized 月, but is also a pair of human feet, surrounded by a crescent moon, symbolizing walking on the moon. In the 2015 film Inside Out, Riley Andersens train of thought is literally a train, in Star Wars, The Force Awakens, the final scene of Luke Skywalker standing on a cliff is a cliffhanger. Japanese rebus monogram Slapstick Christian Hempelmann and Andrea C. “Visual Puns and Verbal Puns, Descriptive Analogy or False Analogy. ”In, Diana Popa and Salvatore Attardo, “New Approaches to the Linguistics of Humor. ”Princetonol. com So Much Pun, a collection of visual puns Another large collection of visual puns on TV Tropes
Visual pun
–
"Copying is not theft!" badge with a character resembling
Mickey Mouse is a visual pun on Mickey as a symbol of the whole
intellectual property industry and its attitude towards copying.
Visual pun
–
Batenburg gevelsteen,
Prinsengracht,
Amsterdam
Visual pun
–
Photo of
Uluru in
Australia with text "greetings from
Austria "
Visual pun
–
All is Vanity (1892) by
C. Allan Gilbert (the table was called a vanity)
4.
Rebus
–
A rebus is an allusional device that uses pictures to represent words or parts of words. It was a form of heraldic expression used in the Middle Ages to denote surnames. For example, in its form, three salmon are used to denote the surname Salmon. A more sophisticated example was the rebus of Bishop Walter Lyhart of Norwich, Rebuses are used extensively as a form of heraldic expression as a hint to the name of the bearer, they are not synonymous with canting arms. A man might have a rebus as an identification device entirely separate from his armorials. An example of canting arms proper are those of the Borough of Congleton in Cheshire consisting of an eel, a lion. This word sequence conger-leo-tun enunciates the towns name, similarly, the coat of arms of St. Ignatius Loyola contains wolves and a kettle, said by some to be a rebus for Loyola. The arms of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon feature bows and lions, a modern example of the rebus used as a form of word play is, H + = Hear, or Here. By extension, it uses the positioning of words or parts of words in relation to each other to convey a hidden meaning, for example, p walk ark. A rebus made up solely of letters is known as a gramogram, grammagram, the term rebus also refers to the use of a pictogram to represent a syllabic sound. A precursor to the development of the alphabet, this process one of the most important developments of writing. Fully developed hieroglyphs read in rebus fashion were in use at Abydos in Egypt as early as 3400 BCE, the writing of correspondence in rebus form became popular in the 18th century and continued into the 19th century. Lewis Carroll wrote the children he befriended picture-puzzle rebus letters, nonsense letters, and looking-glass letters, Rebus letters served either as a sort of code or simply as a pastime. In linguistics, the principle is the use of existing symbols, such as pictograms, purely for their sounds regardless of their meaning. Many ancient writing systems used the principle to represent abstract words. An example that illustrates the Rebus principle is the representation of the sentence I can see you by using the pictographs of eye—can—sea—ewe, some linguists believe that the Chinese developed their writing system according to the rebus principle, and Egyptian hieroglyphs sometimes used a similar system. A famous rebus statue of Ramses II uses three hieroglyphs to compose his name, Horus, for Ra, the child, mes, and the plant, su. Canada 1980s childrens game show Kidstreet featured a rebus during the bonus round, united Kingdom Catchphrase was a long-running game show which required contestants to decipher a rebus
Rebus
–
A German rebus, circa 1620.
Rebus
–
Three rebus-style "escort cards" from the 1860s or 1870s.
Rebus
–
Ramesses II as child: Hieroglyphs: Ra-mes-su.
Rebus
–
A rebus for the names of Japanese provinces, from around 1800.
5.
Anglo-Norman language
–
Anglo-Norman, also known as Anglo-Norman French, is a variety of the Norman language that was used in England and, to a lesser extent, elsewhere in the British Isles during the Anglo-Norman period. One of these was Old Norman, also known as Old Northern French, other followers spoke varieties of the Picard language or western French. It was spoken in the law courts, schools, and universities and, in due course, in at least some sections of the gentry and the growing bourgeoisie. Private and commercial correspondence was carried out in Anglo-Norman or Anglo-French from the 13th to the 15th century though its spelling forms were often displaced by continental spellings. Social classes other than the nobility became keen to learn French, manuscripts containing materials for instructing non-native speakers still exist, although Anglo-Norman and Anglo-French were eventually eclipsed by modern English, they had been used widely enough to influence English vocabulary permanently. Thus, many original Germanic words, cognates of which can still be found in Nordic, German, other such examples are heir apparent, court martial, and body politic. The Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom still features in French the mottos of both the British Monarch, Dieu et mon droit and the Order of the Garter, Honi soit qui mal y pense. Dieu et mon droit was first used by Richard I in 1198, the motto appears below the shield of the Royal Coat of Arms. Anglo-Norman was never the administrative language of England, Latin was the major language of record in legal. There is evidence, too, that foreign words often entered English via Anglo-Norman, by the late 15th century, however, what remained of insular French had become heavily anglicised, see Law French. It continued to be known as Norman French until the end of the 19th century even though, philologically, among important writers of the Anglo-Norman cultural commonwealth is Marie de France. Much of the earliest recorded French is in fact Anglo-Norman French, Latin did not disappear in medieval England either, it was used by the Church, the royal government and much local administration, as it had been before 1066, in parallel with Middle English. The early adoption of Anglo-Norman as a written and literary language probably owes something to this history of bilingualism in writing, thus, typically, local records are rather different from continental French, with diplomatic and international trade documents closest to the emerging continental norm. English remained the vernacular of the people throughout this period. The resulting virtual trilinguism in spoken and written language was one of medieval Latin, diverse French varieties, from the conquest until the end of the 14th century, French was the language of the king and his court. During this period, marriages with French princesses reinforced the French status in the royal family, nevertheless, during the 13th century, intermarriages with English nobility became more frequent. French became progressively a second language among the upper classes, moreover, with the Hundred Years War and the growing spirit of English nationalism, the status of French diminished. French was the tongue of every English king from William the Conqueror until Henry IV
Anglo-Norman language
–
About 28% of English
vocabulary comes from French, including the Anglo-French language (green)
6.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
7.
Society for Creative Anachronism
–
The Society for Creative Anachronism is an international living history group with the aim of studying and recreating mainly Medieval European cultures and their histories before the 17th century. Founded in 1966, the non-profit educational corporation has over 30,000 paid members as of 2014 with about 60,000 total participants in the society. The SCAs roots can be traced to a graduation party of a UC Berkeley medieval studies graduate. It ended with a parade down Telegraph Avenue with everyone singing Greensleeves and it was styled as a protest against the 20th century. The SCA still measures dates within the society from the date of that party, for example,2009 May 1 to 2010 April 30 was A. S. Berkeley was dropped as the group expanded, in 1968, Bradley moved to Staten Island, New York and founded the Kingdom of the East, holding a tournament that summer to determine the first Eastern King of the SCA. That September, a tournament was held at the 26th World Science Fiction Convention, the SCA had produced a book for the convention called A Handbook for the Current Middle Ages, which was a how-to book for people wanting to start their own SCA chapters. Convention goers purchased the book and the idea spread, soon, other local chapters began to form. In October 1968, the SCA was incorporated as a 501 non-profit corporation in California, by the end of 1969, the SCAs three original kingdoms had been established, West Kingdom, East, and Middle. All SCA kingdoms trace their roots to these original three, other activities include the study and practice of heraldry and scribal arts. Members are afforded opportunities to register a medieval name and coat of arms. SCA scribes produce illuminated scrolls to be given by SCA royalty as awards for various achievements, most local groups in the SCA hold weekly fighter practices, and many also hold regular archery practices, dance practices, A&S nights and other regular gatherings. Some kingdoms and regions also have occasional war practices, where fighters practice formations, some local groups participate in nearby Renaissance fairs, though the main focus of activity is organized through the SCAs own events. Each kingdom in the SCA runs its own schedule of events which are announced in the kingdom newsletter, other annual or semi-annual Kingdom-level events held analogously by most or all SCA kingdoms include Crown Tournament, Coronation, Kingdom Arts and Sciences competition and Queens Prize. Additionally, most baronies in the SCA have their own annual events such as Baronial Arts and Sciences competition, a championship tournament. Various SCA groups also sometimes host collegia or symposia, where members gather for a raft of classes on various medieval arts and sciences, the SCA produces two quarterly publications, The Compleat Anachronist and Tournaments Illuminated, and each kingdom publishes a monthly newsletter. The Compleat Anachronist is a quarterly monographic series, each focused on a specific topic related to the period of circa 600–1600 in European history. Issues are written by SCA members and have covered a range of topics
Society for Creative Anachronism
–
Society for Creative Anachronism
armored combat participants
Society for Creative Anachronism
–
Society for Creative Anachronism
Society for Creative Anachronism
–
Kingdoms of the Knowne World
Society for Creative Anachronism
–
An SCA participant in historically based clothing prepared for a feast
8.
Pun
–
The pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the use of homophonic, homographic, metonymic. A pun differs from a malapropism in that a malapropism is a variation on a correct expression. Puns may be regarded as in-jokes or idiomatic constructions, as their usage and meaning are specific to a particular language, Puns have a long history in human writing. Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs were originally based on punning systems, punning has been credited as the fundamental concept behind alphabets, writing, and even human civilization. Puns can be classified in various ways, including, The homophonic pun, walter Redfern exemplified this type with his statement, To pun is to treat homonyms as synonyms. For example, in George Carlins phrase Atheism is a non-prophet institution, similarly, the joke Question, Why do we still have troops in Germany. A homographic pun exploits words which are spelled the same but possess different meanings, because of their nature, they rely on sight more than hearing, contrary to homophonic puns. They are also known as heteronymic puns, an example that combines homophonic and homographic punning is Douglas Adamss line You can tune a guitar, but you cant tuna fish. Unless of course, you play bass, the phrase uses the homophonic qualities of tune a and tuna, as well as the homographic pun on bass, in which ambiguity is reached through the identical spellings of /ˈbeɪs/, and /ˈbæs/. Homonymic puns, another type, arise from the exploitation of words which are both homographs and homophones. An adaptation of a joke repeated by Isaac Asimov gives us Did you hear about the little moron who strained himself while running into the screen door, playing on strained as to give much effort and to filter. A homonymic pun may also be polysemic, in which the words must be homonymic and also possess related meanings, however, lexicographers define polysemes as listed under a single dictionary lemma while homonyms are treated in separate lemmata. A compound pun is a statement that two or more puns. For example, a statement by Richard Whately includes four puns. Because he can eat the sand which is there, but what brought the sandwiches there. Why, Noah sent Ham, and his descendants mustered and bred and this pun uses sand which is there/sandwiches there, Ham/ham, mustered/mustard, and bred/bread. Similarly, the piano is not my forte links two meanings of the words forte and piano, one for the dynamic markings in music
Pun
–
KLEPTOROUMANIA
Punch cartoon of the
Second Balkan War. King
Carol I of Romania points his pistol at King
Petar of Serbia and King
Constantine of Greece while he steals
Southern Dobrudja from the disarmed Tsar
Ferdinand of Bulgaria. The title "KLEPTOROUMANIA" is a pun on
kleptomania, the mental disorder of impulsive stealing for the sake of stealing.
9.
Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother
–
Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the wife of King George VI and the mother of Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon. She was the last Empress consort of India, born into a family of British nobility, she came to prominence in 1923 when she married Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. The couple and their daughters embodied traditional ideas of family and public service and she undertook a variety of public engagements and became known as the Smiling Duchess because of her consistent public expression. In 1936, her husband became king when his brother, Edward VIII. She accompanied her husband on diplomatic tours to France and North America before the start of World War II, during the war, her seemingly indomitable spirit provided moral support to the British public. In recognition of her role as an asset to British interests, after the war, her husbands health deteriorated and she was widowed at the age of 51. Her elder daughter, aged 25, became the new queen, on the death of Queen Mary in 1953, Elizabeth became the most senior member of the British royal family after the sovereign, and was viewed as the family matriarch. In her later years, she was a popular member of the family. She continued a public life until just a few months before her death at the age of 101, seven weeks after the death of her younger daughter. Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the youngest daughter and the ninth of ten children of Claude Bowes-Lyon, Lord Glamis, other possible locations include Forbes House in Ham, London, the home of her maternal grandmother, Louisa Scott. Her birth was registered at Hitchin, Hertfordshire, near the Strathmores English country house, St Pauls Walden Bury, which was also given as her birthplace in the census the following year. She was christened there on 23 September 1900, in the parish church, All Saints. She spent much of her childhood at St Pauls Walden and at Glamis Castle and she was educated at home by a governess until the age of eight, and was fond of field sports, ponies and dogs. When she started school in London, she astonished her teachers by precociously beginning an essay with two Greek words from Xenophons Anabasis and her best subjects were literature and scripture. After returning to education under a German Jewish governess, Käthe Kübler. On her fourteenth birthday, Britain declared war on Germany, four of her brothers served in the army. Her elder brother, Fergus, an officer in the Black Watch Regiment, was killed in action at the Battle of Loos in 1915, another brother, Michael, was reported missing in action on 28 April 1917. Three weeks later, the family discovered he had captured after being wounded
Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother
–
Portrait by
Richard Stone, 1986
Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother
–
Glamis Castle, the Strathmores' Scottish home
Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother
–
Elizabeth (back row second from left) as a bridesmaid at the wedding of
Princess Mary and
Viscount Lascelles, 1922
Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother
–
The Duke (right) and Duchess of York in
Queensland, 1927
10.
George VI
–
George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
George VI
–
Formal portrait, c. 1940–46
George VI
–
Four kings: Edward VII (far right), his son George, Prince of Wales, later George V (far left), and grandsons Edward, later Edward VIII (rear), and Albert, later George VI (foreground), c. 1908
George VI
–
Prince Albert (left) at an
RAF dinner in 1919 with
Sir Hugh Trenchard (centre) and
Christopher Courtney (right)
George VI
–
The Duke and Duchess (centre, reading programmes) at
Eagle Farm Racecourse,
Brisbane, 1927
11.
Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
–
Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the wife of King George VI and the mother of Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon. She was the last Empress consort of India, born into a family of British nobility, she came to prominence in 1923 when she married Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. The couple and their daughters embodied traditional ideas of family and public service and she undertook a variety of public engagements and became known as the Smiling Duchess because of her consistent public expression. In 1936, her husband became king when his brother, Edward VIII. She accompanied her husband on diplomatic tours to France and North America before the start of World War II, during the war, her seemingly indomitable spirit provided moral support to the British public. In recognition of her role as an asset to British interests, after the war, her husbands health deteriorated and she was widowed at the age of 51. Her elder daughter, aged 25, became the new queen, on the death of Queen Mary in 1953, Elizabeth became the most senior member of the British royal family after the sovereign, and was viewed as the family matriarch. In her later years, she was a popular member of the family. She continued a public life until just a few months before her death at the age of 101, seven weeks after the death of her younger daughter. Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the youngest daughter and the ninth of ten children of Claude Bowes-Lyon, Lord Glamis, other possible locations include Forbes House in Ham, London, the home of her maternal grandmother, Louisa Scott. Her birth was registered at Hitchin, Hertfordshire, near the Strathmores English country house, St Pauls Walden Bury, which was also given as her birthplace in the census the following year. She was christened there on 23 September 1900, in the parish church, All Saints. She spent much of her childhood at St Pauls Walden and at Glamis Castle and she was educated at home by a governess until the age of eight, and was fond of field sports, ponies and dogs. When she started school in London, she astonished her teachers by precociously beginning an essay with two Greek words from Xenophons Anabasis and her best subjects were literature and scripture. After returning to education under a German Jewish governess, Käthe Kübler. On her fourteenth birthday, Britain declared war on Germany, four of her brothers served in the army. Her elder brother, Fergus, an officer in the Black Watch Regiment, was killed in action at the Battle of Loos in 1915, another brother, Michael, was reported missing in action on 28 April 1917. Three weeks later, the family discovered he had captured after being wounded
Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
–
Portrait by
Richard Stone, 1986
Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
–
Glamis Castle, the Strathmores' Scottish home
Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
–
Elizabeth (back row second from left) as a bridesmaid at the wedding of
Princess Mary and
Viscount Lascelles, 1922
Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
–
The Duke (right) and Duchess of York in
Queensland, 1927
12.
Bow (weapon)
–
The bow and arrow is a projectile weapon system that predates recorded history and is common to most cultures. Archery is the art, practice, or skill of applying it, a bow is a flexible arc that shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends of the bow and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the bow are flexed, when the string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into the kinetic energy of the arrow. Archery is the art or sport of shooting arrows from bows, today, bows and arrows are used primarily for hunting and for the sport of archery. Someone who makes bows is known as a bowyer, and one who makes arrows is a fletcher —or in the case of the manufacture of arrow heads. The bow and arrow appears around the transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, at the site of Nataruk in Turkana County, Kenya, obsidian bladelets found embedded in a skull and within the thoracic cavity of another skeleton, suggest the use of stone-tipped arrows as weapons. After the end of the last glacial period, use of the bow seems to have spread to every inhabited continent, including the New World, the oldest extant bows in one piece are the elm Holmegaard bows from Denmark which were dated to 9,000 BCE. High-performance wooden bows are made following the Holmegaard design. Microliths discovered on the south coast of Africa suggest that arrows may be at least 71,000 years old, the bow was an important weapon for both hunting and warfare from prehistoric times until the widespread use of gunpowder in the 16th century. Organised warfare with bows ended in the mid 17th century in Europe, the British upper class led a revival of archery from the late 18th century. Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781, under the patronage of George, the basic elements of a bow are a pair of curved elastic limbs, traditionally made from wood, joined by a riser. Both ends of the limbs are connected by a known as the bow string. By pulling the string backwards the archer exerts compressive force on the section, or belly, of the limbs as well as placing the outer section, or back. While the string is held, this stores the energy released in putting the arrow to flight. The force required to hold the string stationary at full draw is used to express the power of a bow. Other things being equal, a draw weight means a more powerful bow. The various parts of the bow can be subdivided into further sections, the topmost limb is known as the upper limb, while the bottom limb is the lower limb. At the tip of each limb is a nock, which is used to attach the bowstring to the limbs, the riser is usually divided into the grip, which is held by the archer, as well as the arrow rest and the bow window
Bow (weapon)
–
A modern reconstruction, in fiberglass and wood, of a historical
composite bow
Bow (weapon)
–
Scythians shooting with bows,
Panticapeum (modern
Kertch), 4th century BCE.
Bow (weapon)
–
Polychrome small-scale model of the archer XI of the west pediment of the
Temple of Aphaea, ca. 505–500 BCE.
13.
Lion
–
A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as one electrode material, the electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell. Lithium-ion batteries are common in home electronics and they are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density, tiny memory effect and low self-discharge. Beyond consumer electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, battery electric vehicle, for example, lithium-ion batteries are becoming a common replacement for the lead–acid batteries that have been used historically for golf carts and utility vehicles. Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types, handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide, which offers high energy density, but presents safety risks, especially when damaged. Lithium iron phosphate, lithium ion manganese oxide battery and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide offer lower energy density, such batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular is a contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide and lithium titanate are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles, the newer lithium–sulfur batteries promise the highest performance-to-weight ratio. Lithium-ion batteries can pose unique safety hazards since they contain a flammable electrolyte, an expert notes If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires. Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-electrolyte batteries, there have been battery-related recalls by some companies, including the 2016 Samsung Note 7 recall for battery fires. This article covers just the topics and general principles of lithium-ion batteries. Nearly all facets have elements that are impacted by currently very active development or research, a cell is a basic electrochemical unit that contains the basic components, such as electrodes, separator, and electrolyte. In the case of cells, this is the single cylindrical, prismatic or pouch unit. In this regard, the simplest battery is a cell with perhaps a small electronic circuit for protection. In many cases, distinguishing between cell and battery is not important, however, this should be done when dealing with specific applications, for example, battery electric vehicles, where battery may indicate a high voltage system of 400 V, and not a single cell. The term module is used as an intermediate topology, with the understanding that a battery pack is made of modules. In electrochemistry, the anode is the electrode where oxidation is taking place in the battery, i. e. electrons get free, however, this happens on opposite electrodes during charge vs. discharge. Historically, for lithium cells, which started as single use discharge cells and this is true on discharge, but with a rechargeable system, the negative electrode chemically becomes the cathode while charging
Lion
–
An example of a Li-ion battery (used on the
Nokia 3310 mobile phone)
Lion
Lion
–
Varta lithium-ion battery,
Museum Autovision,
Altlussheim, Germany
Lion
–
Cylindrical 18650 lithium iron phosphate cell before closing
14.
Princess Beatrice of York
–
Princess Beatrice of York is the elder daughter of Prince Andrew, Duke of York, and Sarah, Duchess of York. Beatrice is seventh in line to succeed her grandmother, Queen Elizabeth II and her name, an unexpected choice, was not announced until almost two weeks after her birth. Beatrice began her education at the independent Upton House School in Windsor. From there, she and her sister attended the independent Coworth Park School from 1995. Beatrice continued her education at the independent St Georges School in Ascot, having been diagnosed with dyslexia as a child, she delayed sitting her GCSE exams for one year. She remained at St Georges to take her A-Levels, gaining a grade A in drama and she was elected Head Girl in her final year. In September 2008, she started a course studying for a BA in History and History of Ideas at Goldsmiths College. Princess Beatrice graduated in 2011 with a 2,1 degree, in 2002, Beatrice visited children living with HIV in Russia, and, in Britain, she supported Springboard for Children and the Teenage Cancer Trust. During the summer of 2008, Beatrice volunteered as an assistant at Selfridges, and it was reported Beatrice. In April 2010, running to raise money for Children in Crisis, Beatrice was in a long-term relationship with Virgin Galactic businessman Dave Clark until July 2016. Princess Beatrice attends garden parties and receptions at Buckingham Palace, at the wedding of her cousin Prince William, Beatrices fascinator designed by Philip Treacy was remarked upon by some as an odd choice of fashion. In May 2011, the hat was offered for sale on the auction site eBay with the proceeds going to charity. Princess Beatrice accompanied her grandmother, the Queen, to the traditional Royal Maundy services on 5 April 2012 in York and she and the Duke of Edinburgh were the sole members of the royal family to attend the Maundy Thursday services at York Minster with the Queen. There, Beatrice interacted with parishioners, received flowers from the public, in the lead up to the 2012 Summer Olympics Princess Beatrice welcomed the Olympic flame on the steps of Harewood House near Leeds. In 2013, Beatrice and her sister promoted Britain overseas in Germany and she also visited the Isle of Wight in 2014. After the birth of her first cousin once removed, Princess Charlotte of Cambridge in 2015, in November 2012, Beatrice became a patron of the York Musical Society. In April 2013, she became patron of The Helen Arkell Dyslexia Centre. She accompanied her father during an engagement in the United Arab Emirates on 24 November 2014
Princess Beatrice of York
–
Princess Beatrice at the wedding of
Lady Melissa Percy, 22 June 2013
Princess Beatrice of York
–
Princess Beatrice with her sister at
Trooping the Colour, June 2013.
Princess Beatrice of York
–
The infamous fascinator worn by Princess Beatrice at the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton.
15.
Bee
–
Bees are flying insects closely related to wasps and ants, known for their role in pollination and, in the case of the best-known bee species, the European honey bee, for producing honey and beeswax. Bees are a lineage within the superfamily Apoidea, presently considered as a clade Anthophila. There are nearly 20,000 known species of bees in seven to nine recognized families, though many are undescribed and they are found on every continent except Antarctica, in every habitat on the planet that contains insect-pollinated flowering plants. Some species including honey bees, bumblebees, and stingless bees live socially in colonies, Bees are adapted for feeding on nectar and pollen, the former primarily as an energy source and the latter primarily for protein and other nutrients. Most pollen is used as food for larvae, Bee pollination is important both ecologically and commercially, the decline in wild bees has increased the value of pollination by commercially managed hives of honey bees. The most common bees in the Northern Hemisphere are the Halictidae, or sweat bees, vertebrate predators of bees include birds such as bee-eaters, insect predators include beewolves and dragonflies. Human beekeeping or apiculture has been practised for millennia, since at least the times of Ancient Egypt, apart from honey and pollination, honey bees produce beeswax, royal jelly and propolis. Bees have appeared in mythology and folklore, again since ancient times, and they feature in works of literature as varied as Virgils Georgics, Beatrix Potters The Tale of Mrs Tittlemouse, yeatss poem The Lake Isle of Innisfree. Bee larvae are included in the Javanese dish botok tawon, where they are steamed with shredded coconut. The ancestors of bees were wasps in the family Crabronidae, which were predators of other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the consumption of insects which were flower visitors and were partially covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. This same evolutionary scenario may have occurred within the vespoid wasps, until recently, the oldest non-compression bee fossil had been found in New Jersey amber, Cretotrigona prisca of Cretaceous age, a corbiculate bee. A bee fossil from the early Cretaceous, Melittosphex burmensis, is considered an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea sister to the modern bees. Derived features of its place it clearly within the bees. By the Eocene there was considerable diversity among eusocial bee lineages. The highly eusocial corbiculate Apidae appeared roughly 87 Mya, and the Allodapini around 53 Mya, the Colletidae appear as fossils only from the late Oligocene to early Miocene. The Melittidae are known from Palaeomacropis eocenicus in the Early Eocene, the Megachilidae are known from trace fossils from the Middle Eocene. The Andrenidae are known from the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, around 34 Mya, the Halictidae first appear in the Early Eocene with species found in amber
Bee
Bee
Bee
–
Melittosphex burmensis, a fossil bee preserved in
amber from the
Early Cretaceous of
Myanmar
Bee
–
Long-tongued bees and long-tubed flowers
coevolved, like this
Amegilla cingulata on
Acanthus ilicifolius.
16.
Rose (heraldry)
–
The rose is a common device in heraldry. It is often used both as a charge on a coat of arms and by itself as a heraldic badge, the heraldic rose has a stylized form consisting of five symmetrical lobes, five barbs, and a circular seed. The rose is one of the most common plant symbols in heraldry, together with the lily, the rose was the symbol of the English Tudor dynasty, and the ten-petaled Tudor rose is associated with England. Roses also feature prominently in the arms of the princely House of Lippe, the normal appearance of the heraldic rose is a five-petaled rose, mimicking the look of a wild rose on a hedgerow. It is shown singly and full-faced and it most commonly has yellow seeds in the center and five green barbs as backing, such a rose is blazoned as barbed and seeded proper or buckled and dethroned. If the seeds and barbs are of a different colour, then the rose is barbed and seeded of that colour, the rose of Lippe shown above, for example, is blazoned a rose gules, barbed and seeded Or. Some variations on the rose have been used, roses may appear with a stem, in which case they are described as slipped or stalked. A rose with a stalk and leaves may also be referred to as a damask rose, Rose branches, slips, and leaves have occasionally appeared in arms alone, without the flower. A combination of two roses, one within the other, is termed a double rose, famously used by the Tudors, a rose sometimes appears surrounded by rays, which makes it a rose-en-soleil. Roses may appear within a chaplet, a garland of leaves with four flowers, in badges, it is not uncommon for a rose to be conjoined with another device. Catherine of Aragons famous badge was a pomegranate conjoined with the rose of her husband. Heraldic roses feature prominently in English history, the White Rose of York was later used as the badge of Jacobitism in England and Scotland, and before World War I one of Britains main Jacobite organizations was called the Order of the White Rose. Red and white roses appear in the heraldry of Lancashire and Yorkshire respectively. The House of Tudor that came to power at the end of the wars used a combination of their two roses, the ten-petaled Tudor rose. The Tudor rose is depicted white on red on a field of gold or silver and it is used as a floral emblem of England, just as the thistle is associated with Scotland. It appears in the compartment of the coats of arms of both the United Kingdom and Canada, a red rose appears on the collar of the Order of the Garter. The Luther rose, a combined with a ring, heart. The Luther rose is used as a charge in its own right
Rose (heraldry)
–
Canting arms of the
House of Rosenberg as they appear on the gate of
Vyšší Brod Monastery
Rose (heraldry)
–
Coat of arms of
Lippe: Argent, a rose gules barbed and seeded Or.
17.
Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone
–
He was considered for the leadership of his party in 1963, and held for more than a decade the office formerly held by his father, that of Lord Chancellor. He became a Prize Fellow of All Souls in 1931, although originally he read classics, he won his prize fellowship in law and was called to the bar in 1932. He spoke in opposition to the motion That this House will in no circumstances fight for its King and his favourite hobby was mountain-climbing, and his ankles were broken so many times that in old age he was able to walk only with two canes. Hogg participated in his first election campaign in the 1924 general election, in 1938, Hogg was chosen as a candidate for Parliament in the Oxford by-election. Hogg narrowly defeated Lindsay, who was said to be horrified by the slogan of Hitler wants Hogg. Hogg voted against Neville Chamberlain in the Norway Debate of May 1940 and he served briefly in the desert campaign as a platoon commander with the Rifle Brigade during the Second World War. His commanding officer had been his contemporary at Eton, after him, in the run-up to the 1945 election, Hogg wrote a response to the book Guilty Men, called The Left was never Right. Hoggs father died in 1950 and Hogg entered the House of Lords as the 2nd Viscount Hailsham. Believing his political career to be over he concentrated on the bar for some years, becoming head of his chambers and he became First Lord of the Admiralty under Eden in 1956, and under Macmillan was chairman of the party and campaign organiser for the 1959 general election. Hogg appeared before the Wolfenden Committee to discuss homosexuality, the historian Patrick Higgins said that he used it as an opportunity to express his disgust. He stated The instinct of mankind to describe acts as unnatural is not based on mere prejudice and that homosexuals were corrupting. In June 1963 when his fellow Minister John Profumo had to resign after admitting telling lies to Parliament about his private life, Sir Reginald Paget called this a virtuoso performance of the art of kicking a friend in the guts. He added, When self-indulgence has reduced a man to the shape of Lord Hailsham and he was Leader of the House of Lords when Harold Macmillan, the Prime Minister, announced his sudden resignation for health reasons at the start of the 1963 Conservative Party conference. At that time there was no ballot for the Conservative Party leadership. Hailsham, who was at first Macmillans preferred successor, announced that he would use the newly enacted Peerage Act to disclaim his title and fight a by-election and return to the House of Commons. His publicity-seeking antics at the Party Conference were considered vulgar at the time, Hogg failed to win the leadership bid but did win his fathers old constituency of St Marylebone. Hogg as a campaigner was known for his robust rhetoric and theatrical gestures and he was renowned as one of the great Conservative speakers, his addresses to the party as chairman in 1958 and 1959 were remembered for decades afterwards. He was usually in form in dealing with hecklers, a valuable skill in the 1960s
Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone
–
The Right Honourable The Lord Hailsham of St Marylebone
KG CH PC QC FRS
18.
Pig
–
A pig is any of the animals in the genus Sus, within the Suidae family of even-toed ungulates. Pigs include the domestic pig and its ancestor, the common Eurasian wild boar, along with species, related creatures outside the genus include the peccary, the babirusa. Pigs, like all suids, are native to the Eurasian and African continents, juvenile pigs are known as piglets. Pigs are highly social and intelligent animals, with around 1 billion individuals alive at any time, the domesticated pig is one of the most numerous large mammals on the planet. Pigs are omnivores and can consume a range of food. Pigs can harbour a range of parasites and diseases that can be transmitted to humans, because of the similarities between pigs and humans, pigs are used for human medical research. The Online Etymology Dictionary provides anecdotal evidence as well as linguistic, saying that the term derives probably from Old English *picg, found in compounds, apparently related to Low German bigge, Dutch big. Another Old English word for pig was fearh, related to furh furrow, from PIE *perk- dig and this reflects a widespread IE tendency to name animals from typical attributes or activities. Synonyms grunter, porker are from sailors and fishermens euphemistic avoidance of uttering the word pig at sea, a superstition perhaps based on the fate of the Gadarene swine and it is entirely likely that the word to call pigs, soo-ie, is similarly derived. A typical pig has a head with a long snout which is strengthened by a special prenasal bone. The snout is used to dig into the soil to find food and is an acute sense organ. There are four hoofed toes on each trotter, with the two larger central toes bearing most of the weight, but the two also being used in soft ground. The dental formula of adult pigs is 3.1.4.33.1.4.3, the rear teeth are adapted for crushing. In the male, the teeth form tusks, which grow continuously and are sharpened by constantly being ground against each other. Occasionally, captive mother pigs may savage their own piglets, often if they become severely stressed, some attacks on newborn piglets are non-fatal. Others may cause the death of the piglets and sometimes, the mother may eat the piglets and it is estimated that 50% of piglet fatalities are due to the mother attacking, or unintentionally crushing, the newborn pre-weaned animals. Scientists have recently discovered that pigs can exhibit a bias and are optimists or pessimests. In a study by the University of Lincoln,36 pigs were tested and they were placed in a room with two food bowls at each end of the room
Pig
–
Pig
Pig
–
Domesticated pig
Pig
–
Pig in a bucket
Pig
–
A pig trained to find
truffles.
19.
Cockburn (surname)
–
Cockburn /ˈkoʊbərn/ is a Scottish surname that originated in the Borders region of the Scottish Lowlands. In the United States most branches of the family have adopted the simplified spelling Coburn. The French branch of the uses the spelling de Cockborne. The Cockburn surname had appeared by the early 13th century, when it was employed to identify individuals from a district or location called Cockburn. There are several Cockburn placenames that are located near Cockburn Law along Whiteadder Water including Cockburn farm, Cockburn Mill, a Cockburn Tower reportedly existed in this same general area. It is unclear, however, whether this region in Berwickshire is in fact the origin of the family name. However, the dating of this document has recently revised to 1251–1274. A Robert de Cockburn is mentioned as a ‘serviens’ in a charter, dating from 1232 to 1242, in land is granted to the Chapel of St. Nicholas. The knight Sir Roberto de Cokeburn is mentioned in a charter that was prepared in Chirnside on 4 November 1261 during the reign of Patrick III, Sir Roberto de Cokeburne is mentioned in another charter as being the constable of the royal burgh of Roxburgh. A Petro de Kokeburne is mentioned on a document, dated from 15 May 1285, in the mid 13th century, the landowner Johannes de Kocburn granted land near his property at Collessie in Fife to Lindores Abbey. However, it appears that at least one other Cockburn landowner incurred the disfavor of Longshanks at about this time, in a charter dated March 20,1312, King Edward II restored to Nigel de Cockburn his former land in Megget. This land had been awarded to another man by the previous English king because Nigel had been declared a rebel, possibly Nigel de Cockburn had chosen to avoid signing the Ragman Roll back in 1296. Perhaps Edward II was attempting to secure new Scottish allies prior to his invasion of Scotland because in the same charter the king restored land to eleven other former Scottish rebels. Historically there have been many spellings of the family name. Early medieval spellings included Cokburne, Cokeburne, Kokeburne and other variations, in Scotland the spelling of the family name had stabilized to Cockburn by the late 17th century, and this is the spelling most commonly used today in British Commonwealth countries. In the United States, the simplified spelling Coburn is more used than Cockburn. In Cumberland, England, the Cockbain family emerged from Scottish Cockburn ancestors, a branch of the family was established in France in the 16th century by mercenary soldiers. In 1494, a Thomas Cocquebourne was serving as an archer in the Garde Écossaise, many more Cockburn mercenaries served the Kings of France in this elite unit over the next century
Cockburn (surname)
–
Modern-day plaque marking the tomb of Perys de Cokburne and his wife Marjory at the site of the now lost Chapel Knowe. The heavily weathered tomb is believed to date from the 14th or 15th centuries. A branch of the Cockburns were lairds of nearby Henderland in
Selkirkshire starting in the mid-14th century.
Cockburn (surname)
–
Crest: A cock crowing Proper
Cockburn (surname)
–
Admiral Sir George Cockburn, 10th Baronet Cockburn of Langton
Cockburn (surname)
–
Sir Alexander Cockburn, Lord Chief Justice, 12th Baronet Cockburn of Langton
20.
Rooster
–
A rooster, also known as a cockerel or cock, is a male gallinaceous bird, usually a male chicken. Mature male chickens less than one year old are called cockerels, the term rooster originates in the United States, and the term is widely used throughout North America, as well as Australia and New Zealand. The older terms cock or cockerel, the latter denoting a young cock, are used in the United Kingdom, roosting is the action of perching aloft to sleep at day, which is done by both sexes. The rooster is polygamous, but cannot guard several nests of eggs at once and he guards the general area where his hens are nesting, and attacks other roosters that enter his territory. During the daytime, a rooster often sits on a perch, usually 0.9 to 1.5 m off the ground. He sounds an alarm call if predators are nearby. Roosters almost always start crowing before four months of age, although it is possible for a hen to crow as well, crowing is one of the clearest signs of being a rooster. The rooster is often portrayed as crowing at the break of dawn, however, while many roosters crow shortly after waking up, this idea is not exactly true. A rooster can and will crow at any time of the day, some roosters are especially vociferous, crowing almost constantly, while others only crow a few times a day. These differences are dependent both upon the breed and individual personality. A rooster can often be sitting on fence posts or other objects. Roosters have several other calls as well, and can cluck, Roosters occasionally make a patterned series of clucks to attract hens to a source of food, the same way a mother hen does for her chicks. Rooster crowing contests are a sport in several countries, such as Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium. Depending on the breed, either the duration of the crowing or the times the rooster crows within a time is measured. A capon is a castrated rooster, in the caponization procedure, the birds testes are completely removed, a surgical procedure is required for this as the roosters sexual organs are internal. The hackle, tail and saddle feathers grow unusually long, caponization also affects the disposition of the bird. Removal of the birds testes eliminates the male sex hormones, lessening the male sex instincts and changing their behaviour, the birds become more docile, less active and this procedure produces a unique type of poultry meat which is favoured by a specialized market. The meat of normal uncastrated roosters has a tendency to become coarse, stringy and this process does not occur in the capon
Rooster
–
Cockerel next to the medieval chapel of
Lynch.
Rooster
–
A young
Berg crower at a crowing contest
Rooster
–
Two cocks fighting
Rooster
–
A rooster from the
Philippines crowing. Note the characteristic neck bending that always takes place during crowing.
21.
Crowninshield family
–
The Crowninshield family is an American family that has been prominent in seafaring, political and military leadership, and the literary world. The founder of the American family emigrated from what is now Germany in the late 17th century, the family is one of several known collectively as Boston Brahmins. Johann Caspar Richter was an Old Saxon landowner and shipper-trader originally from the south of Denmark and he moved to the German village of Kronenschieldt, near Leipzig, during the Thirty Years War and married Maria Hahn, from Annaburg in Saxony-Anhalt. The family adopted the name as their surname. Their son, Johannes Caspar Richter von Kronenschieldt, was born in Leipzig circa 1661, after being educated briefly at the University of Leipzig, he moved to Boston, Massachusetts in about 1688. He anglicized his name to John Caspar Crowninshield and married Elizabeth Allen on December 5,1694 in Lynn, Massachusetts and their children began the Crowninshield family known today. His great-granddaughter Mary Crowinshield was the wife of Senator Nathaniel Silsbee, although the familys roots are Danish and German, most of the more recent lines of the Crowninshield family in Massachusetts are primarily of English stock. Shortly after moving to Essex County, Massachusetts, and especially the town of Salem and they helped settle Salem and led it to seafaring prominence, helping turn it into an important seaport as well as a settlement for affluent families by the late 18th century. George Crowninshield founded the Crowninshield & Sons shipping business with his five sons, in Salem, the family built Crowninshields Wharf, one of three major town wharfs at the time. As a result, the Crowninshields became highly influential in the trade in tea, cod, molasses, Madeira wine, Valencia oranges, Málaga grapes, salt, iron. The family was responsible for starting the first major sea trade. The earlier pepper trade between Asia and Europe had been land-based, lieutenant Benjamin Crowninshield served from 17 October 1778 on the American privateer Black Prince during the American Revolution, which raided Fishguard and disrupted British merchant shipping. He was a son of Jacob Crowninshield and Hannah Carlton, a son of George Crowninshield, sea adventurer George Crowninshield Jr. built and sailed the yacht Cleopatras Barge, named after the ancient ship used by Cleopatra VII. It became the first yacht to cross the Atlantic Ocean, although the familys prominence was originally gained via seafaring, Crowninshields later became most noted for the public service, primarily in politics and the military. The early Crowninshields were Republicans and were noted for their support of Thomas Jefferson. The Crowninshields were particularly praised for their naval leadership, representative Jacob Crowninshield was appointed to be the second person to hold the position by Thomas Jefferson, but did not serve due to his ill health. His grandson Arent S. Crowninshield served as an admiral in the United States Navy, william Crowninshield Endicott was United States Secretary of War during Grover Clevelands first term as President of the United States. During the late 19th and 20th centuries, the Crowninshields were mostly visible in the arts, frank Crowninshield created and edited Vanity Fair magazine, while Francis Boardman Crowninshield became an accomplished painter and architect
Crowninshield family
–
Navy collection image of Secretary
Benjamin Williams Crowninshield
Crowninshield family
–
Arms of Dr. Johann Kasper Richter von Kronenscheldt
Crowninshield family
–
1818 painting of Cleopatra's barge by George Ropes in
Peabody Essex Museum
Crowninshield family
–
Photo of Secretary of War William Crowninshield Endicott
22.
Crown (headgear)
–
In art, the crown may be shown being offered to those on Earth by angels. In religious art, a crown of stars is used similarly to a halo, crowns worn by rulers often contain jewels. A crown is often an emblem of the monarchy, a monarchs government, the word itself is used, particularly in Commonwealth countries, as an abstract name for the monarchy itself, as distinct from the individual who inhabits it. A specific type of crown is employed in heraldry under strict rules, costume headgear imitating a monarchs crown is also called a crown. Such costume crowns may be worn by actors portraying a monarch, people at parties, or ritual monarchs such as the king of a Carnival krewe. The nuptial crown, sometimes called a coronal, worn by a bride, in the present day, it is most common in Eastern Orthodox cultures. The Eastern Orthodox marriage service has a section called the crowning, wherein the bride and groom are crowned as king, in Greek weddings, the crowns are diadems usually made of white flowers, synthetic or real, often adorned with silver or mother of pearl. They are placed on the heads of the newlyweds and are held together by a ribbon of white silk and they are then kept by the couple as a reminder of their special day. In Slavic weddings, the crowns are made of ornate metal, designed to resemble an imperial crown. A parish usually owns one set to use for all the couples that are married there since these are more expensive than Greek-style crowns. This was common in Catholic countries in the past, a Crown of thorns according to the Bible, was placed on the head of Jesus before his crucifixion and has become a common symbol of martyrdom. According to Roman Catholic tradition, the Blessed Virgin Mary was crowned as Queen of Heaven after her assumption into heaven and she is often depicted wearing a crown, and statues of her in churches and shrines are ceremonially crowned during May. The Crown of Immortality is also common in historical symbolism, dancers of certain traditional Thai dances often wear crowns on their head. These are inspired in the worn by deities and by kings. Three distinct categories of crowns exist in those monarchies that use crowns or state regalia, coronation, worn by monarchs when being crowned. State, worn by monarchs on other state occasions, consort crowns, worn by queens consort, signifying rank granted as a constitutional courtesy protocol. In Classical antiquity, the crown that was awarded to people other than rulers, such as triumphal military generals or athletes, was actually a wreath or chaplet. Numerous crowns of various forms were used in antiquity, such as the Hedjet, Deshret, the Pschent double crown and it was referred to as the chaplet studded with sunbeams” by Lucian, about 180 AD
Crown (headgear)
–
The
Imperial State Crown of Great Britain, Tower of London. It incorporates the "Black Prince's Ruby", a 140 ct. Badakhshan spinel. This image of the crown was taken prior to the 1953 coronation, when the crown was modified for Queen Elizabeth II
Crown (headgear)
–
Crown of Bolesław I the Brave from
Poland. Replica made between 2001 and 2003 after the original 1000-year-old crown was destroyed in the late 18th century.
Crown (headgear)
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, probably the most ancient royal insignia of Europe, used by the
Holy Roman Empire and the
Kingdom of Italy, kept in the Cathedral of
Monza.
Crown (headgear)
–
Crown of King
George XII of Georgia made of gold and decorated with 145 diamonds, 58 rubies, 24 emeralds and 16 amethysts. It took the form of a circlet surmounted by ornaments and eight arches. A globe surmounted by a cross rested on the top of the crown.
23.
Shield
–
A shield is a piece of personal armour held in the hand or mounted on the wrist or forearm. Shields are used to specific attacks, whether from close-ranged weaponry or projectiles such as arrows, by means of active blocks. Shields vary greatly in size, ranging from large panels that protect the whole body to small models that were intended for hand-to-hand-combat use. In prehistory and during the era of the earliest civilisations, shields were made of wood, animal hide and they were carried by foot soldiers, knights and cavalry. Depending on time and place, shields could be round, oval, square, rectangular, triangular, sometimes they took on the form of kites or flatirons, or had rounded tops on a rectangular base with perhaps an eye-hole, to look through when used with combat. The shield was held by a grip or by straps that went over or around the users arm. Often shields were decorated with a pattern or an animal representation to show their army or clan. These designs developed into systematized heraldic devices during the High Middle Ages for purposes of battlefield identification, even after the introduction of gunpowder and firearms to the battlefield, shields continued to be used by certain groups. In the 20th and 21st century, shields have been used by military and police units that specialize in anti-terrorist actions, hostage rescue, riot control and siege-breaking. The modern term usually refers to a device that is held in the hand or attached to the arm, Shields are also sometimes mounted on vehicle-mounted weapons to protect the operator. The oldest form of shield was a device designed to block attacks by hand weapons, such as swords, axes and maces, or ranged weapons like sling-stones. Shields have varied greatly in construction time and place. Sometimes shields were made of metal, but wood or animal hide construction was more common, wicker. Many surviving examples of metal shields are generally felt to be rather than practical, for example the Yetholm-type shields of the Bronze Age. Lightly armored warriors relying on speed and surprise would generally carry light shields that were small or thin. Heavy troops might be equipped with robust shields that could cover most of the body, many had a strap called a guige that allowed them to be slung over the users back when not in use or on horseback. During the 14th–13th century BC, the Sards or Shardana, working as mercenaries for the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II, the Mycenaean Greeks used two types of shields, the figure-of-eight shield and a rectangular tower shield. These shields were made primarily from a frame and then reinforced with leather
Shield
–
Zulu warriors with shields, a detail from an 1847 drawing
Shield
–
Wall painting depicting a
Mycenaean Greek "figure eight" shield with a suspension strap at the middle, 15th century BC,
National Archaeological Museum, Athens -The faces of figure eight shields were quite convex. The cited "strap" may be the ridge on the front (so denoted by the visible pattern of the ox hide) of the shield.
Shield
–
Two wooden round shields survived at
Thorsberg moor (3rd century A.D.)
Shield
–
A portrait probably made by a Mughal artist. The courtier dressed in floral robes facing left and carrying weapons and a black shield.
24.
De Barry family
–
The de Barry family is a noble family of Cambro-Norman origins which held extensive land holdings in Wales and Ireland. The founder of the family was a Norman Knight, Odo, as reward for his military services, Odo was granted estates in Pembrokeshire and around Barry, Wales, including Barry Island just off the coast and named after the 6th century Saint Baruc. From hence a noble family, of the parts of South Wales, who owned this island. Many family members assisted in the Norman invasion of Ireland. Odo de Barry was the grantee of the manor of Manorbier in Pembrokeshire. He built the first motte-and-bailey at Manorbier and his son, William FitzOdo de Barry, is the common ancestor of the Barry family in Ireland. He rebuilt Manorbier Castle in stone and the family retained the lordship of Manorbier until the 15th century and he had sons, Robert, Philip, Walter and Gerald by Angharad daughter of Gerald de Windsor and Nest ferch Rhys. After Geralds death, Nests sons married her to Stephen, her husbands constable of Cardigan Castle, Robert de Barry accompanied his half-uncle Robert Fitz-Stephen in the Norman invasion of Ireland. He took part in the Siege of Wexford and was killed at the battle of Lismore in 1185, the latter cantred, variously called Muscry-donnegan or ODonegans country or Múscraighe Tri Maighe, was a rural deanery in the Diocese of Cloyne. It is now identified as the barony of Orrery and Kilmore, the name Olethan is an anglicisation of the Gaelic Uí Liatháin which refers to the early medieval kingdom of the Uí Liatháin. This petty kingdom encompassed most of the present Barony of Barrymore, the name Killyde survives in Killeady Hills, the name of the hill country south of the city of Cork. These cantreds or baronies had been expropriated by another first cousin, Ralph Fitz-Stephen, Robert Fitz-Stephen eventually ceded these territories to Philip de Barry, his half-nephew. In 1181, King Henry II of England ennobled Robert de Barry as Baron Barry of Olethan, in 1267, King Henry II of England appointed Lord David de Barry as Chief Justice of Ireland. In 1385, King Richard II of England raised John Barry to the viscountcy as Viscount Buttevant, in 1627, King Charles I of England elevated David Barry as Earl of Barrymore. Barryscourt Castle near Carrigtwohill was the seat of the Barry family from the 12th century until 1617 when they removed to Barrymore Castle in Castlelyons, in 1771, the 7th Earl saw Barrymore Castle burn to the ground. The family fortunes were subsequently dissipatated by his issue, the 7th and 8th Earls, the name of the town of Buttevant is believed to derive from the familys battle cry - Boutez-en-Avant, roughly translating as Kick your way through. The most prominent Gaelic neighbours of the de Barrys were the MacCarthy Reagh dynasty, for the most part, with not a great many exceptions, the two families kept on good terms, and also regularly intermarried. The de Barrys are descended from several of the MacCarthy Reagh princes through their daughters, likewise the Barrys intermarried with the also powerful MacCarthys of Muskerry
De Barry family
–
Arms of de Barry: Argent, three bars gemelles gules; crest: Out of a castle argent a wolf's head sable
De Barry family
–
Arms of de Barry: Argent, three bars gemelles gules
De Barry family
–
St Mary's Church, Buttevant 1832-1836
De Barry family
–
The British Military Establishment, Buttevant 1815-1922
25.
Bar (heraldry)
–
In heraldry, a bar is an ordinary consisting of a horizontal band across the shield. If only one bar appears across the middle of the shield, it is termed a fess, calling the bar a diminutive of the fess is inaccurate, however, because two bars may each be no smaller than a fess. Like the fess, bars too may bear complex lines, the diminutive form of the bar is the barrulet, though these frequently appear in pairs, the pair termed a bar gemel rather than two barrulets. A single bar placed across the top of the field is called a chief, a single bar placed over the center of the field is called a fess. Two to four of these appearing on a shield are called bars, a still thinner bar or riband is known as a cottise. Cottises never appear alone and have no direction of their own, the ordinary thus accompanied by a cottise on each side is then described as cottised, or these may even be doubly cottised. The closet is described as a band of the thickness between a bar and a barrulet, but is rarely found. A bar that has been couped at the ends so as not to reach the edges of the field is called a hamade, hamaide or hummet, after the town of La Hamaide in Hainaut, as a charge, it is almost always depicted in threes. A field divided by many bars — often six, eight or ten parts with two alternating tinctures — is described as barry. A field divided into five, seven or nine parts with two alternating tinctures is not called barry, however, but two, three or four bars, a barry design consisting of ten or more parts is comparatively rare and is called barruly rather than barry
Bar (heraldry)
–
Barry (of ten) argent and azure
26.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
The Eisenhower family home,
Abilene, Kansas.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
Eisenhower (2nd from left) and
Omar Bradley (2nd from right) were members of the
1912 West Point football team.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
–
Eisenhower (far right) with three unidentified people in 1919, four years after graduating from West Point.
27.
Order of the Elephant
–
The Order of the Elephant is the highest order of Denmark. After the Reformation in 1536 the confraternity died out, but a badge in the form of an elephant with his profile on its side was still awarded by Frederick II. This latter badge may have inspired by the badge of office of the chaplain of the confraternity which is known to have been in the form of an elephant. The order was instituted in its current form on 1 December 1693 by King Christian V as having one class consisting of only 30 noble knights in addition to the Grand Master. The statutes of the order were amended in 1958 by a Royal Ordinance so that men and women could be members of the order. The Danish monarch is the head of the order, the members of the royal family are members of the order, and foreign heads of state are also inducted. In very exceptional circumstances a commoner may also admitted, the most recent member of the order who was neither a current or former head of state nor royal was Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller, a leading industrialist and philanthropist. The order of the Elephant has one class, Knight of the Order of the Elephant, Knights of the order are granted a place in the 1st Class of the Danish order of precedence. The collar of the order is of gold and it consists of alternating elephants and towers. On the cover of the elephants there is a D which stands for Dania, according to the statutes of the order, the collar is usually only worn on New Years Day and on major occasions. The badge of the order is an elephant made of white-enamelled gold with blue housings. On its back the elephant is bearing a watch tower of pink enameled masonry encircled by a row of small table cut diamonds at the bottom with another row just below the crenellation at the top. At the top of the tower is a large enameled gold ring from which the badge can be hung from the collar or tied to the sash of the Order, there are about 72 elephants at the chancery of the Order or in circulation. It is estimated that together with an number of elephants in museums around the world. The star of the order is a silver star with smooth rays. At its center there is a red enameled disc with a white cross and it is worn on the left side of the chest. The sash of the order is of light-blue silk moiré and 10 cm wide for men 6 cm wide for women and it is placed on the left shoulder with the elephant resting against the right hip. The collar is not worn when the sash is used, over this red mantle was worn a short white shoulder cape with a standing collar, embroidered with scattering of numerous gold flames, upon which was worn the collar of the order
Order of the Elephant
–
The Blome family coat of arms with the Order's collar on gravestone in
Heiligenstedten
Order of the Elephant
–
Order of the Elephant Elefantordenen
28.
German language
–
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
German language
–
Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)
German language
–
The widespread popularity of the
Bible translated into German by
Martin Luther helped establish modern German
German language
–
Examples of German language in
Namibian everyday life
German language
–
German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922
29.
Flag of Maryland
–
The official flag of the state of Maryland consists of the heraldic banner of George Calvert, Lord Baltimore. The flag was adopted by the Maryland General Assembly in 1904. The first Maryland flag design consisted of the Seal of Maryland on a blue background, the black and gold design on the flag is the coat of arms from the Calvert line. It was granted to George Calvert as a reward for his storming a fortification during a battle. The red and white design is the coat of arms of the Crossland line, the family of Lord Baltimores mother, since George Calverts mother was a heiress, he was entitled to use both coats of arms in his banner. It is one of only four U. S. state flags that does not contain the color blue. It is also the only US state flag to be based on English heraldry, although the flag of Washington. The heraldic blazon is, Quarterly, 1st and 4th, paly of six Or and Sable, a bend counterchanged, 2nd and 3rd, quarterly argent and gules, at first, only the gold and black Calvert arms were associated with Maryland, being reintroduced in 1854. The black and gold colors with the design of the Calvert family were used in the flags and devices. After the war, Marylanders who had fought on either side of the returned to their state in need of reconciliation. The present design, which both of the coats of arms used by George Calvert, began appearing. At first, the Crossland coat of arms was put in the upper-left corner, the flag in its present form was first flown on October 11,1880, in Baltimore, at a parade marking the 150th anniversary of the founding of Baltimore. However, it was not officially adopted as the flag until 1904. Section 7-202 of the General Provisions Article of the Annotated Code of Maryland provides, the Maryland Secretary of State publishes a Protocol for the Maryland State Flag which, among other things, specifies the colors of the flag,1.04. In 1945, the Maryland General Assembly made a cross bottony the official ornament for the top of any flagpole carrying the state flag. Some time before October 10,2007, Government House in Annapolis ceased to display the cross bottony at the top of the flag pole, all other state government buildings, including public schools, obey this guideline, but many private individuals and businesses do not. The Calvert and Crossland coats of arms, and the flag itself, have adapted for use in various ways across the state. Beginning on September 9,2008, the University of Maryland painted both end zones at Maryland Stadium with the two patterns
Flag of Maryland
–
The Maryland state flag flying alongside the
American flag in March 2008.
Flag of Maryland
–
State of Maryland
30.
George Calvert, 1st Lord Baltimore
–
George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore was an English politician and coloniser. He achieved domestic success as a Member of Parliament and later Secretary of State under King James I. He lost much of his power after his support for a failed marriage alliance between Prince Charles and the Spanish House of Habsburg royal family. Rather than continue in politics, he resigned all of his offices in 1625 except for his position on the Privy Council. He was created Baron Baltimore in the Irish peerage upon his resignation, Baltimore Manor was located in County Longford, Ireland. The name Baltimore is an Anglicisation of the Irish Baile an Tí Mhóir, Calvert took an interest in the British colonization of the Americas, at first for commercial reasons and later to create a refuge for English Catholics. He became the proprietor of Avalon, the first sustained English settlement on the peninsula on the island of Newfoundland. Calvert died five weeks before the new Charter was sealed, leaving the settlement of the Maryland colony to his son Cecil and his second son Leonard Calvert, was the first colonial governor of the Province of Maryland. Little is known of the ancestry of the Yorkshire branch of the Calverts, at George Calverts knighting, it was claimed that his family originally came from Flanders. He established his family on the estate of the later-built Kiplin Hall, near Catterick in Richmondshire, George Calvert was born at Kiplin in late 1579. His mother Alicia/Alice died on 28 November 1587, when he was fifteen years old and his father then married Grace Crossland, Alicias first cousin. Acts mandating compulsory religious uniformity were enacted by Parliament and enforced through penal laws, the Acts of Supremacy and the Uniformity Act of 1559 also included an oath of allegiance to the Queen and an implicit denial of the Popes authority over the English Church. This oath was required of any subject, who wished to hold high office, attend university. The Calvert household suffered the intrusion of the Elizabethan-era religious laws, as a result, the boys were sent to a Protestant tutor called Mr. Fowberry at Bilton. George Calvert went up to Trinity College, at Oxford University matriculating in 1593/94, as the oath of allegiance was compulsory after the age of sixteen, he would almost certainly have pledged conformity while at Oxford. The same pattern of conformity, whether pretended or sincere, continued through Calverts early life, after Oxford, he moved to London in 1598, where he studied municipal law at Lincolns Inn for three years. In November 1604, he married Anne Mynne in a Protestant, Church of England ceremony at St Peters, Cornhill and his children, including his eldest son and heir, Cecil, who was born in the winter of 1605–06, were all baptised as Christian Protestants. When Anne died on 8 August 1622, she was buried at Calverts local Protestant parish church, St Martin in the Fields
George Calvert, 1st Lord Baltimore
–
Portrait by
Daniel Mytens
George Calvert, 1st Lord Baltimore
–
Kiplin Hall. Estate built by Sir George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, (1579-1632), in the 1620s.
George Calvert, 1st Lord Baltimore
–
James I, painted by Daniel Mytens in 1621. James made Calvert the first
Baron Baltimore in 1625, in recognition of his services to the Crown.
George Calvert, 1st Lord Baltimore
–
Sketch of Sir George Calvert, first Baron and Lord Baltimore, (1579-1632), c. 1620
31.
Cross
–
A cross is a geometrical figure consisting of two intersecting lines or bars, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally, a cross of oblique lines, in the shape of the Latin letter X, is also termed a saltire in heraldic terminology. The word [[wikt, cross|crossded from Old Irish, possibly via Old Norse, ultimately from the Latin crux, stake, the English verb to cross arises from the noun c. 1200, first in the sense to make the sign of the cross, the Latin word was, however, influenced by popular etymology by a native Germanic word reconstructed as*krukjo. This word, by conflation with Latin crux, gave rise to Old French crocier, Latin crux referred to the gibbet where criminals were executed, a stake or pole, but not necessarily to intersecting or cruciform beams. The Latin word derived from the verb crucio to torture, Latin crux originally referred to the tree or stake on which criminals were crucified in the pre-imperial period. This was later specified as crux acuta or crux simplex, the method of execution may have been adopted from the Phoenicians. The addition of a bar, to which the criminal would be fastened with nails or cords. The Latin name of the cross is crux decussata, the heraldic term saltire is introduced only towards the end of the medieval period. The Greek equivalent of Latin crux stake, gibbet is σταυρός stauros stake, the letter Tau was associated with the stauros or crux, while the notion of cruciform shapes, i. e. intersecting lines, were associated with the letter Chi. The Greek term for crossing was χίασμα chiasma, from a verb χιάζω chiázō to shape like the letter Chi, Latin had the comparable decussatus shaped like the numeral ten. Also of prehistoric age are numerous variants of the cross mark, including the crux gammata with curving or angular lines. Speculation of this kind became popular in the mid- to late-19th century in the context of comparative mythology seeking to tie Christian mythology to ancient cosmological myths. Influential works in this vein included G. de Mortillet, L. Müller, W. W. Blake, Ansault, in the European Bronze Age the cross symbol appeared to carry a religious meaning, perhaps as a symbol of consecration, especially pertaining to burial. The cross sign occurs trivially in tally marks, and develops into a number symbol independently in the Roman numerals, the Chinese rod numerals and the Brahmi numerals. In the Phoenician alphabet and derived scripts, the symbol represented the phoneme /t/, i. e. the letter taw. The letter name taw means mark, presumably continuing the Egyptian hieroglyph two crossed sticks, according to W. E. Vines Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, worshippers of Tammuz in Chaldea and thereabouts used the cross as symbol of that god. The shape of the cross, as represented by the letter T, clements contemporary Tertullian rejects the accusation that Christians are crucis religiosi, and returns the accusation by likening the worship of pagan idols to the worship of poles or stakes
Cross
–
Cross Hieroglyphics carved on the tomb of the vizier Ankhamahor
Cross
–
A famous
Armenian khachkar at
Goshavank.
Cross
–
1600 BC marble sacral cross from the Temple Repositories of
Knossos. (
Heraclion Archaeological Museum,
Greece)
Cross
–
Four-leaf clover
32.
Berwickshire
–
Berwickshire is a lieutenancy area and historic county in the Scottish Borders. It takes its name from Berwick-upon-Tweed, which was part of Scotland at the time of the countys formation, formerly the county was often called the Merse, from Old English mǣres border. From 1596 to 1890 the county town was Greenlaw, however, this was changed to Duns by the Local Government Act 1889, the act which established the system of county councils in Scotland. Beriwckshire District Council remained based in Duns, the old county town, the system of regions and districts was in turn abolished in 1996 in favour of unitary councils. Berwickshire is now governed by the unitary Scottish Borders Council, the county council of Berwickshire was formed in 1890 by the Local Government Act 1889, and applied for a grant of arms the same year. The grant, by Lord Lyon King of Arms was made on 10 October, the coat of arms shows a bear chained to a wych elm tree, a pun on the countys name, bear + wych = Berwick. In heraldry, this is known as a canting arms, upon the abolition of Berwickshire County Council, the arms were regranted to Berwickshire District Council. When the district council was abolished the arms reverted to the Crown, the coat of arms is featured on Berwickshire High School badge Refer to the List of civil parishes in Scotland Other places in Berwickshire include, St. Abbs or Coldingham Shore. Allanton Clintmains Dryburgh Oxton Paxton The Berwickshire News is published weekly, the High school west of Duns is named Berwickshire High School, it has been open since 1896. Together with Eyemouth High School they run a Rugby team under the name of Berwickshire schools, the Berwickshire Coastal Path runs from Cockburnspath to Berwick-upon-Tweed. List of places in the Scottish Borders Subdivisions of Scotland
Berwickshire
–
BERWICKSHIRE Civil Parish map. The Imperial gazetteer of Scotland. Vol.I. by Rev.
John Marius Wilson Boundaries outlined in red. http://archive.org/stream/imperialgazettee01wils#page/n259/mode/1up
Berwickshire
–
Berwickshire
33.
Bear
–
Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae. Bears are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans, although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the Northern Hemisphere and partially in the Southern Hemisphere. Bears are found on the continents of North America, South America, Europe, common characteristics of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs, long snouts, small rounded ears, shaggy hair, plantigrade paws with five nonretractile claws, and short tails. While the polar bear is mostly carnivorous, and the giant panda feeds almost entirely on bamboo, with the exception of courting individuals and mothers with their young, bears are typically solitary animals. They may be diurnal or nocturnal and have an excellent sense of smell, despite their heavy build and awkward gait, they are adept runners, climbers, and swimmers. Bears use shelters, such as caves and logs, as their dens, most species occupy their dens during the winter for a period of hibernation. Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur, they have used for bear-baiting and other forms of entertainment. With their powerful physical presence, they play a prominent role in the arts, mythology, in modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market. The IUCN lists six species as vulnerable or endangered, and even least concern species. The poaching and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited, Bear taxon names such as Ursidae and Ursus come from Latin Ursus/Ursa, he-bear/she-bear. The female first name Ursula, originally derived from a Christian saints name, in Switzerland, the male first name Urs is especially popular, while the name of the canton and city of Bern is derived from Bär, German for bear. The Germanic name Bernard means bear-brave, bear-hardy, or bold bear, the Old English name Beowulf is a kenning, bee-wolf, for bear, in turn meaning a brave warrior. The family Ursidae is one of nine families in the suborder Caniformia, or doglike carnivorans, Bears closest living relatives are the pinnipeds, canids, and musteloids. Modern bears comprise eight species in three subfamilies, Ailuropodinae, Tremarctinae, and Ursinae, the earliest members of Ursidae belong to the extinct subfamily Amphicynodontinae, including Parictis and the slightly younger Allocyon, both from North America. These animals looked very different from bears, being small and raccoon-like in overall appearance. Parictis does not appear in Eurasia and Africa until the Miocene, european genera morphologically are very similar to Allocyon, and to the much younger American Kolponomos, are known from the Oligocene, including Amphicticeps and Amphicynodon. The raccoon-sized, dog-like Cephalogale is the member of the subfamily Hemicyoninae. The subfamily includes the younger genera Phoberocyon, and Plithocyon, a Cephalogale-like species gave rise to the genus Ursavus during the early Oligocene, this genus proliferated into many species in Asia and is ancestral to all living bears
Bear
Bear
–
Plithocyon armagnacensis skull
Bear
–
Fossil of
cave bear (Ursus spelaeus)
Bear
–
Brown bear (Ursus arctos)
34.
Wych Elm
–
A large, deciduous tree, it is essentially a montane species, growing at elevations of up to 1500 m, preferring sites with moist soils and high humidity. The tree can form pure forests in Scandinavia and occurs as far north as latitude 67°N at Beiarn in Norway, wych elm has also been successfully introduced to Narsarsuaq, near the southern tip of Greenland. The tree was by far the most common elm in the north, however, this is contested, the correct Gaelic name considered Loch Laomainn, its origin obscure. The word wych comes from the Old English wice, meaning pliant or supple, an older name for the tree was wych hazel, perhaps based on the similar appearance of hazel and wych elm shoots. Some botanists, notably Lindquist have proposed dividing the species into two subspecies, Ulmus glabra subsp, glabra in the south of the species range, with broad leaves, trees often with a short, forked trunk and a low, broad crown Ulmus glabra subsp. Montana Lindqvist in the north of the range, the leaves are narrower, trees commonly with a long single trunk. The wych elm sometimes reaches heights of 40 m, typically with a crown where open-grown. There are not normally root suckers, natural reproduction is by seed alone, the tree is notable for its very tough, supple young shoots, which are always without the corky ridges or wings characteristic of many elms. The alternate leaves are deciduous, 6–17 cm long by 3–12 cm broad, usually obovate with a base, the lobe often completely covering the short petiole. Leaves on juvenile or shade-grown shoots sometimes have three or more lobes near the apex, the perfect hermaphrodite flowers appear before the leaves in early spring, produced in clusters of 10–20, they are 4 mm across on 10 mm long stems and, being wind-pollinated, are apetalous. The fruit is a winged samara 20 mm long and 15 mm broad, with a single, round,6 mm seed in the centre, maturing in late spring. Montana While the species is susceptible to Dutch elm disease. Research in Spain has indicated the presence of a triterpene, alnulin, moreover, once the tree is dying, its bark is quickly colonized by the fungus Phoma, which radically reduces the amount of bark available for the beetle to breed on. In European trials, clones of apparently resistant trees were inoculated with the pathogen, DNA analysis by Cemagref in France has determined the genetic diversity within the species is very limited, making the chances of a resistant tree evolving rather remote. The Swedish Forest Tree Breeding Association at Källstorp produced triploid and tetraploid forms of the tree, in trials conducted in Italy, the tree was found to have a slight to moderate susceptibility to elm yellows, and a high susceptibility to the elm leaf beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola. The wych elm is moderately shade-tolerant, but requires deep, rich soils as typically found along river valleys, however, the species is intolerant of flooding, as it is of prolonged drought. Although rarely used as a street tree owing to its shape, it can be tolerant of urban air pollution, constricted growing conditions. As wych elm does not sucker from the roots, and any seedlings are often consumed by uncontrolled deer populations, the resultant decline has been extreme, and the wych elm is now uncommon over much of its former range
Wych Elm
–
Ulmus glabra
Wych Elm
–
Young foliage and seeds of wych elm
Wych Elm
–
Wych elm flowers and nascent seeds
Wych Elm
–
Bark of wych elm, estimated age 100 years.
35.
Elmbridge
–
Elmbridge is a local government district with borough status in Surrey, England. Its principal towns are Esher, Walton-on-Thames and Weybridge, the borough shares a long boundary with Greater London—the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames to the north and the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames to the east. Running anticlockwise from the northwest, Elmbridge borders the Surrey boroughs of Spelthorne, Runnymede, Woking, Guildford, Elmbridge is almost entirely within the bounds of the M25 motorway. There is only one parish, Claygate, while the remainder of the area has two rather than three tiers of local government. Responsibility for some designated services is with Surrey County Council, such as social services, the report thus recommended a wider review of these boundaries in the future. Elmbridge is named after the Elmbridge hundred, which appears in Domesday Book of 1086 as Amelebrige, the district was formed on 1 April 1974 following the Local Government Act 1972. The name thus derives from the river Amele or Emley rather than Elm trees, prior to 1974, the borough was split between the Esher Urban District, whose council had existed since 1933, and the Walton and Weybridge Urban District. The councils arms were created upon the formation of the present day district, being formed out of symbols taken from the local towns and its headquarters in Esher, the Civic Centre, opened in 1991. After elections on 3 May 2012, there are 33 Conservative councillors,20 Residents Group councillors,6 Liberal Democrats, claremont Landscape Garden and Fan Court is on part of this elevated soil as is St Georges Hill. Most undeveloped land in Elmbridge is Metropolitan Green Belt, the Wey and Mole have sources beyond gentle valleys which cut through the high North Downs to the south. Elmbridge was named the best place to live in the country in the Quality of Life Survey for the third consecutive year, in the most recent survey in 2013, Elmbridge finished in sixth place. This area has been labelled Englands Beverly Hills by sections of the press, the M25 motorway has several junctions nearby and the A3 from London bisects the borough. The main north-south road is the A244 for instance to London Heathrow Airport and starts in the borough at Walton Bridge leading to Esher, the east-west Leatherhead to Horsell, Woking road, the A245 leads by Cobham and Brooklands, Weybridge. Bus services include TfL oyster card services to East and West Molesey, Hinchley Wood, Claygate, as of 2012, Elmbridge residents had average weekly earnings of £1162. The Borough of Elmbridge is not twinned with any towns, however, between 1966 and 2009 Elmbridge was formally twinned with the Paris suburb of Rueil-Malmaison, Hauts de Seine, France. Notes References Local Community Website Community Facebook Group Community Facebook Page Elmbridge Borough Council Elmbridge Guardian newspaper
Elmbridge
–
Borough of Elmbridge
36.
Surrey
–
Surrey is a county in the south east of England. It shares borders with Kent to the east, East Sussex to the south-east, West Sussex to the south, Hampshire to the west and south-west, Surrey County Council sits extraterritorially at Kingston upon Thames, administered as part of Greater London since 1965. With a resident population of 1.1 million, Surrey is the most densely populated and third most populated county in the South East region, after Kent, the London boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark, Wandsworth, and parts of Lewisham and Bromley were in Surrey until 1889. The boroughs of Croydon, Kingston upon Thames, Merton, Sutton and Richmond upon Thames south of the River Thames were part of Surrey until 1965, when they too were absorbed into Greater London. In the same year, the county was extended north of the Thames by the addition of Spelthorne, due to this expansion, modern Surrey also borders on the London boroughs of Hounslow and Hillingdon. It has the highest GDP per capita of any English county, Surrey is divided in two by the chalk ridge of the North Downs, running east-west. To the north of the Downs the land is mostly flat, the geology of this area is dominated by London Clay in the east, Bagshot Sands in the west and alluvial deposits along the rivers. Much of Surrey is in the Metropolitan Green Belt and it contains a good deal of mature woodland. Among its many notable beauty spots are Box Hill, Leith Hill, Frensham Ponds, Newlands Corner and Puttenham & Crooksbury Commons. Surrey is the most wooded county in England, with 22. 4% coverage compared to an average of 11. 8%. Box Hill has the oldest untouched area of woodland in the UK. Surrey also contains Englands principal concentration of lowland heath, on soils in the west of the county. Agriculture not being intensive, there are many commons and access lands, together with a network of footpaths and bridleways including the North Downs Way. Accordingly, Surrey provides much in the way of leisure activities. The highest elevation in Surrey is Leith Hill near Dorking and it is either 293,294 or 295 metres above sea level and is the second highest point in southeastern England after Walbury Hill 297 metres in West Berkshire. Surrey has a population of approximately 1.1 million people and its largest town is Guildford, with a population of 66,773, Woking comes a close second with 62,796. They are followed by Ewell with 39,994 people and Camberley with 30,155, towns of between 25,000 and 30,000 inhabitants are Ashford, Epsom, Farnham, Staines and Redhill. Guildford is the county town, although the county administration was moved to Newington in 1791
Surrey
–
Box Hill
Surrey
–
Flag
Surrey
–
Leith Hill Tower
Surrey
–
The Roman
Stane or Stone Street runs through Surrey
37.
Ulmus
–
Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous trees comprising the flowering plant genus Ulmus in the plant family Ulmaceae. The genus first appeared in the Miocene geological period about 20 million years ago, Elms are components of many kinds of natural forests. Some individual elms reached great size and age, however, in recent decades, most mature elms of European or North American origin have died from Dutch elm disease, caused by a microfungus dispersed by bark beetles. In response, disease-resistant cultivars have been developed, capable of restoring the elm to forestry, eight species are endemic to North America, and a smaller number to Europe, the greatest diversity is found in Asia. The classification adopted in the List of elm species, varieties, cultivars, a large number of synonyms have accumulated over the last three centuries, their currently accepted names can be found in the list List of elm Synonyms and Accepted Names. Botanists who study elms and argue over elm identification and classification are called pteleologists, as part of the sub-order urticalean rosids they are distant cousins of cannabis, hops, and nettles. The name Ulmus is the Latin name for these trees, while the English elm, the genus is hermaphroditic, having apetalous perfect flowers which are wind-pollinated. Elm leaves are alternate, with simple, single- or, most commonly, doubly serrate margins, usually asymmetric at the base, the fruit is a round wind-dispersed samara flushed with chlorophyll, facilitating photosynthesis before the leaves emerge. All species are tolerant of a range of soils and pH levels but, with few exceptions. The elm tree can grow to height, often with a split trunk creating a vase-shape profile. Dutch elm disease devastated elms throughout Europe and much of North America in the half of the 20th century. It derives its name Dutch from the first description of the disease and its cause in the 1920s by the Dutch botanists Bea Schwarz, DED is caused by a micro-fungus transmitted by two species of Scolytus elm-bark beetle which act as vectors. The disease affects all species of elm native to North America and Europe, fungal spores, introduced into wounds in the tree caused by the beetles, invade the xylem or vascular system. The tree responds by producing tyloses, effectively blocking the flow from roots to leaves, woodland trees in North America are not quite as susceptible to the disease because they usually lack the root-grafting of the urban elms and are somewhat more isolated from each other. In France, inoculation with the fungus of over three hundred clones of the European species failed to find a single variety possessed of any significant resistance. The second, far more virulent strain of the disease Ophiostoma novo-ulmi was identified in Europe in the late 1960s, Elm phloem necrosis is a disease of elm trees that is spread by leafhoppers or by root grafts. This very aggressive disease, with no cure, occurs in the Eastern United States, southern Ontario in Canada. It is caused by phytoplasmas which infect the phloem of the tree, infection and death of the phloem effectively girdles the tree and stops the flow of water and nutrients
Ulmus
–
Elm
Ulmus
–
'Sapporo Autumn Gold', Antella,
Florence
Ulmus
–
Wych elm (Ulmus glabra) leaves and seeds
Ulmus
–
Asymmetry of leaf, Slippery Elm U. rubra
38.
River Mole
–
The River Mole is a tributary of the River Thames in southern England. It rises in West Sussex near Horsham and flows northwest through Surrey for 80 km to the Thames at East Molesey, the river gives its name to the Surrey district of Mole Valley. The Mole crosses the North Downs between Dorking and Leatherhead, where it cuts a valley, known as the Mole Gap. Much of the catchment area lies on rock, meaning that the river level responds rapidly to heavy rainfall. The Mole Gap forms part of a Special Area of Conservation and is an SSSI of European importance, the river has captured the imagination of several authors and poets, particularly since in very hot summers the river channel can become dry between Dorking and Leatherhead. In John Speeds 1611 map of Surrey this stretch of the river is denoted by a series of hills accompanied by the legend The river runneth under, Domesday Book lists twenty mills on the river in 1086, of which Sidlow Mill was the oldest, dating from Saxon times. The drainage area of the River Mole is 512 km2 and forms 5% of the River Thames catchment area above Teddington, annually the catchment area receives 761 mm rain each year, the greatest average level of rainfall is 800 mm rain around Crawley. The Mole catchment reaches an elevation of 265 m above Ordnance Datum at Leith Hill to the south west of Dorking. River Mole rises in Baldhorns Copse 0.7 km to the south of the village of Rusper in West Sussex, the river flows initially southwards for 1 km to a small lake at Baldhorns Park, before running eastwards through a largely rural area towards Crawley. The first tributaries to join the river drain the northernmost part of St Leonards Forest. The Mole skirts the suburbs of Crawley where it is joined by its first major tributary, Ifield Brook. The first gauging station on the Mole is south of Gatwick Airport, the mean flow is 0.33 m3/s and the river ran dry at this point for the first time in the summer of 1995. The Mole runs under the runway in a culvert completed in 1985. The Mole enters Surrey to the south of Horley, where it meets the Gatwick Stream, the mean flow measured at Horley gauging station is 1.40 m3/s. The Mole passes Horley to the west, flowing north towards Sidlow,0.7 km south of Sidlow the mean flow is measured as 2.21 m3/s at Kinnersley Manor gauging station. The Earlswood Brook, a tributary draining the area of Reigate and Redhill. The largest STW in the Mole catchment discharges up to 118.5 megalitres per day into the Earlswood Brook, from Sidlow the Mole turns north west towards Brockham. A number of minor tributaries join the river from the west and are second order streams draining the woodland
River Mole
–
The River Mole at the foot of
Box Hill in
Surrey
River Mole
–
River Mole at Baldhorns Park, approximately 1 km downstream of the source at Rusper
River Mole
–
Painshill Park Waterwheel (on its
millstream channel)
River Mole
–
The River Mole at Gatwick
39.
Eberbach (Baden)
–
Eberbach is a town in Germany, in northern Baden-Württemberg, located 33 km east of Heidelberg. Its sister cities are Ephrata, United States and Thonon-les-Bains, France, Eberbach lies at the foot of the Katzenbuckel, at 626 m the highest elevation in the Odenwald, in the Naturpark Neckartal-Odenwald, on the romantic Burgenstraße along the river Neckar. Eberbach includes the boroughs of Neckarwimmersbach, Brombach, Friedrichsdorf, Lindach, Rockenau, Badisch Igelsbach, Gaimühle, the border with Hesse runs through the borough of Igelsbach. Therefore, only the northeast half, called Badisch Igelsbach, of the borough belongs to Eberbach, the southwest half, called Hessisch Igelsbach, belongs to the Hessian municipality of Hirschhorn. The same is true for the borough Schöllenbach, the larger part of Schöllenbach belongs to the municipality of Hesseneck. Eberbach is a former Imperial Free City, founded soon after 1227 – when the castle was first mentioned – by German King Henry VII of the House of Hohenstaufen. After his pledge to the Counts Palatine in 1330, the old Free City belonged to the Electorate of the Palatinate, in 1803 it passed to the Principality of Leiningen, and since 1806 it has belonged to Baden. Until 1924 it was the seat of the authority office, in 1977 the town celebrated its 750-year jubilee. The historic old town, which is a precinct, with its four well maintained towers, many well kept timber-frame houses. Eberbach also lies on the Burgenstraße, which leads from Mannheim all the way to Prague, the Ohrsberg is a peak in Eberbach. It shapes the town and is 229 m high, the 2014 election was as follows, The mayor is directly elected for eight years. Description, Eberbachs coat of arms is described thus, Argent on lowered fess wavy azure a boar striding sable. This makes the coat of arms a rebus of the towns name – a canting coat of arms – since it shows a boar, Eberbachs flag is blue and white. As an Imperial City, Eberbach would have had leave originally to have its arms bear the Imperial eagle, the Imperial eagle was once to be found in the town wall at the upper gate. A photograph taken of it in 1909, along with the stone itself, are today kept in the Town Museum. The current coat of arms has been established to be from a seal impression dating back to 1387, the boars appearance, however, in todays arms, adopted in 1976, is clearly unlike the original. The name traces back to an old traditional story. According to the tale, an Eberbacher in an inn in Neckarwimmersbach was served a cuckoo and this he then proceeded to consume
Eberbach (Baden)
–
Hotel Karpfen
Eberbach (Baden)
Eberbach (Baden)
–
Pulverturm
Eberbach (Baden)
–
Haspelturm und Spohrsches Haus
40.
Hensbroek
–
Hensbroek is a village in the Dutch province of North Holland. It is a part of the municipality of Koggenland, and lies about 4 km east of Heerhugowaard, Hensbroek was a separate municipality between 1817 and 1979, when it was merged with Obdam. In 2001, the village of Hensbroek had 758 inhabitants, the built-up area of the village was 0.23 km², and contained 284 residences. The statistical area Hensbroek, which also can include the parts of the village. J. Kuyper, Gemeente Atlas van Nederland, 1865-1870, Hensbroek, map of the former municipality, around 1868
Hensbroek
41.
Fraxinus
–
Fraxinus /ˈfræksᵻnəs/, English name ash, is a genus of flowering plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae. It contains 45–65 species of medium to large trees, mostly deciduous though a few subtropical species are evergreen. The genus is widespread across much of Europe, Asia and North America, the trees common English name, ash, traces back to the Old English æsc, while the generic name originated in Latin. Both words also mean spear in their respective languages, the leaves are opposite, and mostly pinnately compound, simple in a few species. The seeds, popularly known as keys or helicopter seeds, are a type of known as a samara. Rowans or mountain ashes have leaves and buds superficially similar to those of true ashes, species are organized according to phylogenetic analysis. – California ash or two-petal ash Fraxinus anomala Torr, ex S. Watson – singleleaf ash Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx. – blue ash Fraxinus lowellii – Lowell ash Fraxinus trifoliata Section Melioides sensu lato Fraxinus chiisanensis Fraxinus cuspidata Torr. – fragrant ash Fraxinus platypoda Fraxinus spaethiana Lingelsh, – Späths ash Section Melioides sensu stricto Fraxinus uhdei Lingelsh. – Shamel ash or tropical ash Fraxinus latifolia Benth, – Oregon ash Fraxinus papillosa Lingelsh. – Chihuahua ash Fraxinus americana L. – white ash or American ash Fraxinus profunda Bush – pumpkin ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marshall – green ash Fraxinus velutina Torr, – velvet ash or Arizona ash Fraxinus berlandieriana DC. – Mexican ash Fraxinus caroliniana Mill, – Carolina ash Fraxinus texensis Sarg. – Texas ash Section Pauciflorae Fraxinus greggii A. ex DC, – Afghan ash Fraxinus dimorpha Section Fraxinus Fraxinus nigra Marshall – black ash Fraxinus mandschurica Rupr. – Manchurian ash Fraxinus holotricha Koehne Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl – narrow-leafed ash Fraxinus angustifolia subsp, oxycarpa – Caucasian ash Claret ash or raywood ash Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. – European ash Fraxinus pallisiae Wilmott – Pallis ash Fraxinus sogdiana Bge Section Ornus Fraxinus griffithii C. B. Clarke – Griffiths ash Fraxinus micrantha Lingelsh, – Chinese ash or Korean ash Fraxinus japonica – Japanese ash Fraxinus longicuspis Fraxinus floribunda Wall. – Himalayan manna ash Fraxinus ornus L. – manna ash or flowering ash Fraxinus bungeana DC, – Bunges ash Fraxinus paxiana Lingelsh. The emerald ash borer is a wood-boring beetle accidentally introduced to North America from eastern Asia via solid wood packing material in the late 1980s to early 1990s and it has killed tens of millions of trees in 15 states in the United States and adjacent Ontario in Canada. It threatens some seven billion ash trees in North America, the public is being cautioned not to transport unfinished wood products, such as firewood, to slow the spread of this insect pest. The disease has infected about 90% of Denmarks ash trees, in 2016, the ash tree was reported as in danger of extinction in Europe
Fraxinus
–
Fraxinus
Fraxinus
–
European Ash in flower
Fraxinus
–
Narrow-leafed Ash (Fraxinus angustifolia) shoot with leaves
Fraxinus
–
Closeup of European ash seeds
42.
Sword
–
A sword is a long bladed weapon intended for slashing or thrusting. The precise definition of the term varies with the epoch or the geographical region under consideration. A sword consists of a blade attached to a hilt. The blade can be straight or curved, thrusting swords have a pointed tip on the blade, and tend to be straighter, slashing swords have sharpened cutting edge on one or both sides of the blade, and are more likely to be curved. Many swords are designed for thrusting and slashing. Historically, the sword developed in the Bronze Age, evolving from the dagger, the later Iron Age sword remained fairly short and without a crossguard. The word sword continues the Old English, sweord, the use of a sword is known as swordsmanship or as fencing. In the Early Modern period, western sword design diverged into two forms, the thrusting swords and the sabers. The thrusting swords such as the rapier and eventually the smallsword were designed to impale their targets quickly and their long and straight yet light and well balanced design made them highly maneuverable and deadly in a duel but fairly ineffective when used in a slashing or chopping motion. A well aimed lunge and thrust could end a fight in seconds with just the swords point, the saber and similar blades such as the cutlass were built more heavily and were more typically used in warfare. Built for slashing and chopping at multiple enemies, often from horseback, most sabers also had sharp points and double edged blades, making them capable of piercing soldier after soldier in a cavalry charge. Sabers continued to see use until the early 20th century. The US Navy kept tens of thousands of sturdy cutlasses in their armory well into World War II, non-European weapons called sword include single-edged weapons such as the Middle Eastern scimitar, the Chinese dao and the related Japanese katana. The Chinese jian is an example of a non-European double-edged sword, the first weapons that can be described as swords date to around 3300 BC. They have been found in Arslantepe, Turkey, are made from arsenical bronze, some of them are inlaid with silver. The sword developed from the dagger when the construction of longer blades became possible, from the late 3rd millennium BC in the Middle East, first in arsenic copper, then in tin-bronze. Blades longer than 60 cm were rare and not practical until the late Bronze Age because the strength of bronze is relatively low. These are the type A swords of the Aegean Bronze Age, one of the most important, and longest-lasting, types swords of the European Bronze Age was the Naue II type, also known as Griffzungenschwert
Sword
–
Swiss
longsword, 15th- or 16th-century
Sword
–
Hallstatt swords
Sword
–
Apa-type swords, 17th-century BC.
Sword
–
The swords found together with the
Nebra skydisk, ca. 1600 BC.
43.
Portuguese language
–
Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
Portuguese language
–
Multilingual sign in Japanese, Portuguese, and English in
Oizumi,
Japan. Return immigration of
Japanese Brazilians has led to a large Portuguese-speaking community in the town.
Portuguese language
–
Percentage of worldwide Portuguese speakers per country.
Portuguese language
–
Library of the
Mafra National Palace, Portugal
Portuguese language
–
Baroque Library of the
Coimbra University, Portugal
44.
Falkenberg Municipality
–
Falkenberg Municipality is a municipality in Halland County on the Swedish west coast. The town Falkenberg is the municipal seat, the municipality was created in 1971 when the City of Falkenberg was amalgamated with six rural municipalities and part of a seventh. There are 24 original entities within the area, today, Falkenberg holds a strong position in the food and beverage industry with companies such as Arla Foods, Carlsberg and SIA Glass having plants in the city. In the inland Gekås, a department store, draws visitors from all over the country. Falkenberg is also a tourist city, mainly for its many beaches, the main income for the Municipality is tourism from around Sweden, Germany, Denmark, Holland and Norway. Here has Carlsberg Brewery a plant with 570 employees and Arla Foods who makes cheese has a factory with 400 employees, other important workplaces is the Gekås shoppingcentre in Ullared which has more than 1,100 employees. The centre is a Mecka for low-price shoppers and the company more than 2700000000 kronor each year. The shoppingcentre in Wal-Mart style company has 3,800,000 visitors each year makes it Swedens most visited place. The Right Party was the party until 1931, when the Social Democratic Party gained that position. With the exception of the 1946 election the social democrats won a majority of the seats from 1938 until 1966, Falkenberg has remained a stronghold for the social democrats even after the municipal reform in the early 1970s. The municipality has, however, been run by the centre-right, there are 17 urban areas in Falkenberg Municipality. In the table the localities are listed according to the size of the population as of 31 December 2005, the municipal seat is in bold characters
Falkenberg Municipality
–
Falkenberg Municipality Falkenbergs kommun
45.
Swedish language
–
Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken natively by more than 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish, along with the other North Germanic languages, Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers, Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional varieties descended from the rural dialects still exist. The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, Swedish morphology is similar to English, that is, words have comparatively few inflections. There are two genders, no cases, and a distinction between plural and singular. Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well. Adjectives are compared as in English, and are inflected according to gender, number. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes, complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles, the prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, by many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, the dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, from 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. An early change that separated Runic Danish from the dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr dead
Swedish language
–
The initial page of the first complete copy of
Västgötalagen, the
law code of
Västergötland, from c. 1280. It is one of the earliest texts in Swedish written in the
Latin script.
Swedish language
–
Major Swedish-speaking areas
Swedish language
–
Front page of
Gustav Vasa 's Bible from 1541, using
Fraktur. The title translated to English reads: "The Bible / That is / The Holy Scripture / in Swedish. Printed in
Uppsala. 1541".
Swedish language
–
August Strindberg, one of the most influential writers in modern Swedish literature.
46.
Finnish language
–
Finnish is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. It is one of the two languages of Finland and an official minority language in Sweden. In Sweden, both standard Finnish and Meänkieli, a Finnish dialect, are spoken, the Kven language, a dialect of Finnish, is spoken in Northern Norway by a minority group of Finnish descent. Finnish is the member of the Finnic language family and is typologically between fusional and agglutinative languages. It modifies and inflects nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals and verbs, Finnish is a member of the Finnic group of the Uralic family of languages. The Finnic group also includes Estonian and a few minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea, several theories exist as to the geographic origin of Finnish and the other Uralic languages. The most widely held view is that they originated as a Proto-Uralic language somewhere in the boreal forest belt around the Ural Mountains region and/or the bend of the middle Volga. The Finns are more similar to their Indo-European-speaking neighbours than to the speakers of the geographically close Uralic language Sami. It has been argued that a native Finnic-speaking population absorbed northward migrating Indo-European speakers who adopted the Finnic language, the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, United States classifies Finnish as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers. Finnish is spoken by five million people, most of whom reside in Finland. There are also notable Finnish-speaking minorities in Sweden, Norway, Russia, Estonia, Brazil, Canada, the majority of the population of Finland,90. 37% as of 2010, speak Finnish as their first language. The remainder speak Swedish, Sami and other languages and it has achieved some popularity as a second language in Estonia. Finnish is one of two languages of Finland and one of the official languages in the European Union since 1995. Finnish language started to gain its role during the Grand Duchy of Finland, along with the nationalistic Fennoman movement and it enjoys the status of an official minority language in Sweden. The Finnic languages evolved from the Proto-Finnic language after Sámi was separated from it around 1500–1000 BCE, current models assume three or more hypothetical Proto-Finnic proto-dialects evolving over the first millennium BCE. During the Middle Ages, Finnish was solely an oral language, the first known written example of Finnish comes from this era and was found in a German travel journal dating back to c.1450, Mÿnna tachton gernast spuho somen gelen emÿna daÿda. According to the journal, a Finnish bishop, whose name is unknown, was behind the above quotation. Finnish priestdom at the time was largely Swedish-speaking, the first comprehensive writing system for Finnish was created by Mikael Agricola, a Finnish bishop, in the 16th century
Finnish language
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Mikael Agricola, a 19th-century drawing by
Albert Edelfelt
Finnish language
–
Official language.
Finnish language
–
Elias Lönnrot as depicted in a 19th-century caricature – Lönnrot made several journeys to Karelia and Eastern Finland to collect folklore, from which he compiled the
Kalevala
Finnish language
–
Suomalaisen Sana-Lugun Coetus (1745) by
Daniel Juslenius was the first comprehensive dictionary of the Finnish language with 16,000 entries.
47.
Berlin
–
Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
48.
Manacor
–
Manacor is a town and municipality on the island of Mallorca, part of the Spanish autonomous community of the Balearic Islands. It has tourist areas like Porto Cristo, site of the famous Caves of Drach, Manacor has one of the busiest street markets on the island, held every Monday morning. Manacor is famous for manufacture and artificial pearls. The first indications of human occupation in the area of Manacor go back to 2000-1200 BC, the origin of the town of Manacor goes back to the times before the Islamic dominance. The submarine discoveries of objects found in Porto Cristo show that it was a Roman port, the remains of the basilicas of sa Carrotja and son Peretó prove the existence of well-established Christian communities. After the invasion launched by James I of Aragon, Nuño Sánchez received from him the land of Manacor, in 1300, James II granted Manacor a statute of municipality. The Torre del Palau and the fortification of some rural houses like the Torre de ses Puntes, a native of Manacor, Simó Tort, was a character in medieval social conflicts. Saint Vincent Ferrer came to Manacor in 1414, in 1576 the convent dedicated to the saint was founded, and after this the construction of the baroque church began. At the beginning of the century the construction of the cloister began. In 1879 the railroad line from Inca to Manacor was opened, about 1890 the construction of the new parish church Nostra Senyora dels Dolors began, located on the same place as the former churches. The most ancient of them had been documented in 1232 and had possibly been built upon an Arab mosque, the bell tower of the present church, an emblem of the town, measures 75 metres. In 1897 the first factory of artificial pearls, the famous Majorica, was founded, so Manacor became the business and industrial centre of Llevant. In 1912 Manacor received the title of town, in 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, there was an attempted landing of Republican forces in the shores of Porto Cristo that was repelled by the Nationalists. The major of Manacor, Antoni Amer Llodrà Garanya was assassinated by the Nationalists, the relief is not very pronounced. These limestone karsts have favoured the appearance of caves, the most outstanding for their beauty are the Cavern of the Dragon and the Fishhook Caves. Near the coast, there is one of the longest underwater caves known in Europe and it has more than 13 km in length. The average annual temperature is between 16 and 17 °C, the forest area represents little more than 20% of the whole. Pine forest is found in the areas but there are hardly any survivals of the indigenous holm-oak woodlands
Manacor
–
Manacor
Manacor
Manacor
–
Train station
Manacor
–
Cala Magraner
49.
Catalan language
–
Catalan is a Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin and named after the medieval Principality of Catalonia, in northeastern modern Spain and adjoining parts of France. It is the national and only language of Andorra, and a co-official language of the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands. It also has status in the commune of Alghero, situated on the northwestern coast of the island of Sardinia. All these territories are often called Catalan Countries. 4% with Catalan and 47. 5% only Spanish, in order to integrate newcomers, the Generalitat de Catalunya spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories. Catalan evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages around the eastern Pyrenees, during the Low Middle Ages it saw a golden age as the literary and dominant language of the Crown of Aragon, and was widely used all over the Mediterranean. The union of Aragon with the territories of Spain in 1479 marked the start of the decline of the language. In 1659 Spain ceded Northern Catalonia to France, and Catalan was banned in both states in the early 18th century, 19th-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival, which culminated in the 1913 orthographic standardization, and the official status of the language during the Second Spanish Republic. However, the Francoist dictatorship banned the use of Catalan in schools and in the public administration, there is no parallel in Europe for such a large, bilingual, non-state speech community. Catalan dialects are relatively uniform, and are mutually intelligible and they are divided into two blocks, Eastern and Western, differing mostly in pronunciation. The terms Catalan and Valencian are two varieties of the same language, there are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community. Catalan shares many traits with its neighboring Romance languages, thus, the similarities are naturally most notable with eastern Occitan. Nouns have two genders, and two numbers, pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, in terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages. The word Catalan derives from the territory of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology, in English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain. It is attested a language name since at least 1652, Catalan can be pronounced as /ˈkætəlæn/, /kætəˈlæn/ or /ˈkætələn/. The endonym is pronounced /kə. təˈɫa/ in the Eastern Catalan dialects, in the Valencian Community, the term valencià is frequently used instead. The names Catalan and Valencian are two names for the same language, see also status of Valencian below. By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south
Catalan language
–
Homilies d'Organyà (12th century)
Catalan language
–
Catalan
Catalan language
–
Fragment of the Greuges de Guitard Isarn (ca. 1080–1095), one of the earliest texts written almost completely in Catalan, predating the famous
Homilies d'Organyà by a century
Catalan language
–
Official Decree Prohibiting the Catalan Language in France
50.
Torrevieja
–
Torrevieja is a seaside city and municipality located on the Costa Blanca in the province of Alicante, in south-eastern Spain. Torrevieja lies about 50 kilometres south of the city of Alicante and has a population of 105,000, Torrevieja was originally a salt-mining and fishing village as it is located between the sea and two large salt lakes, which give Torrevieja a healthy microclimate. Until 1802, Torrevieja existed only as an ancient guard tower, but in 1803, Charles IV authorised the movement of the salt production offices from La Mata to the town itself and allowed the construction of dwellings there. In 1829, the town was destroyed by an earthquake. In 1931, Alfonso XIII gave Torrevieja city status by special grant, during this period, there was also a growing market for flax, hemp and cotton. In the 19th century, the salt was shipped from the town by Swedish. At the time, there was limited demand from other regions of Spain, mainly Galicia and to a lesser extent. Although by the dawn of the 20th century, a quarter of all the salt harvested from the lagoon in Torrevieja was sold in Spain itself, today, it is still an important industry in Torrevieja and a major employer. You can visit the Museum of Sea and Salt, in recent years the local economy has hugely expanded due to the tourist industry. This includes both a strong contingent of British, Irish, Germans and Scandinavians, many of whom live there all the year round, the city is a conservative stronghold, with the Partido Popular maintaining an absolute majority at the municipal elections of 2007, and 2011. PP however narrowly lost its majority in 2015 to a coalition of five parties which designated Green candidate José Manuel Dolón García mayor. In 1991, the city had 25,000 residents, two decades later close to 100,000, the father of the expansion was Pedro Ángel Hernández Mateo, mayor between 1988 and 2011. In order to encourage growth, all the land was rezoned fit for building, the INE of 2005 showed that the city had 84,838 residents, and the ayuntamiento had 95,531 residents. By January 2008 this figure had reached 103,154 of whom only 47,870 were Spanish,7, 000+ of the Spanish residents were originally from Madrid and not for nothing is Torrevieja known as la playa de Madrid. Panoramic viewpoint La Torre del Moro, old watchtower, iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Rosario, constructed in 1896. Paseo de la Dique de Levante, Dyke or Breakwater of Levante,1600 m long, las Salinas - The two salt lagoons to the west of the city, Nature Park of the Lagoons of La Mata and Torrevieja. The Street Market on Fridays Centro Comercial de Habaneras - A semi-outdoor shopping mall
Torrevieja
–
The Port
Torrevieja
–
Iglesia Arciprestal de la Inmaculada Concepción
Torrevieja
–
Torrevieja: Juan Aparicio Seafront
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