1.
Kingdom of Sardinia
–
The Kingdom of Sardinia was a state in Southern Europe which existed from the early 14th until the mid-19th century. It was the state of todays Italy. When it was acquired by the Duke of Savoy in 1720, however, the Savoyards united it with their possessions on the Italian mainland and, by the time of the Crimean War in 1853, had built the resulting kingdom into a strong power. The formal name of the entire Savoyard state was the States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia and its final capital was Turin, the capital of Savoy since the Middle Ages. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors conquered the island of Sardinia, in 1420 the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, Sardinia became a part of the burgeoning Spanish Empire, in 1720 it was ceded by the Habsburg and Bourbon claimants to the Spanish throne to Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy. While in theory the traditional capital of the island of Sardinia and seat of its viceroys was Cagliari, the Congress of Vienna, which restructured Europe after Napoleons defeat, returned to Savoy its mainland possessions and augmented them with Liguria, taken from the Republic of Genoa. In 1847–48, in a fusion, the various Savoyard states were unified under one legal system, with the capital in Turin, and granted a constitution. There followed the annexation of Lombardy, the central Italian states and the Two Sicilies, Venetia, in 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a province of the Roman Empire. The Romans ruled the island until the middle of the 5th century, when it was occupied by the Vandals, in 534 AD it was reconquered by the Romans, but now from the Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium. It remained a Byzantine province until the Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century, after that, communications with Constantinople became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land. Starting from 705–706, Saracens from north Africa harassed the population of the coastal cities, information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. There is a record of another massive Saracen sea attack in 1015–16 from the Balearics, the Saracen attempt to invade the island was stopped by the Judicatus with the support of the fleets of the maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa, free cities of the Holy Roman Empire. Pope Benedict VIII also requested aid from the republics of Pisa. Even the title of Judices was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state, of these sovereigns only two names are known, Turcoturiu and Salusiu, who probably ruled in the 10th century. The Archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the first documents of the Judex of Cagliari, their successor, was written in romance Sardinian language. The realm was divided into four kingdoms, the Judicati, perfectly organized as was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of the Pope. That was the cause of leading to a long war between the Judices, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles
Kingdom of Sardinia
–
A map of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1856, after the fusion of all its provinces into a single jurisdiction
Kingdom of Sardinia
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The final flag used by the kingdom under the "
Perfect Fusion " (1848–1861)
Kingdom of Sardinia
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Flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia in the middle of the 16th century
Kingdom of Sardinia
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Kingdom of Sardinia 16th-century map
2.
Kingdom of Italy
–
The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
Kingdom of Italy
–
Italian unification process.
Kingdom of Italy
–
Flag
Kingdom of Italy
–
Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, the first Prime Minister of the unified Italy.
Kingdom of Italy
–
Victor Emmanuel II, the first King of the united Italy.
3.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
4.
Gendarmerie
–
A gendarmerie or gendarmery is a military component with jurisdiction in civil law enforcement. The term gendarmerie is derived from the medieval French expression gens darmes, in France and most Francophone nations, the gendarmerie is the branch of the armed forces responsible for internal security during wartime. This concept was introduced to several other Western European countries during the Napoleonic conquests, in the mid twentieth century, a number of former French mandates or colonial possessions such as Syria and the Republic of the Congo adopted a gendarmerie after independence. A somewhat related phenomenon has been the formation of units which fall under the authority of civilian police agencies. Since these are not strictly military forces, however, they are not considered gendarmerie, some of the more prominent modern gendarmerie organizations include the French National Gendarmerie, Italian Carabinieri, and Spanish Civil Guard. The word gendarme comes from the Old French gens darmes, meaning men-at-arms, during the Late Medieval to the Early Modern period, the term referred to a heavily armoured cavalryman of noble birth, primarily serving in the French army. The word gained policing connotations only after the French Revolution when the Maréchaussée of the Ancien Régime was renamed the Gendarmerie, historically, the spelling in English was gendarmery, but now the French spelling gendarmerie is more common. The Oxford English Dictionary uses gendarmery as the spelling, Merriam-Webster uses gendarmerie as the principal spelling. Gendarmes are often deployed in situations, sometimes in their own country. A gendarmerie may come under the authority of a ministry of defence, generally there is some coordination between a ministry of defence and a ministry of the interior over the use of gendarmes. A few forces which are no longer considered military retain the title gendarmerie for reasons of tradition, since different countries may make different use of institutional terms such as gendarmerie, there are cases in which the term may become confusing. For instance, in the French-speaking Cantons of Switzerland the gendarmeries are the civil police. In Chile, the word gendarmerie refers for historic reasons to the prison service, in some cases, a police services military links are ambiguous and it can be unclear whether a force should be defined as a gendarmerie. Some historical military units, such as South-West Africas Koevoet, were defined as police for political reasons. In 2014 the Mexican Federal Police, an armed force which has many attributes of a gendarmerie. The new force would initially number 5,000 personnel and was created with the assistance of the French gendarmerie, in countries where the gendarmerie and civilian police co-exist there may be rivalries and tensions between the forces. This was one of the reasons cited for the decision to disband the Belgian Gendarmerie, since the year 2000 four European countries—Belgium, Luxembourg, Greece and Austria—have replaced long-established gendarmeries with civilian police forces having no military links or functions. The GNA often take part in UN peace keeping missions, the use of military organisations to police civilian populations is common to many time periods and cultures
Gendarmerie
–
Gendarmes in the
rue Vernet, near the
Champs-Élysées, in
Paris
Gendarmerie
–
Cavalry of the
French Republican Guard, a gendarmerie, on parade
Gendarmerie
–
Members of Italy's gendarmerie, the
Carabinieri, on public order duties in
Florence
Gendarmerie
–
Officers of the Polish
Żandarmeria Wojskowa ("Military Gendarmerie")
5.
Carabiniers
–
A carabinier is in principle a soldier armed with a carbine. A carbine is a version of a musket or rifle. Carabiniers were first introduced during the Napoleonic wars in Europe, the word is derived from the identical French word carabinier. Historically, carabiniers were generally horse soldiers, the carbine was considered a more appropriate firearm for a horseman than a full-length musket, since it was lighter and easier to handle while on horseback. In Italy and Spain, carbines were considered suitable equipment for soldiers with policing roles, so the term evolved to sometimes denote gendarmes. Today, the term is used by armies, police. Carabiniers differed from army to army and over time, but typically were medium cavalry, similar in armament, Napoleon inherited two French carabinier regiments of heavy cavalry, which gained some prestige in his wars. In 1810, French Carabiniers were equipped like cuirassiers with helmets and breastplates, the French army has no carabinier regiments today. The British army raised regiments of carabiniers in the late 17th century, the descendants of one such regiment survived as the 3rd Carabiniers until 1971, when it was amalgamated with the Royal Scots Greys. Accordingly, no regiment bears the title today, although the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards are sub-titled Carabiniers, Italy has a famous force of carabiniers, a gendarmerie known by the Italian name Carabinieri. Chile also has a force of gendarme Carabiniers and the National Police of Colombia has mobile road-based units called Mobile Carabinier Squadrons. The Belgian Army includes a Regiment des Carabiniers, which saw service against the German invaders in August 1914 still dressed in its green 19th century uniform complete with a form of top hat, the Spanish Army formerly maintained a corps of Carabineros who served as frontier guards. This force was, however, disbanded following the Spanish Civil War of 1936-39, the use of carabinier to refer to infantry troops comes from the French light infantry battalions of 1794, where it denoted troops of the elite company known as grenadiers in line infantry. Other infantry units with the title of carabiniers included, The Force Publique includes a unit called the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince. In the Imperial Russian Army during the Napoleonic wars, the sections on the flank of Yeger battalions deployed in line were called carabiniers. Quite apart from the elite Yeger platoons, Foot Carabinier regiments existed for a time after 12 February 1816 when the six Grenadier-Yeger Regiments were renamed as Carabiniers. These included the oldest regular regiment in the Russian Army. Foot Carabinier regiments were renamed rifles in 1857 following the Crimean War, following a merger in 1992, the unit became the Regiment Carabiniers Prince Baudouin - Grenadiers
Carabiniers
–
Italian carabiniers
Carabiniers
–
Spanish Carabiniers in the Pyrenees, 1892.
Carabiniers
–
French carabiniers of 1812
Carabiniers
–
Cuirass and helmet of the French Horse Carabinier, during the
Bourbon Restoration (1816-1824).
6.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
7.
Roberta Pinotti
–
Roberta Pinotti is an Italian politician. Since 22 February 2014 she has been the Italian Minister of Defence, born in Genoa, Pinotti holds a degree in modern literature and is a teacher of Italian in high schools. She began her career at the end of the 1980s as a district counselor of Italian Communist Party. She later joined the Democratic Party of the Left, the Democratici di Sinistra party, in her hometown she has served as councilor for school, youth policies and social policies and for educational institutions. First elected deputy in 2001, Pinotti was the minister of defense in the Shadow Cabinet of Walter Veltroni between May 2008 and April 2009. In 2013 she was appointed undersecretary of state in the Ministry of Defence in the Letta Cabinet and she received the America Award of the Italy-USA Foundation in 2014. She received criticism in February 2015 over navy recruitment adverts which used slogans written in English. Later that month she hinted that Italy was ready to lead a force to defeat ISIS in Libya, saying, “We have been discussing it for months
Roberta Pinotti
–
The Honourable Roberta Pinotti
8.
Carabinier
–
A carabinier is in principle a soldier armed with a carbine. A carbine is a version of a musket or rifle. Carabiniers were first introduced during the Napoleonic wars in Europe, the word is derived from the identical French word carabinier. Historically, carabiniers were generally horse soldiers, the carbine was considered a more appropriate firearm for a horseman than a full-length musket, since it was lighter and easier to handle while on horseback. In Italy and Spain, carbines were considered suitable equipment for soldiers with policing roles, so the term evolved to sometimes denote gendarmes. Today, the term is used by armies, police. Carabiniers differed from army to army and over time, but typically were medium cavalry, similar in armament, Napoleon inherited two French carabinier regiments of heavy cavalry, which gained some prestige in his wars. In 1810, French Carabiniers were equipped like cuirassiers with helmets and breastplates, the French army has no carabinier regiments today. The British army raised regiments of carabiniers in the late 17th century, the descendants of one such regiment survived as the 3rd Carabiniers until 1971, when it was amalgamated with the Royal Scots Greys. Accordingly, no regiment bears the title today, although the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards are sub-titled Carabiniers, Italy has a famous force of carabiniers, a gendarmerie known by the Italian name Carabinieri. Chile also has a force of gendarme Carabiniers and the National Police of Colombia has mobile road-based units called Mobile Carabinier Squadrons. The Belgian Army includes a Regiment des Carabiniers, which saw service against the German invaders in August 1914 still dressed in its green 19th century uniform complete with a form of top hat, the Spanish Army formerly maintained a corps of Carabineros who served as frontier guards. This force was, however, disbanded following the Spanish Civil War of 1936-39, the use of carabinier to refer to infantry troops comes from the French light infantry battalions of 1794, where it denoted troops of the elite company known as grenadiers in line infantry. Other infantry units with the title of carabiniers included, The Force Publique includes a unit called the Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince. In the Imperial Russian Army during the Napoleonic wars, the sections on the flank of Yeger battalions deployed in line were called carabiniers. Quite apart from the elite Yeger platoons, Foot Carabinier regiments existed for a time after 12 February 1816 when the six Grenadier-Yeger Regiments were renamed as Carabiniers. These included the oldest regular regiment in the Russian Army. Foot Carabinier regiments were renamed rifles in 1857 following the Crimean War, following a merger in 1992, the unit became the Regiment Carabiniers Prince Baudouin - Grenadiers
Carabinier
–
Italian carabiniers
Carabinier
–
Spanish Carabiniers in the Pyrenees, 1892.
Carabinier
–
French carabiniers of 1812
Carabinier
–
Cuirass and helmet of the French Horse Carabinier, during the
Bourbon Restoration (1816-1824).
9.
Italian unification
–
The process began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna and was completed in 1871 when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. The memory of the Risorgimento is central to both Italian politics and Italian historiography, for short period is one of the most contested. Italian nationalism was based among intellectuals and political activists, often operating from exile, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Roman province of Italy remained united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and later disputed between the Kingdom of the Lombards and the Byzantine Empire. Following conquest by the Frankish Empire, the title of King of Italy merged with the office of Holy Roman Emperor. However, the emperor was a foreigner who had little concern for the governance of Italy as a state, as a result. This situation persisted through the Renaissance but began to deteriorate with the rise of modern nation-states in the modern period. Italy, including the Papal States, then became the site of proxy wars between the powers, notably the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and France. Harbingers of national unity appeared in the treaty of the Italic League, in 1454, leading Renaissance Italian writers Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini expressed opposition to foreign domination. Petrarch stated that the ancient valour in Italian hearts is not yet dead in Italia Mia, Niccolò Machiavelli later quoted four verses from Italia Mia in The Prince, which looked forward to a political leader who would unite Italy to free her from the barbarians. I am an Italian, he explained, the French Republic spread republican principles, and the institutions of republican governments promoted citizenship over the rule of the Bourbons and Habsburgs and other dynasties. The reaction against any outside control challenged Napoleons choice of rulers, as Napoleons reign began to fail, the rulers he had installed tried to keep their thrones further feeding nationalistic sentiments. After Napoleon fell, the Congress of Vienna restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, vincenzo Gioberti, a Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under leadership of the Pope in his 1842 book, Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians. Pope Pius IX at first appeared interested but he turned reactionary, Giuseppe Mazzini and Carlo Cattaneo wanted the unification of Italy under a federal republic. That proved too extreme for most nationalists, the middle position was proposed by Cesare Balbo as a confederation of separate Italian states led by Piedmont. One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the Carbonari, a political discussion group formed in Southern Italy early in the 19th century. After 1815, Freemasonry in Italy was repressed and discredited due to its French connections, a void was left that the Carbonari filled with a movement that closely resembled Freemasonry but with a commitment to Italian nationalism and no association with Napoleon and his government. The response came from middle class professionals and business men and some intellectuals, the Carbonari disowned Napoleon but nevertheless were inspired by the principles of the French Revolution regarding liberty, equality and fraternity. They developed their own rituals, and were strongly anticlerical, the Carbonari movement spread across Italy
Italian unification
–
Five Days of Milan, 18–22 March 1848
Italian unification
–
Dante Alighieri
Italian unification
–
Niccolò Machiavelli
Italian unification
–
Guglielmo Pepe
10.
Benito Mussolini
–
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 to 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy, known as Il Duce, Mussolini was the founder of Italian Fascism. In 1912 Mussolini was the member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party. Mussolini was expelled from the PSI for withdrawing his support for the stance on neutrality in World War I. He served in the Royal Italian Army during the war until he was wounded and discharged in 1917, Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering on nationalism instead of socialism, and later founded the fascist movement. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the youngest Prime Minister in Italian history until the appointment of Matteo Renzi in February 2014, within five years he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. Mussolini remained in power until he was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1943, a few months later, he became the leader of the Italian Social Republic, a German client regime in northern Italy, he held this post until his death in 1945. Mussolini had sought to delay a major war in Europe until at least 1942, however, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, resulting in declarations of war by France and the United Kingdom and starting World War II. In the summer of 1941 Mussolini sent Italian forces to participate in the invasion of the Soviet Union, and war with the United States followed in December. On 24 July 1943, soon after the start of the Allied invasion of Italy, the Grand Council of Fascism voted against him, on 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued from prison in the Gran Sasso raid by German special forces. In late April 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape north and his body was then taken to Milan, where it was hung upside down at a service station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise. Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, a town in the province of Forlì in Romagna on 29 July 1883. During the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed Duces town, pilgrims went to Predappio and Forlì, to see the birthplace of Mussolini. His father, Alessandro Mussolini, was a blacksmith and a Socialist, while his mother, Benito was the eldest of his parents three children. His siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed, as a young boy, Mussolini would spend some time helping his father in his smithy. His fathers political outlook combined views of anarchist figures like Carlo Cafiero and Mikhail Bakunin, the military authoritarianism of Garibaldi, in 1902, at the anniversary of Garibaldis death, Benito Mussolini made a public speech in praise of the republican nationalist. The conflict between his parents about religion meant that, unlike most Italians, Mussolini was not baptized at birth, as a compromise with his mother, Mussolini was sent to a boarding school run by Salesian monks. After joining a new school, Mussolini achieved good grades, in 1902, Mussolini emigrated to Switzerland, partly to avoid military service
Benito Mussolini
–
Benito Mussolini
Benito Mussolini
–
Birthplace of Benito Mussolini in
Predappio, now used as a museum
Benito Mussolini
–
Mussolini's father, Alessandro
Benito Mussolini
–
Mussolini's mother, Rosa
11.
Nazi Germany
–
Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
Nazi Germany
–
Hitler became Germany's head of state, with the title of
Führer und Reichskanzler, in 1934.
Nazi Germany
–
Flag
Nazi Germany
–
Joseph Goebbels,
Reich Minister of Propaganda
Nazi Germany
–
Ethnic Germans in
Saaz, Czechoslovakia, greet German soldiers with the
Nazi salute, 1938
12.
Italian resistance movement
–
It was formed by pro-Allied Italians, following the Allied invasion of the country, the armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces, and German military occupation of northern Italy. The movement is known as the Italian resistance and the Italian partisans. The brutal conflict they took part in is referred to as the Italian Liberation War or as the Italian Civil War, the modern Italian Republic was declared to be founded on the struggle of the resistance. The periods best-known battle broke out in Rome the day the armistice was announced, outnumbered German Fallschirmjäger and Panzergrenadiere were initially repelled and endured heavy losses, but slowly gained the upper hand, aided by their experience and superior Panzer component. The Italian Centauro II Divisions absence from the battle contributed to the German defeat given its German-made tanks and it was composed primarily of ex-Blackshirts and was not trusted. By 10 September, the Germans had penetrated downtown Rome and the Granatieri made their last stand at Porta San Paolo, at 4 pm, General Giorgio Carlo Calvi di Bergolo signed the order of surrender, the Italian divisions were disbanded, and their members taken prisoner. Generals Raffaele Cadorna, Jr. and Giuseppe Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo joined the underground, one of the most important episodes of resistance by Italian armed forces after the armistice was the battle of Piombino, Tuscany. Battle broke out at 21,15 on 10 September, between the German landing forces and the Italian coastal batteries, tanks, and civilian population, sauro and Carbet were scuttled because of the damage they had suffered. The German attack was repelled, by the dawn of 11 September,120 Germans had been killed, Italian casualties had been 4 killed and a dozen wounded, four Italian submarine chasers were also sunk during the fightning. Later in the morning, however, De Vecchi ordered the prisoners to be released, many of the sailors, soldiers and citizens who had fought in the battle of Piombino retreated to the surrounding woods and formed the first partisan formations in the area. In the days following 8 September 1943 most servicemen, left without orders from higher echelons, were disarmed and shipped to POW camps in the Third Reich, however, some garrisons stationed in occupied Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia and Italy fought the Germans. Admirals Inigo Campioni and Luigi Mascherpa led an attempt to defend Rhodes, Kos, Leros, with reinforcements from SAS, SBS and British Army troops under the command of Generals Francis Gerrard, Russell Brittorous and Robert Tilney, the defenders held on for a month. However, the Wehrmacht took the islands air and sea landings by infantry. Both Campioni and Mascherpa were captured and executed at Verona for high treason, on 13 September 1943, the Acqui Division stationed in Cefalonia was ordered by Italian High Command to attack the Germans, despite ongoing negotiations. After a ten-day battle, the Germans executed thousands of officers and those killed in the massacre of the Acqui Division included division commander General Antonio Gandin. Other Italian forces remained trapped in Yugoslavia following the armistice and some decided to fight alongside the local resistance, when the unit finally returned to Italy at the end of the war, half its members had been killed or were listed as missing in action. Bastia, in Corsica, was the setting of a battle between Italian torpedo boats and an attacking German flotilla. Italian soldiers captured by the Germans numbered around 650, 000-700,000, most refused cooperation with the Third Reich despite hardship, chiefly to maintain their oath of fidelity to the King
Italian resistance movement
–
Unidentified uniformed Italians shot by invading Germans in Rome, September 1943
Italian resistance movement
–
Flag of the
National Liberation Committee
Italian resistance movement
–
An Italian partisan in
Florence on August 14, 1944
Italian resistance movement
–
Partisan Alfredo Sforzini
13.
Italian Armed Forces
–
The Italian Armed Forces encompass the Italian Army, the Italian Navy and the Italian Air Force. A fourth branch of the forces, known as the Carabinieri. These five forces have military status and are all organized along military lines, the President of the Italian Republic heads the armed forces as the President of the High Council of Defence established by article 87 of the Constitution of Italy. According to article 78, the Parliament has the authority to declare a state of war, the ground force of Italy, the Regio Esercito dates back to the unification of Italy in the 1850s and 1860s. During the Cold War the Army prepared itself to defend against a Warsaw Pact invasion from the east, since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it has seen extensive peacekeeping service in Lebanon, Afghanistan, and Iraq. On 29 July 2004 it became a professional all-volunteer force when conscription was finally ended, the navy of Italy was created in 1861, following the proclamation of the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, as the Regia Marina. The new navys baptism of fire came during the Third Italian War of Independence against the Austrian Empire, during the First World War, it spent its major efforts in the Adriatic Sea, fighting the Austro-Hungarian Navy. In the Second World War, it engaged the Royal Navy in a struggle for the control of the Mediterranean Sea. After the war, the new Marina Militare, being a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, has part in many coalition peacekeeping operations. The Guardia Costiera is a component of the navy, the air force of Italy was founded as an independent service arm on 28 March 1923, by King Vittorio Emanuele III as the Regia Aeronautica. During the 1930s, it was involved in its first military operations in Ethiopia in 1935, eventually, Italy entered World War II alongside Germany. After the armistice of 8 September 1943, Italy was divided two sides, and the same fate befell the Regia Aeronautica. The Air Force was split into the Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force in the south aligned with the Allies, when Italy was made a republic by referendum, the air force was given its current name Aeronautica Militare. The Arma dei Carabinieri is the gendarmerie and military police of Italy, the corps was instituted in 1814 by King Victor Emmanuel I of Savoy with the aim of providing the Kingdom of Sardinia with a police corps, it is therefore older than Italy itself. The new force was divided into divisions on the scale of one division for each province of Italy, the Italian unification saw the number of divisions increased, and in 1861 the Carabinieri were appointed the First Force of the new national military organization. In recent years Carabinieri units have been dispatched on peacekeeping missions, including Kosovo, Afghanistan, Italy did take part in the 1982 Multinational Force in Lebanon along with US, French and British troops. As part of Operation Enduring Freedom, Italy contributed to the operation in Afghanistan. Italian forces have contributed to ISAF, the NATO force in Afghanistan, Italian forces also command a multinational engineer task force and have deployed a platoon of Carabinieri military police
Italian Armed Forces
–
Alpini of the
4th Alpini Parachutist Regiment in Afghanistan in 2007.
Italian Armed Forces
–
Coat of Arms of the Italian Defence Staff
14.
Victor Emmanuel I of Savoy
–
Victor Emmanuel I was the Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia. Victor Emmanuel was the son of King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia and Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain, daughter of King Philip V of Spain. Victor Emmanuel was known from birth as the Duke of Aosta, from 1792 to 1796, Aostas father had taken an active part in the struggle of the old powers against the revolutionary forces in France but was defeated and forced to make peace. Charles Emmanuel and his family were forced to withdraw to Sardinia, Aosta took the throne on 4 June 1802 as Victor Emmanuel I. He ruled Sardinia from Cagliari for the twelve years, during which time he constituted the Carabinieri. Victor Emmanuel could return to Turin only in 1814, his realm reconstituted by the Congress of Vienna, the latter became the seat of the Sardinian Navy. After the outbreak of the revolution in his lands in 1821, he abdicated in favor of his brother. Victor Emanuel died in the Castle of Moncalieri and is buried in the Basilica of Superga, on 21 April 1789, he married Archduchess Maria Teresa of Austria-Este, daughter of Ferdinand, Duke of Modena
Victor Emmanuel I of Savoy
–
Victor Emanuel I in Coronation Robes
15.
Savoy
–
Savoy is a cultural region in Western Europe. It comprises roughly the territory of the Western Alps between Lake Geneva in the north and Dauphiné in the south, the historical land of Savoy emerged as the feudal territory of the House of Savoy during the 11th to 14th centuries. The historical territory is shared between the countries of France, Italy, and Switzerland. Installed by Rudolph III, King of Burgundy, officially in 1003 and it ruled the County of Savoy to 1416 and then the Duchy of Savoy from 1416 to 1860. The territory of Savoy was annexed to France in 1792 under the French First Republic, victor Emmanuels dynasty, the House of Savoy, retained its Italian lands of Piedmont and Liguria and became the ruling dynasty of Italy. In modern France, Savoy is part of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, following its annexation to France in 1860, the territory of Savoy was divided administratively into two separate departments, Savoie and Haute-Savoie. The traditional capital remains Chambéry, on the rivers Leysse and Albane, hosting the castle of the House of Savoy, the capital of the Duchy remained at the traditional Savoyard capital of Chambéry until 1563, when it was moved to Turin. The region was occupied by the Allobroges, a Celtic people that in 121 BC were subdued by the Roman Empire, the name Savoy stems from the Late Latin Sapaudia, referring to a fir forest. It is first recorded in Ammianus Marcellinus, to describe the part of Maxima Sequanorum. According to the Gallic Chronicle of 452, it was separated from the rest of Burgundian territories in 443 and this latter territory comprised what would become known as Savoy and Provence. From the 10th to 14th century, parts of what would ultimately become Savoy remained within the Kingdom of Arles. Beginning in the 11th century, the rise to power of the House of Savoy is reflected in the increasing territory of their County of Savoy between 1003 and 1416. The County of Savoy was detached de jure from the Kingdom of Arles by Emperor Charles IV in 1361, on February 19,1416, Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, made the County of Savoy an independent duchy, with Amadeus VIII as the first duke. Straddling the Alps, Savoy lay within two competing spheres of influence, a French sphere and a North Italian one, at the time of the Renaissance, Savoy showed only modest development. Its towns were few and small, Savoy derived its subsistence from agriculture. The geographic location of Savoy was also of military importance, during the interminable wars between France and Spain over the control of northern Italy, Savoy was important to France because it provided access to Italy. Savoy was important to Spain because it served as a buffer between France and the Spanish held lands in Italy, in 1563 Emmanuel Philibert moved the capital from Chambéry to Turin, which was less vulnerable to French interference. Vaud was annexed by Bern in 1536, and Savoy officially ceded Vaud to Bern in the Treaty of Lausanne of 30 October 1564
Savoy
–
Alpine landscape of
Les Saisies, as seen from
Mont Bisanne.
Savoy
–
Flag
Savoy
–
People of
Chambéry with
French flags celebrating the annexation in 1860.
Savoy
–
The Château de Chambéry, seat of government, was given a grand new façade following annexation
16.
Turin
–
Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
Turin
–
From top to bottom, left to right: panorama of the
Mole Antonelliana,
Valentino Park with the medieval village, Piazza Castello with Palazzo Reale and Palazzo Madama, San Carlo Plaza with the Caval ëd Bronz, the Arco Olimpico and the Lingotto, the sarcophagus of Oki at the
Egyptian Museum, a view of the hills, the
Po, the Gran Madre, the Monte of Cappuccini and
Palatine Towers.
Turin
–
The Roman
Palatine Towers.
Turin
–
Siege of Turin
Turin
–
Turin in the 17th century.
17.
Kingdom of Piedmont
–
The Kingdom of Sardinia was a state in Southern Europe which existed from the early 14th until the mid-19th century. It was the state of todays Italy. When it was acquired by the Duke of Savoy in 1720, however, the Savoyards united it with their possessions on the Italian mainland and, by the time of the Crimean War in 1853, had built the resulting kingdom into a strong power. The formal name of the entire Savoyard state was the States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia and its final capital was Turin, the capital of Savoy since the Middle Ages. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors conquered the island of Sardinia, in 1420 the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, Sardinia became a part of the burgeoning Spanish Empire, in 1720 it was ceded by the Habsburg and Bourbon claimants to the Spanish throne to Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy. While in theory the traditional capital of the island of Sardinia and seat of its viceroys was Cagliari, the Congress of Vienna, which restructured Europe after Napoleons defeat, returned to Savoy its mainland possessions and augmented them with Liguria, taken from the Republic of Genoa. In 1847–48, in a fusion, the various Savoyard states were unified under one legal system, with the capital in Turin, and granted a constitution. There followed the annexation of Lombardy, the central Italian states and the Two Sicilies, Venetia, in 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a province of the Roman Empire. The Romans ruled the island until the middle of the 5th century, when it was occupied by the Vandals, in 534 AD it was reconquered by the Romans, but now from the Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium. It remained a Byzantine province until the Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century, after that, communications with Constantinople became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land. Starting from 705–706, Saracens from north Africa harassed the population of the coastal cities, information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. There is a record of another massive Saracen sea attack in 1015–16 from the Balearics, the Saracen attempt to invade the island was stopped by the Judicatus with the support of the fleets of the maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa, free cities of the Holy Roman Empire. Pope Benedict VIII also requested aid from the republics of Pisa. Even the title of Judices was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state, of these sovereigns only two names are known, Turcoturiu and Salusiu, who probably ruled in the 10th century. The Archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the first documents of the Judex of Cagliari, their successor, was written in romance Sardinian language. The realm was divided into four kingdoms, the Judicati, perfectly organized as was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of the Pope. That was the cause of leading to a long war between the Judices, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles
Kingdom of Piedmont
–
A map of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1856, after the fusion of all its provinces into a single jurisdiction
Kingdom of Piedmont
–
The final flag used by the kingdom under the "
Perfect Fusion " (1848–1861)
Kingdom of Piedmont
–
Flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia in the middle of the 16th century
Kingdom of Piedmont
–
Kingdom of Sardinia 16th-century map
18.
Risorgimento
–
The process began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna and was completed in 1871 when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. The memory of the Risorgimento is central to both Italian politics and Italian historiography, for short period is one of the most contested. Italian nationalism was based among intellectuals and political activists, often operating from exile, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Roman province of Italy remained united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and later disputed between the Kingdom of the Lombards and the Byzantine Empire. Following conquest by the Frankish Empire, the title of King of Italy merged with the office of Holy Roman Emperor. However, the emperor was a foreigner who had little concern for the governance of Italy as a state, as a result. This situation persisted through the Renaissance but began to deteriorate with the rise of modern nation-states in the modern period. Italy, including the Papal States, then became the site of proxy wars between the powers, notably the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and France. Harbingers of national unity appeared in the treaty of the Italic League, in 1454, leading Renaissance Italian writers Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini expressed opposition to foreign domination. Petrarch stated that the ancient valour in Italian hearts is not yet dead in Italia Mia, Niccolò Machiavelli later quoted four verses from Italia Mia in The Prince, which looked forward to a political leader who would unite Italy to free her from the barbarians. I am an Italian, he explained, the French Republic spread republican principles, and the institutions of republican governments promoted citizenship over the rule of the Bourbons and Habsburgs and other dynasties. The reaction against any outside control challenged Napoleons choice of rulers, as Napoleons reign began to fail, the rulers he had installed tried to keep their thrones further feeding nationalistic sentiments. After Napoleon fell, the Congress of Vienna restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, vincenzo Gioberti, a Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under leadership of the Pope in his 1842 book, Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians. Pope Pius IX at first appeared interested but he turned reactionary, Giuseppe Mazzini and Carlo Cattaneo wanted the unification of Italy under a federal republic. That proved too extreme for most nationalists, the middle position was proposed by Cesare Balbo as a confederation of separate Italian states led by Piedmont. One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the Carbonari, a political discussion group formed in Southern Italy early in the 19th century. After 1815, Freemasonry in Italy was repressed and discredited due to its French connections, a void was left that the Carbonari filled with a movement that closely resembled Freemasonry but with a commitment to Italian nationalism and no association with Napoleon and his government. The response came from middle class professionals and business men and some intellectuals, the Carbonari disowned Napoleon but nevertheless were inspired by the principles of the French Revolution regarding liberty, equality and fraternity. They developed their own rituals, and were strongly anticlerical, the Carbonari movement spread across Italy
Risorgimento
–
Five Days of Milan, 18–22 March 1848
Risorgimento
–
Dante Alighieri
Risorgimento
–
Niccolò Machiavelli
Risorgimento
–
Guglielmo Pepe
19.
Corazzieri
–
The Cuirassiers Regiment is an Italian elite military unit and the honor guard of the President of the Italian Republic. Their motto Virtus in periculis firmior means Courage becomes stronger in danger, members of the unit, which is a specialized company of the Carabinieri, are distinguished by their uniforms and height. The units history dates back to the late 14th century, when the Red Count used a lifeguard of archers. In the 16th century, Emmanuel Philibert re-organized the Savoiard army, creating a personal unit of mounted archers. This guard saved Charles Emmanuel I during the siege of Mons, Charles Emmanuel created a company of cuirassiers, and this unit was enlarged by his successors until 1854, when the Carabinieri received the role of guards of the King during the campaigns. On 7 February 1868, for the wedding of Prince Umberto to Margherita of Savoy, the new unit was formally recognized as Carabinieri Guardie del Re on 7 January 1870, when it was entrusted with the safety of the king. After the end of the Kingdom of Italy, and the proclamation of the Republic, the unit was re-founded in 1946, in February 2006, the Corazzieri took part in the flag-raising ceremony of the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin. Carabinieri Cavalry Regiment Carabinieri Cuirassier Honor guard History of the Carabinieri History Uniforms
Corazzieri
–
Corazzieri official seal
Corazzieri
–
Corazzieri on Parade
20.
South Tyrol
–
South Tyrol, also known by its alternative Italian name Alto Adige, is an autonomous province in northern Italy. It is one of the two provinces that make up the autonomous region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol. The province has an area of 7,400 square kilometres and its capital is the city of Bolzano. As of 2011, South Tyrol is among the wealthiest regions in Italy, South Tyrol is the term most commonly used in English for the province, and its usage reflects that it was created from a portion of the southern part of the historic County of Tyrol. German and Ladin speakers usually refer to the area as Südtirol, Alto Adige, one of the Italian names for the province, is also used in English. The term had been the name of political subdivisions along the Adige River in the time of Napoleon Bonaparte and it was reused as the Italian name of the current province after its post-World War I creation, and was a symbol of the subsequent forced Italianization of South Tyrol. The official name of the today in German is Autonome Provinz Bozen — Südtirol. German speakers usually refer to it not as a Provinz, provincial institutions are referred to using the prefix Landes-, such as Landesregierung and Landeshauptmann. The official name in Italian is Provincia autonoma di Bolzano — Alto Adige, South Tyrol as an administrative entity originated during the First World War. The Allies promised the area to Italy in the Treaty of London of 1915 as an incentive to enter the war on their side, with the rise of Fascism, the new regime made efforts to bring forward the Italianization of South Tyrol. The German language was banished from public service, German teaching was officially forbidden, the regime also favored immigration from other Italian regions. The subsequent alliance between Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini declared that South Tyrol would not follow the destiny of Austria, the region was de facto annexed to the German Reich until the end of the war. This status ended along with the Nazi regime, and Italian rule was restored in 1945, after the war the Allies decided that the province would remain a part of Italy, under the condition that the German-speaking population be granted a significant level of self-government. Italy and Austria negotiated an agreement in 1946, recognizing the rights of the German minority, alcide De Gasperi, Italys prime minister, a native of Trentino, wanted to extend the autonomy to his fellow citizens. This led to the creation of the region called Trentino-Alto Adige/Tiroler Etschland, German and Italian were both made official languages, and German-language education was permitted once more. Still Italians were the majority in the combined region, in a first phase, only public edifices and fascist monuments were targeted. The second phase was bloodier, costing 21 lives, the South Tyrolean question became an international issue. A fresh round of negotiations took place in 1961 but proved unsuccessful, the issue was resolved in 1971, when a new Austro-Italian treaty was signed and ratified
South Tyrol
–
The Atlas Tyrolensis, showing the entire County of Tyrol, printed in Vienna. 1774
South Tyrol
South Tyrol
–
A map from 1874 showing South Tirol with approximately the borders of today's South and
East Tyrol
South Tyrol
–
Plaque at a German-language school in both Italian and German
21.
Austro-Hungarian empire
–
The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
Austro-Hungarian empire
–
Franz Joseph I. (1885)
Austro-Hungarian empire
–
Civil Ensign
Austro-Hungarian empire
–
Austrian Parliament Building
Austro-Hungarian empire
–
Hungarian Parliament Building
22.
Italian Campaign (World War I)
–
The Italian Front was a series of battles at the border between Austria-Hungary and Italy, fought between 1915 and 1918 in World War I. Fighting along the front displaced much of the population, of which several thousand died from malnutrition. The Allied victory at Vittorio Veneto and the disintegration of Austria-Hungary ended the military operations, moreover, Austria-Hungary omitted to consult Italy before sending the ultimatum to Serbia and refused to discuss compensation due according to the art. By the 1910s, the expansionist ideas of this movement were taken up by a significant part of the Italian political elite. The annexation of those Austrian territories that were inhabited by Italians, became the main Italian war goal, however, of around 1.5 million people living in those areas, 45% were Italian speakers, while the rest were Slovenes, Germans and Croats. In northern Dalmatia, which was also among the Italian war aims, on 23 May, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. Italys entry was engineered in secret by the 1915 Treaty of London, set up between the British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey, the Italian Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino and the French Foreign Minister Jules Cambon. On February 16,1915, despite concurrent negotiations with Austria, the final choice was aided by the arrival of news in March of Russian victories in the Carpathians. The Treaty of London was concluded on April 26 binding Italy to fight within one month, not until May 4 did Salandra denounce the Triple Alliance in a private note to its signatories. During the Italo-Turkish War in Libya, the Italian military suffered equipment, at the opening of the campaign, Austro-Hungarian troops occupied and fortified high ground of the Julian Alps and Karst Plateau, but the Italians initially outnumbered their opponents three-to-one. An Italian offensive aimed to cross the Soča river, take the fortress town of Gorizia. This offensive opened the first Battles of the Isonzo, because the Austrian forces occupied higher ground, Italians conducted difficult offensives while climbing. The Italian forces therefore failed to drive much beyond the river, despite a professional officer corps, severely under-trained Italian units lacked morale. Also many troops deeply disliked the newly appointed Italian commander, general Luigi Cadorna, moreover, preexisting equipment and munition shortages slowed progress and frustrated all expectations for a Napoleonic style breakout. Like most contemporaneous militaries, the Italian army primarily used horses for transport but struggled, the Italians recuperated, rearmed with 1200 heavy guns, and then on 18 October 1915 launched Third Battle of the Isonzo, another attack. Forces of Austria-Hungary again repulsed this Italian offensive, which concluded on 4 November without resulting gains, the Italians again launched another offensive on 10 November, the Fourth Battle of the Isonzo. Italian Armies in the North East of the country, the offensive began on 11 March 1916 with 15 divisions, and resulted in no gain. Later in 1916, four more battles along the Isonzo river erupted, the Sixth Battle of the Isonzo, launched by the Italians in August, resulted in a success greater than the previous attacks
Italian Campaign (World War I)
–
From left to right: Ortles, autumn 1917; Fort Verena, June 1915; Mount Paterno, 1915; Carso, 1917; Toblach, 1915.
Italian Campaign (World War I)
–
The Italian Front in 1915–1917: eleven
Battles of the Isonzo and Asiago offensive. In blue, initial Italian conquests
Italian Campaign (World War I)
–
Italian
Alpini troops; 1915
Italian Campaign (World War I)
–
The Austro-Hungarian supply line over the
Vršič pass, October 1917
23.
Carso
–
The Karst Plateau or the Karst region, also simply known as the Karst, is a limestone plateau region extending across the border of southwestern Slovenia and northeastern Italy. It lies between the Vipava Valley, the low hills surrounding the valley, the westernmost part of the Brkini Hills, northern Istria, the western edge of the plateau also marks the traditional ethnic border between Italians and Slovenes. The region gave its name to the karst topography, for this reason, it is also referred to as the Classical Karst. The plateau rises quite steeply above the landscape, except for its northeastern side. The plateau gradually descends from the southeast to the southwest, on average it lies 334 m above sea level. Many interesting geological phenomena occur along the Karst Rim, including the picturesque Rosandra Valley, because the Karst steeply descends towards the Adriatic Sea, it is less exposed to the beneficial climatological effects of the Mediterranean. In the past, the vegetation on the plateau was oaks. Forests now cover only one-third of the Karst, starting the Middle Ages, the plateau suffered radical deforestation for economic reasons. Although much of the wood for the closely spaced piles that support the city of Venice, Italy came from this region. The most radical deforestation occurred in the century due to clear-cutting by local farmers. The Karst is famous for its caves, in Slovenia, they include Vilenica Cave, Lipica Cave, Divača Cave, Kačna Cave, Postojna Cave, and Škocjan Caves, and Grotta Gigante in Italy. Most of the Karst is located in the Slovenian Littoral, covering an area of 429 square kilometres, the Karst as a whole has exactly 100 settlements. The town of Sežana is the center of the region on the Slovene side of the border, the main rural centers are the settlements of Divača, Dutovlje, and Komen. Štanjel is a clustered settlement at the top of the northern rim of the plateau, its houses are tightly clustered around Turn Hill. On the Italian side of the border, important settlements include Opicina, Duino, natural conditions, including the bora wind, and the local way of life all shaped the elements of Karst architecture, creating simple but well-defined forms. One of the main tourist centers in the area is Lipica, the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Karst Plateau are ethnic Slovenes. As a consequence, today an estimated one fifth of the population of the Karst Plateau is Italian speaking, the Slovenes in the region speak two closely related Slovene dialects, both belonging to the Littoral dialect group. In the southern part of the plateau, the Inner Carniolan dialect is spoken, in the northern part, the Karst dialect is spoken
Carso
–
The cliffs of
Duino (
Slovene: Devin) and the gulf of
Sistiana,
Province of Trieste,
Italy, seen from the
Rilke Trail
Carso
–
Typical rural Karst houses in
Štanjel (municipality of
Komen),
Slovenia
Carso
–
Approximate extent of the Karst region
Carso
–
Traditional Karst folk costumes in a Slovenian commemorative celebration in Basovizza near
Trieste
24.
Theater (warfare)
–
In warfare, a theater or theatre is an area or place in which important military events occur or are progressing. A theater can include the entirety of the air space, land, such a clearly defined idea as this is not capable of universal application, it is here used merely to indicate the line of distinction. Theater of operations is a sub-area within a theater of war, the boundary of a TO is defined by the commander who is orchestrating or providing support for specific combat operations within the TO. Theater of operations are divided into strategic directions or military regions depending whether its a war or peace time, the United States Armed Forces split into Unified Combatant Commands that are assigned to a particular theater of military operations. Strategic direction is a group of armies also known as task forces or battlegroups, also in the US Armed Forces the term of strategic is often associated with missile command dropping word missile out of use such as the United States Strategic Command. However it is an important strategic command that could be deployed in any theater of military operations. A strategic command or direction in general essence would combine a number of military formations or operational command. In modern military, a command is better known as a combat command that may be a combination of army groups. In a peacetime due to loss of a strategic direction fronts were transformed into military regions responsible for a section of operations. The Russian term is театр военных действий, teatr voennykh deistvii, abbreviated ТВД, as the armies advanced, both these zones and the areas into which they were divided would shift forward to new geographic areas of control
Theater (warfare)
–
Unified Combatant Command
25.
Luigi Cadorna
–
Marshal of Italy Luigi Cadorna, OSML, OMS, OCI was an Italian General and Marshal of Italy, most famous for being the Chief of Staff of the Italian Army during the first part of World War I. Luigi Cadorna was born to General Raffaele Cadorna in Verbania Pallanza, in 1860 Cardona became a student at the Teuliè Military School in Milan. At fifteen he entered the Turin Military Academy, upon graduation he was commissioned as a second lieutenant of artillery in 1868. In 1870, as an officer in the 2nd Regiment of Artillery, as major he was appointed to the staff of General Pianell, afterwards taking the post of Chief of Staff of the Verona Divisional Command. As Colonel commanding the 10th Regiment of Bersaglieri from 1892 Cadorna acquired a reputation for strict discipline and he wrote a manual of infantry tactics which laid stress on the doctrine of the offensive. Promoted to lieutenant general in 1898 Cadorna subsequently held a number of senior staff, on the eve of Italys entry into World War he was close to peace-time retirement age and had a history of differences with his political and military superiors. Cadorna had been offered the post of Chief of Staff for the first time in 1908 and he was again offered the position in July 1914, as the Triple Entente and Central Powers girded for war. When Italy entered the war in May 1915 on the side of the Entente, Cadorna fielded thirty-six infantry divisions composed of 875,000 men, Cadorna inherited a difficult political and military situation. The government of Premier Antonio Salandra favored initial neutrality over Italys treaty commitments under the Triple Alliance, Cadorna was accordingly obliged to reverse long established strategic plans while discovering that the army was ill-prepared for war against Austria-Hungary and Germany. In particular large numbers of men and quantities of equipment had been deployed to Tripolitania leaving the home army disorganized, Cadorna launched four offensives in 1915, all along the Isonzo River. The goal of these offensives was the fortress of Gorizia, the capture of which would permit the Italian armies to pivot south and march on Trieste, all four offensives failed, resulting in some 250,000 Italian casualties for little material gain. Cadorna would ultimately fight eleven battles on the Isonzo between 1915 and 1917, additional forces were arrayed along the Trentino salient, attacking treaty commitments as towards Rovereto, Trento, and Bolzano. The terrain along the Isonzo and Trentino was completely unsuited for offensive warfare–mountainous and broken, on 24 October 1917 a combined Austro-Hungarian/German army struck across the Soča at Kobarid and by 12 November had advanced all the way to the Piave River. Cadorna himself had been on leave for most of October and his subordinate was seriously ill. The Italian Army fled in disarray and seemed on the verge of collapse,275,000 soldiers surrendered. Italys allies Britain and France sent eleven divisions to reinforce the Italian front, the General was relieved of command on 9 November 1917. The new Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando appointed the respected General Armando Diaz as Chief of General Staff, Cadorna was reassigned as the Italian representative to the Allied Supreme War Council set up in Versailles. The Italian forces thereafter rallied behind the Piave and Monte Grappa and, with the help of the Allied divisions, after the war, there was an enquiry held by the Italian government to investigate the defeat at Caporetto
Luigi Cadorna
–
General Luigi Cadorna
26.
Italian Fascism
–
Italian Fascism, also known simply as Fascism, is the original fascist ideology, as developed in Italy. According to Sternhell “most syndicalist leaders were among the founders of the Fascist movement, ” who, in years, gained key posts in Mussolini’s regime. ”Other historians argued that Fascism billed itself “not only as an alternative. This economic system intended to resolve conflict through collaboration between the classes. It was opposed to Marxist socialism because of its opposition to nationalism. It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for tradition, the National Fascist Party founded in 1921, declared that the party was to serve as a revolutionary militia placed at the service of the nation. It follows a policy based on three principles, order, discipline, hierarchy, Mussolini often referred to Fascist Italy during World War II as the proletarian nations that rise up against the plutocrats. It identifies modern Italy as the heir to the Roman Empire and Italy during the Renaissance, Italian Fascism historically sought to forge a strong Italian Empire as a Third Rome, identifying ancient Rome as the First Rome, and Renaissance-era Italy as the Second Rome. Italian Fascism has directly promoted imperialism, such as within the Doctrine of Fascism, ghostwritten by Giovanni Gentile on behalf of Mussolini, The Fascist state is a will to power, the Roman tradition is here a powerful force. According to the Doctrine of Fascism, an empire is not only a territorial or military or mercantile concept, but a spiritual and moral one. One can think of an empire, that is, a nation, Fascism sought the incorporation of claimed unredeemed territories to Italy. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries via the Roman Empire, the Fascist regime imposed mandatory Italianization upon the German and South Slav populations living within Italys borders. This resulted in significant violence against South Slavs deemed to be resisting Italianization, the Fascist regime endorsed Albanian irredentism, directed against the predominantly Albanian-populated Kosovo and Epirus - particularly in Chameria inhabited by a substantial number of Albanians. The Fascist regime claimed the Ionian Islands as Italian territory, on the basis that the islands had belonged to the Venetian Republic from the mid-14th until the 18th century. To the west of Italy, the Fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica, Nice, as a result, Piedmont-Sardinia was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting the unification of Italy. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the Italianità of the island, the Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic, and linguistic grounds. The Fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said The border of Italy is the Var, to the north of Italy, the Fascist regime in the 1930s had designs on the largely Italian-populated region of Ticino and the Romansch-populated region of Graubünden in Switzerland. In November 1938, Mussolini declared to the Grand Fascist Council, the Fascist regime accused the Swiss government of oppressing the Romansch people in Graubünden. Mussolini argued that Romansch was an Italian dialect and thus Graubünden should be incorporated into Italy, Ticino was also claimed because the region had belonged to the Duchy of Milan from the mid-fourteenth century until 1515
Italian Fascism
–
The session of the
Grand Council of 9 May 1936, where the Empire was proclaimed.
Italian Fascism
–
Giovanni Gentile:
Philosophic father of Italian Fascism.
Italian Fascism
–
Italia Irredenta: Italian ethnic regions claimed by the Fascists in the 1930s: green: Nice, Ticino, and Dalmatia; red: Malta; violet: Corsica; Savoy and Corfu were later claimed.
Italian Fascism
–
Il Duce: Prime Minister Benito Mussolini.
27.
Italian Africa Police
–
The Italian African Police, was the Police of Italian Africa from 1 June 1936 and 1 December 1941. The unit was created as a result of the reorganization of public safety units operating in Italian North Africa and to later garrison Ethiopia, the new corps was initially subordinated to the Ministry of the Colonies and then to the Ministry of Italian Africa. This was the first case in Italy of an Armed Force put under a civil ministry, the PAI had a reputation for discipline and high training levels, and for being provided with good equipment. Even after the collapse of AOI, the PAI were able to keep the peace in Addis Ababa, the Royal Decree of 10 June 1937, n. The force was a racially mixed organization, made up of Italian agents and it was located in police headquarters of major cities like Tripoli, Benghazi, Asmara, Addis Ababa, Mogadishu, Gondar, or in small commissariats otherwhere. The PAI training school was in Tivoli, part of the PAI personnel was mounted on Moto Guzzi motorcycles, with many armed with the Beretta M1938A9 mm sub-machine gun. At the outbreak of World War II the PAI had 7,672 men, the bulk of the force consisted of indigenous personnel who were trained and equipped to the same standard as Italian personnel. There were 5,142 indigenous personnel,4,414 from AOI and 732 from ASI, the PAI fought bravely during World War II in the Italian colonies and in Italy. During World War II, the PAI fought as a combat unit alongside the Italian Army. For the garrison of the Libyan littoral way, at the outbreak of the two companies on motorcycles and an armored car were assigned to the Exploring Unit of the CAM Battalion Romolo Gessi. They had little fortune since, after an enemy attack. The battalion repaired in Tripolitania and was converted into a mixed company, several units participated in war actions, at Tripoli, Benghazi, Barce, but the details regarding effective employment are insufficient. The commander and founder of the PAI, General Marraffa, was captured by the Nazis and deported to the Dachau concentration camp, later, there was a reorganization attempt in northern Italy, with the opening of a PAI school at Busto Arsizio in the autumn of 1943. However, the troops were absorbed by the Republican Police Force of the Italian Social Republic, ranks were as for the Italian Army with enlisted rank being the older style larger pattern of red chevrons worn on both upper sleeves. Personnel wore the standard Italian khaki tropical uniform but with a blue aiguilette fixed from the shoulder strap to the second button down the front of his tunic. Personnel also wore a small gold PAI badge on the front of their headgear, motorcycle mounted personnel wore a brown leather crash helmet, light khaki breeches with brown leather boots and leather leggings to protect the lower legs. Le Uniformi dellAOI Priero Crocaini and Andrea Viotti, Polizia dellAfrica Italiana by Raffaele Girlando Carabinieri gendarmerie constabulary military police paramilitary Zaptie Dubats Law enforcement in Italy Polizia East African Campaign
Italian Africa Police
–
African members of the PAI (Polizia Africa Italiana) in 1938
Italian Africa Police
–
Governors
28.
Italian East Africa
–
Italian East Africa was an Italian colony in the Horn of Africa. It was formed in 1936 through the merger of Italian Somaliland, Italian Eritrea, during the Second World War, Italian East Africa was occupied by a British-led force including colonial and Ethiopian units. After the war, Italian Somaliland and Eritrea came under British administration, in 1949, Italian Somaliland was reconstituted as the Trust Territory of Somaliland, which was administered by Italy from 1950 until its independence in 1960. When established in 1936, Italian East Africa consisted of the old Italian possessions in the Horn of Africa, Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, and the recently annexed Empire of Ethiopia. Victor Emmanuel III of Italy consequently adopted the title of Emperor of Ethiopia, although having not been recognized by any other than Nazi Germany. Italian East Africa was briefly enlarged in 1940, as Italian forces conquered British Somaliland, however, the enlarged colony was dismembered only a year later, when in the course of the East African Campaign the colony was occupied by British forces. Italian East Africa, in Italian Africa Orientale Italiana, was acronymed in official documents as AOI, historians are still divided about the reasons for the Italian attack on Ethiopia in 1935. Other historians such as Pietro Pastorelli have argued that the invasion was launched as part of an expansionist program to make Italy the main power in the Red Sea area, Italys forces were far superior to the Abyssinian forces, especially in air power, and they were soon victorious. Emperor Haile Selassie was forced to flee the country, with Italian forces entering the city, Addis Ababa, to proclaim an empire by May 1936. Italian belligerence also closed the Mediterranean to Allied merchant ships and endangered British supply routes along the coast of East Africa, the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea and the Suez Canal. Egypt, the Suez Canal, French Somaliland and British Somaliland were also vulnerable to invasion, in the summer of 1940, Italy was far from ready for a long war or for the occupation of large areas of Africa. Hostilities began on 13 June 1940, with an Italian air raid on the base of 1 Squadron Southern Rhodesian Air Force at Wajir in the East Africa Protectorate, in August 1940, the protectorate of British Somaliland was occupied by Italian forces and absorbed into Italian East Africa. This occupation lasted around six months, by early 1941, Italian forces had been largely pushed back from Kenya and Sudan. On 6 April 1941, Addis Ababa was occupied by the 11th Division, makonnen Endelkachew was named as Prime Minister and on 19 December 1944, the final Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was signed. Eritrea was placed under British military administration for the duration, and in 1950, after 1945, Britain controlled both Somalilands, as protectorates. British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland, the Trust Territory of Somalia became independent on 1 July 1960, the colony was administered by a Viceroy of Ethiopia and Governor General of Italian East Africa, appointed by the Italian monarch. The dominion was divided for administrative purposes into six Governorates. Fascist colonial policy in Italian East Africa had a divide and conquer characteristic, Italys Fascist regime encouraged Italian peasants to colonize Ethiopia by setting up farms and small manufacturing businesses
Italian East Africa
–
Italian East African 100-
lire banknote.
Italian East Africa
–
Flag
29.
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
–
The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a colonial war that started in October 1935, after a battle on 5 December 1934, and ended in May 1936. The war was fought between the forces of the Kingdom of Italy and the armed forces of the Ethiopian Empire. The war resulted in the occupation of Ethiopia. Politically, like the Mukden Incident in 1931, the Abyssinia Crisis in 1935 is often seen as a demonstration of the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations. Italy and Ethiopia were member nations and yet the League was unable to control Italy or to protect Ethiopia when Italy clearly violated Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations, the victory also brought Mussolini unprecedented popularity within Italy. Shortly after the war, Ethiopia was consolidated with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland into Italian East Africa, the Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928 stated that the border between Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia was twenty-one leagues parallel to the Benadir coast. In 1930, Italy built a fort at the Welwel oasis in the Ogaden, the fort at Welwel was well beyond the twenty-one league limit and the Italians were encroaching on Ethiopian territory. In November 1934, Ethiopian territorial troops, escorting the Anglo-Ethiopian boundary commission, the British members of the commission soon withdrew to avoid embarrassing Italy. Italian and Ethiopian troops remained encamped in close proximity, in early December 1934, the tensions on both sides erupted into what was known as the Wal Wal incident. The resultant clash left approximately 110 Ethiopians and between 30 and 50 Italians and Somalis dead and led to the Abyssinia Crisis at the League of Nations, on 4 September 1935, the League of Nations exonerated both parties for the Wal Wal incident. The United Kingdom and France, keen to keep Italy as an ally against Germany, Italy soon began to build its forces on the borders of Ethiopia in Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. To this end, on 7 January 1935, France signed an agreement with Italy giving them essentially a hand in Africa to secure Italian co-operation. Next, in April, Italy was further emboldened by being a member of the Stresa Front, in June, non-interference was further assured by a political rift that had developed between the United Kingdom and France following the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. His comments stirred up a furor inside Japan, where there had been popular affinity for the African Empire, with an attack appearing inevitable, Emperor Haile Selassie ordered a general mobilization of the Army of the Ethiopian Empire. His new recruits consisted of around 500,000 men, some of whom were armed with nothing more than spears, many soldiers carried more modern weapons, including rifles, but many of these were from before 1900 and were outdated. Haile Selassies Mobilization Order stated, All men and boys able to carry a spear go to Addis Ababa, every married man will bring his wife to cook and wash for him. Every unmarried man will bring any unmarried woman he can find to cook, women with babies, the blind, and those too aged and infirm to carry a spear are excused. Anyone found at home after receiving this order will be hanged, according to Italian estimates, on the eve of hostilities the Ethiopians had an army of 350, 000–760,000 men
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
–
Italian artillery in Tembien, Ethiopia, in 1936.
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
–
Medical supplies for the front in Addis Ababa.
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935 in
Montevarchi to fight the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
–
Emperor of
Ethiopia Haile Selassie I
30.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
31.
Yugoslav partisans
–
The Yugoslav Resistance was led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia during World War II. Its commander was Marshal Josip Broz Tito, until British supplies began to arrive in appreciable quantities in 1944, the occupiers were the only source of arms. The other objective was to create a federal multi-ethnic communist state in Yugoslavia, to this end, the KPJ attempted to appeal to all the various ethnic groups within Yugoslavia, by preserving the rights of each group. Relations between the two movements were uneasy from the start, but from October 1941 they degenerated into full-scale conflict, to the Chetniks, Titos pan-ethnic policies seemed anti-Serbian, whereas the Chetniks royalism was anathema to the communists. In the early part of the war Partisan forces were composed of Serbs. In that period names of Muslim and Croat commanders of Partisan forces had to be changed to them from their predominantly Serb colleagues. By late 1944, the forces of the Partisans numbered 650,000 men and women organized in four field armies and 52 divisions. By April 1945, the Partisans numbered over 800,000, the movement was consistently referred to as the Partisans throughout the war. Yugoslav Army – on 1 March 1945, the National Liberation Army was transformed into the armed forces of Yugoslavia. The movement was originally named National Liberation Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia, because of this, their short name became simply the Partisans, and stuck henceforward. Between January 1942 and November 1942, the full official name was briefly National Liberation Partisan. The changes were meant to reflect the character as a volunteer army. In November 1942 the movement was renamed into the National Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia, the name change also reflects the fact that the latter superseded in importance the partisan detachments themselves. Shortly before the end of the war, in March 1945, all forces were reorganized into the regular armed force of Yugoslavia. It would keep this name until 1951, when it was renamed the Yugoslav Peoples Army, on 6 April 1941, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded from all sides by the Axis powers, primarily by German forces, but also including Italian, Hungarian and Bulgarian formations. During the invasion, Belgrade was bombed by the Luftwaffe, the invasion lasted little more than ten days, ending with the unconditional surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April. Besides being hopelessly ill-equipped when compared to the Wehrmacht, the Army attempted to defend all borders, the terms of the capitulation were extremely severe, as the Axis proceeded to dismember Yugoslavia. Mussolinis Italy occupied the remainder of Slovenia, Kosovo, and large chunks of the coastal Dalmatia region and it also gained control over the newly created Montenegrin puppet state, and was granted the kingship in the Independent State of Croatia, though wielding little real power within it
Yugoslav partisans
–
" To arms, everyone! ", a Partisan propaganda poster.
Yugoslav partisans
–
Flag of the Yugoslav Partisans
Yugoslav partisans
–
Partisan fighter
Stjepan "Stevo" Filipović shouting "
Death to fascism, freedom to the People! " seconds before his execution by a
Serbian State Guard (local collaborator) unit in
Valjevo, occupied
Yugoslavia. These words became the Partisan slogan afterwards.
Yugoslav partisans
–
Josip Broz Tito in
Bihać, 1942.
32.
Yugoslavia
–
Yugoslavia was a country in Southeast Europe during most of the 20th century. The Serbian royal House of Karađorđević became the Yugoslav royal dynasty, Yugoslavia gained international recognition on 13 July 1922 at the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris. The country was named after the South Slavic peoples and constituted their first union, following centuries in which the territories had been part of the Ottoman Empire, renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 3 October 1929, it was invaded by the Axis powers on 6 April 1941. In 1943, a Democratic Federal Yugoslavia was proclaimed by the Partisan resistance, in 1944, the king recognised it as the legitimate government, but in November 1945 the monarchy was abolished. Yugoslavia was renamed the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946 and it acquired the territories of Istria, Rijeka, and Zadar from Italy. Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito ruled the country as president until his death in 1980, in 1963, the country was renamed again as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The constituent six socialist republics that made up the country were the SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Croatia, SR Macedonia, SR Montenegro, SR Serbia, and SR Slovenia. Serbia contained two Socialist Autonomous Provinces, Vojvodina and Kosovo, which after 1974 were largely equal to the members of the federation. After an economic and political crisis in the 1980s and the rise of nationalism, Yugoslavia broke up along its republics borders, at first into five countries, eventually, Serbia and Montenegro accepted the opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee about shared succession. Serbia and Montenegro themselves broke up in 2006 and became independent states, the concept of Yugoslavia, as a single state for all South Slavic peoples, emerged in the late 17th century and gained prominence through the Illyrian Movement of the 19th century. The name was created by the combination of the Slavic words jug, Yugoslavia was the result of the Corfu Declaration, as a project of the Serbian Parliament in exile and the Serbian royal Karađorđević dynasty, who became the Yugoslav royal dynasty. The country was formed in 1918 immediately after World War I as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by union of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and it was commonly referred to at the time as the Versailles state. Later, the government renamed the country leading to the first official use of Yugoslavia in 1929, on 6 January 1929 King Alexander I suspended the constitution, banned national political parties, assumed executive power and renamed the country Yugoslavia. He hoped to curb separatist tendencies and mitigate nationalist passions and he imposed a new constitution and relinquished his dictatorship in 1931. None of these three regimes favored the policy pursued by Alexander I, Alexander attempted to create a centralised Yugoslavia. He decided to abolish Yugoslavias historic regions, and new internal boundaries were drawn for provinces or banovinas, the banovinas were named after rivers. Many politicians were jailed or kept under police surveillance, the effect of Alexanders dictatorship was to further alienate the non-Serbs from the idea of unity. During his reign the flags of Yugoslav nations were banned, Alexander was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son Peter II and a regency council headed by his cousin, Prince Paul
Yugoslavia
–
Partisan Stjepan Filipović shouting "Death to fascism, freedom to the people!" shortly before his execution
Yugoslavia
–
Marshal
Josip Broz Tito
33.
25 Luglio
–
At the beginning of 1943 the military situation for Italy looked bleak. The collapse of the African front on 4 November 1942 and the Allied landings in North Africa on 8–12 November had exposed Italy to an invasion of the Allied forces. Italy needed massive German aid in order to control of Tunisia. At a meeting at Klessheim, on 29 April 1943, the Duce exposed his ideas to Hitler, the pressing request for reinforcements to defend the bridgehead in Tunisia was refused by the Wehrmacht, which no longer trusted the Italian will to maintain resistance. Frugoni and Cesa Bianchi, diagnosed gastritis and duodenitis of nervous origin, excluding, after some hesitation, because of his illness, the Duce was often forced to stay at home, depriving Italy of effective government. In this situation, several groups belonging to four different circles started to look for a way out, unfortunately, none of them understood that the war had become ideological with the declaration of Casablanca stating that the Allies would only accept unconditional surrender. Moreover, despite the Crown Princess involvement, the Anglo-Americans expected a move from higher-placed personalities, like the King, the antifascist parties, weakened by 20 years of dictatorship, were still in an embryonic state. Last but not least, Victor Emmanuel retained his trust in Mussolini, consequently, the King kept his own counsel and isolated himself from all those who tried to learn his intentions. Among them was the new Chief of the General Staff, General Vittorio Ambrosio, a Piemontese, not of high intelligence, but devoted to the King and hostile to the Germans. Ambrosio was persuaded that the war was lost for Italy, moreover, he tried to bring back to Italy as many forces as possible among those which were abroad, but it was difficult to do that without raising the suspicions of the Germans. On 6 February 1943, Mussolini carried out the most wide-ranging government reshuffle in 21 years of Fascist power, almost all the ministers were changed, the most important heads which fell were those of Galeazzo Ciano, Dino Grandi, Giuseppe Bottai, Guido Buffarini Guidi and Alessandro Pavolini. The two most important goals of this operation were not achieved, since the situation was too compromised, among the new appointments, the best was the new Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs Giuseppe Bastianini, a serious Umbrian well aware of the seriousness of the situation. While Senise was accused of inefficiency during the March strikes in northern Italy, with the appointment of Scorza, the fall of Tunis on 13 May 1943 radically changed the strategic situation. Now Italy was exposed to an invasion, and it became imperative for Germany to control the country, which had turned into an external bastion of the Reich. In preparation, the Germans wanted to more land forces to Italy, but Ambrosio and Mussolini. On 11 June 1943, the Allies captured the island of Pantelleria and it now became apparent that the next Allied move would be the invasion of one of the three large islands, Sicily, Sardinia or Corsica. In mid-May, the King started to consider the problem of exiting the war and he was persuaded to consider this possibility by Duke Pietro dAcquarone, Minister of the Royal House, who was worried about the future of the monarchy. Italian public opinion, having waited in vain for months for a sign from the King, was starting to turn against the monarchy
25 Luglio
–
King
Victor Emmanuel III of Savoy, obsessed with formal respect for the constitution, insisted on a vote of no confidence as prerequisite before replacing Mussolini
25 Luglio
–
Dino Grandi, count of
Mordano, was the man who organized the fall of Mussolini
25 Luglio
–
Roberto Farinacci,
Ras of
Cremona, a fascist hardliner, staunch ally of the Germans, and opponent of Grandi
25 Luglio
–
Before the meeting of Feltre, Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces
Vittorio Ambrosio gave Mussolini two weeks to disengage Italy from Germany
34.
Villa Ada
–
Villa Ada is a park in Rome, Italy, with a surface of 450 acres it is the second largest in the city after Villa Doria Pamphili. It is located in the part of the city. Its highest prominence is Monte Antenne with an altitude of 67 m, the wooded expanse was owned by the Italian royal House of Savoy in the latter half of the nineteenth century, it contained the royal residence. In 1878 the area came under the control of Count Tellfner of Switzerland, the royal family regained control of the land in 1904 but did not change the name. They retained control of the area until 1946, as of 2009 the area contains both public and private areas. The public area is controlled by the Council of Rome, the area is controlled by the Egyptian Embassy. The private portion is under constant patrol by police or army personnel, the public portion of the park is much larger than the private area. It contains a lake and many trees, including stone pines, holm oaks, laurels. Entrance to the park is free, one may rent canoes, bicycles, or riding horses. There is a swimming pool. Since 1994, during the summer the park hosts the festival and the Roma incontra il mondo festival, against racism, war. List of parks and gardens in Rome
Villa Ada
–
View of Villa Ada.
Villa Ada
–
Isle in Villa Ada's lake.
35.
Campo Imperatore
–
Campo Imperatore is a mountain grassland or alpine meadow formed by a high basin shaped plateau located in the Province of LAquila in the Abruzzo region of Italy in the Gran Sasso massif. It is the largest plateau of the Apennine ridge, known as Italys Little Tibet, it is located in the Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park. Campo Imperatore has a tectonic origin shaped by alluviums and glaciers, the plateaus altitude ranges from 1,500 to 1,900 meters. It covers an expanse of approximately 80 km², Campo Imperatore is home to one of Italys oldest alpine ski resorts. Located on the western edge, the resort began commercial operation in the 1920s. The resorts hotel became dictator Benito Mussolinis prison in August 1943 with his fall from power until he was freed by German commandos in September 1943. On the eastern side of the plateau is a 4 km cross country ski trail, in spring, summer and fall, shepherds from these neighboring hill towns maintain herds of sheep, semi-wild horses, and cattle in the plateau. The pastures are covered with grasses and meadowland wild flowers. Campo Imperatore is also home to the Alpine Botanical Garden of Campo Imperatore, Campo Imperatore is also the habitat for the Apennine wolf, Apennine wildcat and the Abruzzo chamois. Nearly extinct, the latter is making a comeback through a joint effort by WWF Italia, other species of wildlife include wild boar, foxes, grass snakes, and a wide variety of bird life including golden eagles and peregrine falcons. Campo Imperatore has been popular with filmmakers, the location has been used in more than twenty films, among them The American, The Name of the Rose, Krull, Ladyhawke, Il sole anche di notte, and LArmata ritorna
Campo Imperatore
–
Cows graze at Campo Imperatore beneath the Corno Grande in late summer
Campo Imperatore
–
Campo Imperatore in winter.
Campo Imperatore
–
Village of
Santo Stefano di Sessanio
36.
Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces
–
It was signed at a conference of generals from both sides in an Allied military camp at Cassibile in Sicily, which had recently been occupied by the Allies. The armistice was approved by both King Victor Emmanuel III and Italian Prime Minister Pietro Badoglio, the armistice stipulated the surrender of Italy to the Allies. After its publication, Germany retaliated against Italy, attacking Italian forces in Italy, South of France, Italian forces were quickly defeated and most of Italy was occupied by German troops, while the King, the government and most of the navy reached territories occupied by the Allies. Following the surrender of the Axis powers in North Africa on 13 May 1943 and these moves by Mussolini were described as slightly hostile acts to the king, who had been growing increasingly critical of the war. To help carry out his plan, the King asked for the assistance of Dino Grandi. Grandi was one of the members of the Fascist hierarchy and, in his younger years. The King was also motivated by the suspicion that Grandis ideas about Fascism might be changed abruptly, various ambassadors, including Pietro Badoglio himself, proposed to him the vague possibility of succeeding Mussolini as dictator. The conspirators devised an Order of the Day for the reunion of the Grand Council of Fascism which contained a proposal to restore direct control of politics to the king. Following the Council, held on 23 July 1943, where the order of the day was adopted by majority vote, Mussolini was summoned to meet the King, upon leaving the meeting, Mussolini was arrested by carabinieri and spirited off to the island of Ponza. Badoglio took the position of Prime Minister and this went against what had been promised to Grandi, who had been told that another general of greater personal and professional qualities would have taken the place of Mussolini. The appointment of Badoglio apparently did not change the position of Italy as Germanys ally in the war, however, many channels were being probed to seek a peace treaty with the Allies. Meanwhile, Hitler sent several divisions south of the Alps, officially to help defend Italy from allied landings, three Italian generals were separately sent to Lisbon in order to contact Allied diplomats. In the end, Castellano was admitted to speak with the Allied diplomats in order to set the conditions for the surrender of Italy. To ease communication between the Allies and the Italian Government, a captured British SOE agent, Dick Mallaby, was released from Verona prison and secretly moved to the Quirinale. It was vital that the Germans remained ignorant of any suggestion of Italian surrender, Badoglio still considered it possible to gain favourable conditions in exchange for the surrender. He ordered Castellano to insist that any surrender of Italy was subordinate to a landing of Allied troops on the Italian mainland. On 31 August General Castellano reached Termini Imerese, in Sicily, by plane and was transferred to Cassibile. It soon became obvious that the two sides in the negotiations had adopted rather distant positions, Castellano pressed the request that the Italian territory be defended from the inevitable reaction of the German Wehrmacht against Italy after the signing
Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces
–
King Victor Emanuel III in his uniform as
Marshal of Italy.
Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces
–
General
Giuseppe Castellano
37.
Italian Social Republic
–
The Italian Social Republic, informally known as the Republic of Salò, was a state with limited recognition that was created during the later part of World War II, existing from 1943 until 1945. Mussolini had originally intended to call his new republic the “Italian ‘Socialist’ Republic. ”It was the second and last incarnation of the Fascist Italian state and was led by Duce Benito Mussolini and his reformed Republican Fascist Party. The state declared Rome its capital, but was de facto centered on Salò, a town on Lake Garda, near Brescia, where Mussolini. The RSI exercised nominal sovereignty in northern and central Italy, but was dependent on German troops to maintain control. The new government began peace negotiations with the Allied powers. When the Armistice of Cassibile was announced in September, Germany was prepared, Germany seized control of the northern half of Italy, freed Mussolini and brought him to the German-occupied area to establish a satellite regime. The RSI was proclaimed on 23 September 1943, although the RSI claimed most of the lands of Italy as rightfully belonging to it, it held political control over a vastly reduced portion of Italy. The RSI received diplomatic recognition from only Germany, Japan and their puppet states, around 25 April 1945, Mussolinis republic came to an end. In Italy, this day is known as Liberation Day, on this day a general partisan uprising alongside the efforts of Allied forces, during their final offensive in Italy, managed to oust the Germans from Italy almost entirely. At the point of its demise, the Italian Social Republic had existed for more than nineteen months. On 27 April partisans caught Mussolini, his mistress, several RSI ministers, on 28 April the partisans shot Mussolini and most of the other captives. The RSI Minister of Defense, Rodolfo Graziani, surrendered what was left of the RSI on 2 May when the German forces in Italy capitulated, this put a definitive end to the Italian Social Republic. On 24 July 1943, after the Allied landings in Sicily, the next day, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini from office and ordered him arrested. The failed war effort left Mussolini humiliated at home and abroad as a sawdust Caesar, the new government, under Marshal Pietro Badoglio, began secret negotiations with the Allied powers and made preparations for the capitulation of Italy. These surrender talks implied a commitment from Badoglio not only to leave the Axis alliance, while the Germans formally recognised the new status quo in Italian politics, they intervened by sending some of the best units of the Wehrmacht to Italy. This was done both to resist new Allied advances and to face the predictably imminent defection of Italy, on 8 September, Badoglio announced Italys armistice with the Allies. German Führer Adolf Hitler and his staff, long aware of the negotiations, acted immediately by ordering German troops to control of northern. The Germans disarmed the Italian troops and took all of the Italian Armys materials
Italian Social Republic
–
Mussolini rescued by German troops from his prison in
Campo Imperatore on 12 September 1943.
Italian Social Republic
Italian Social Republic
–
Italian Social Republic poster saying: "Germany is truly your friend"
Italian Social Republic
–
Mussolini inspecting fortified positions, 1944
38.
Italian Co-Belligerent Army
–
During the same period, the pro-allied Italian Royal Navy and Italian Royal Air Force were known as the Italian Co-belligerent Navy and Italian Co-belligerent Air Force respectively. From September 1943, pro-Axis Italian forces became the National Republican Army of the newly formed Italian Social Republic, on 28 September 1943, the Italian Co-belligerent Army began when its first military unit was formed in tented reorganization camps near Lecce. Some of the first soldiers in this unit had just barely managed to escape internment by the Germans, in accordance with Royal Army Order 70/V, the Italian First Motorized Combat Group was created. The first action of the First Motorized Combat Group was in the Cassino sector at Monte Lungo and this action did much to remove the Allied distrust of the Italian soldiers fighting on their side. The unit suffered casualties and performed well enough. On 17 April 1944, the formation assumed the name Italian Liberation Corps, the continuous influx of volunteers made it necessary to form further formations. The CIL was organized in two new divisions, The Nembo and the Utili, the Nembo Division was formed around the old Royal Armys parachute division of the same name. The Utili Division was formed around the First Motorized Combat Group and was named after its commander, in early 1944, a 5,000 man force of Italians fought on the Gustav Line around Monte Cassino and acquitted itself well. The Italians once again suffered heavy casualties, after the battle of Filottrano, Italian troops were sent to the rear lines to rest and re-train. In the meantime they were re-kitted with standard British/Commonwealth equipment including Battle Dress uniforms, by early 1945 the CIL had outgrown itself. It was used as the nucleus for six separate Combat Groups, Cremona, Legnano, Friuli, Mantova, Piceno, each Combat Group was the equal to a weak division and was equipped with British uniforms, materiel and weapons. The established strength for each was 432 officers,8,578 other rank,116 field guns,170 mortars,502 light machine guns, and 1,277 motor vehicles. The Combat Groups were given the names of old Royal Army divisions and these groups were attached to various American and British formations on the Gothic Line. Each infantry regiment fielded three infantry battalions, a company armed with British ML3 inch mortars and an anti-tank company armed with British QF6 pounder guns. In a similar manner, what had been the royalist Co-Belligerent Army simply became the Italian Army, carlo Azeglio Ciampi, President of the Italian Republic from 1999 to 2006. Holland, James, Italys Sorrw, A Year of War 1944-1945, St
Italian Co-Belligerent Army
–
Victor Emmanuel III of Italy with troops of Italian Liberation Corps, Brindisi, September 1943
Italian Co-Belligerent Army
–
Churchill tank of 'C' Squadron,
North Irish Horse carrying Italian infantry of 3rd Battalion, 21st Infantry (Italian), north of Castel Borsetti, 2 March 1945
39.
Guardia Nazionale Repubblicana
–
General Renato Ricci appointed as its commandant. Major General Italo Romegialli was appointed vice commandant and Major General Nicolò Nicchiarelli became the chief of general staff, the GNR included former Carabinieri, MVSN militiamen, police officers, and members of the Italian Africa Police. While being an armed force before August 1944, on August 15,1944. However, it continued carrying out security tasks behind the lines, on August 21,1944 Benito Mussolini assumed direct command. On August 23,1944 a separate division, GNR Division Etna, was formed in Brescia under the command of General Violente, to perform anti-paratrooper, another division, GNR Vesuvio, was later formed. 1 headquarters Command 18 regional Inspectorates 94 provincial Commands 94 Legions 12 independent battalions GNR - Mazzarini GNR Parachute battalion of 300 men and it mainly operated against Italian partisans in the Padovana Plains from August 1944 until 1945. Railway GNR, of 9 legions 2, harbour GNR, of 3 legions 3. Post and Telegraph GNR, thirty small units 4, mountain and Forests GNR, of 7 legions 5. Frontier GNR, of 5 legions 6, of the 11,000 Carabinieri still in service in the summer of 1944,3,000 were sent to Germany before combing and equally few were conducted over the Alps in the aftermath. After August 25,1944, only 1,400 Carabinieri remained employed as service workers or military bureaucrats. The weakening of the GNR also occurred through territorial governance reorganization, most local districts previously served by Carabinieri had been dissolved. By September 1944, the Italian Social Republics control over its territory was no longer as effective as it had once been, eventually, a reorganization of GNR occurred through a strengthening of territorial departments, while schools were established for officers. The Republican Guard Youth was renamed Guard Youth Legionaria, with the transformation of assault battalions legions, the newly established centralized department was named Etna Division, which coordinated the department used in Germany in FlaK and anti-partisan departments employed by General Karl Wolff. The Etna Division absorbed, as a result, nine battalions of assault youth and October five operating divisions, four battalions and an assault battalion paratroopers. The only autonomous departments that remained were the Legion M Guardia del Duce, the Legion Tagliamento M, the Leonessa armored group, discrimination of CSR combatants was sanctioned by Legislative Decree March 4,1948, n. With specific reference to single sentence, in the fourteenth term in the Senate was presented the draft Law 2244. It since its introductory report - and then report to the House - revolved around the data on which it based its decision No. Text provoked an uprising by the opposition to the government of the time
Guardia Nazionale Repubblicana
–
GNR insignia
40.
Guardia di Finanza
–
The Guardia di Finanza is an Italian law enforcement agency under the authority of the Minister of Economy and Finance. It is a police force, forming a part of the Ministry of Economy and Finance. Guardia di Finanza is essentially responsible for dealing with crime and smuggling. It maintains over 600 boats and ships and more than 100 aircraft to serve in its mission of patrolling Italys territorial waters. The mission and institutional tasks of Guardia di Finanza are stated in the law 189 of April 23,1959 and 68/2001 and are subdivided into priority ones and contribution ones. The origins of the Guardia di Finanza date back to October 5,1774 and this was the first example in Italy of a special corps established and organized for financial surveillance duties along the borders, as well as for military defense. Once the unification of Italy was completed in 1862, the Customs Guards Corps was set up and its main task was Customs surveillance and co-participation in the Countrys defense during wartime. Subsequently, the Corps took part in rescue operations during serious natural disasters. The re-organization of the forces in 1919 also affected the Royal Guardia di Finanza. In 1923, the Investigative Tax Police was set up as a branch of the Royal Financial Guard. Besides the review of its structure, laid out by the issuance of Presidential Decree Law no.34 dated January 29,1999. The Guardia di Finanza Historical Museum is custodian of the traditions of the Corps and it preserves artifacts of relevance to the Guardia di Finanza and promotes historical research, to aid researchers, scholars and military history enthusiasts. In 2005, the Financial Guard was responsible for 77% of the Heroin seizures, 69% of Cocaine seizures and these later turned out to be counterfeit. Under the minister of finance and economy, the corps is commanded by a general commander, comando Aeronavale Central ´Aeronaval Operations Command, with one aeromaritime exploration group, and three aeronaval groups. Aviation Center Naval Center Source, Territorial commands Six interregional commands Regional commands, provincial commands, one for each of Italys provinces. The Guardia di Finanza utilises a rank similar to that of other state police forces in Italy. The Guardia di Finanza has around 68,000 members and its personnel are in service in the Europol and OLAF. Its Latin motto since 1933 has been Nec recisa recedit, there are 3,250 officers in the Guardia di Finanza
Guardia di Finanza
–
Guardia di Finanza police in central
Rome.
Guardia di Finanza
–
Coat of arms of the Guardia di Finanza, depicting the
Cimon della Pala
Guardia di Finanza
–
Patrol boat of the Guardia di Finanza.
Guardia di Finanza
–
Guardia di finanza
Agusta AW139
41.
Black Brigades
–
They were officially led by Alessandro Pavolini, former Minister of Culture of the fascist era during the last years of the Reign of Italy. The Italian government was taken over by Marshal Pietro Badoglio, who outlawed the Italian National Fascist party, on 12 September Mussolini was rescued by German paratroopers led by Otto Skorzeny. He was then installed by the Germans as the President of the Italian Social Republic, the RSI was to be an Italian regime which was to nominally administer the German-occupied northern Italy. The Guardia Nazionale Repubblicana was formed out of police, ex-army, ex-Blackshirts. Soon, a civil war started in northern Italy. RSI manpower proved to be insufficient, and Italian authorities decided to organize all fascist party volunteer units in a dedicated structure, the Black Brigades were formed from members of the Republican Fascist Party. Units so formed were to be called Black Brigades, and were to be commanded by the local Federal Secretary of the PFR, with the rank of Major or Colonel. This measure was to be both a response to attacks against fascist members, and to turn the PFR into a fighting force to cope with shortage of manpower for internal security. In this optic, they decided to mobilize it for war duties, under the concept that every fascist was to be first of all a combatant, Black Brigades membership was compulsory for all members of the PFR deemed fit for such duties. Members were officially called Squadristi, and were divided into three categories, Squadristi Permanenti, Ausiliari di pronto impiego, Ausiliari, only full-time personnel were required to be on duty daily, while other two categories were to be mobilized only in case of emergency. Black Brigade members were entitled to police powers, to carry firearms, full-time personnel received a monthly wage of ITL200.00 Police effectiveness of Black Brigades was, in best terms, feeble. Many were also old Squadristi fascists who had served in the 20s, in general terms, poor average discipline made all these individuals difficult to control, and prone to abuses. As the military situation worsened, German mistrust towards the RSI military grew, there, they usually performed well enough, displaying undeniable bravery but also brutality, in the merciless guerrilla warfare that ravaged northern Italy in 1944-45. Therefore, they were an important law enforcement instrument for German and Italian authorities, many Black Brigade members were killed in this type of in-fighting. After the armistice and the end of the war in Italy, to this day, the number of Black Brigades soldiers who fell victim of summary executions remains unknown. They sometimes wore this uniform with a jacket in solid or camouflage colors. The badge or insignia of the Black Brigades was the deaths head, with a dagger in its teeth. Collar tabs were issued, unique to the Black Brigades, consisting in square-shaped tabs with pointed tip, of black cloth, on which was pinned a bright red republican fascio
Black Brigades
–
Alessandro Pavolini, commander-in-chief of the Black Brigades (right) and Vincenzo Costa (center), commander of 8th Black Brigade "Aldo Resega" of
Milan, at a ceremony in Milan, late 1944.
Black Brigades
–
Mussolini reviews 5th Alpine Mobile Black Brigade " E. Quagliata ",
Brescia, 1945. Note the
Alpini hat and the green flashes on the soldiers' black collar tabs, both distinctive insignias of Italian mountain troops.
Black Brigades
–
The Black Brigade " Marcello Turchetti " of Mantova, before one of its last actions in the closing days of war, April 1945
Black Brigades
–
Member of the 16th Black Brigade of
Varese, 1945. He wears a typical uniform, consisting of black cap, similar to German Feldmutze, with metal skull insignia, and a black sweater with the squared metallic badge of its brigade. He is armed with a
Sten submachine gun, likely from an intercepted British airdrop.
42.
Vittorio Miele
–
Vittorio Miele was an Italian painter. Vittorio Miele was born in Cassino in 1926 and he lived the tragedy of the Second World War, during the Battle of Monte Cassino where his father and his mother later died of her injuries. Vittorio Miele survived and he went to Northern Italy, in 1958 he participated in the Mantova City National Art Exhibition and in 1966 he had his first one-man exhibition in Frosinone. In 1971 the Administration of the Republic of San Marino invited him to hold an exhibition at the Ridotto of the Titano Theatre. In July 1971, thousands of people visited this exhibition and his international experience enriches after only one year. In June 1973, with Lultimo Gradino and Passaggio Ciociaro he is present in the Arts Pavillon in Sarajevo, in October, the Provincaial Tourist Organization in Frosinone awarded him the gold medal for having contributed to the revival of Art in Ciociaria. In Autumn 1974 was ready for his first trip to North America, the Canadian press and television present the exhibitions Miele holds in the major Canadian cities. In October he exhibited, with success, over one hundred paintings in Place Bonaventure in Montreal. In November he held an exhibition in Toronto at the Hilton Hotel. Vittorio Miele works hard during two months, even outdoors, trying to physically capture the harsh climate in his paintings. The Nordic houses become Ciociaria countryside cottages, in 70s he was invited to Yugoslavia, guest of the State Artist Colony in Počitelj. There he discovered the freshness of the archaic culture. He began to paint outdoors again, the style become less harsh, the Bosnian mountains become rounded and he discovered a luminosity lost in his years of travelling. After a lot of expositions in Italy and in the USA. He died in his home in Cassino on 18 November 1999, gavino Còlomo, Nuovissimo dizionario dei pittori, poeti, scrittori, artisti dei nostri giorni, Edizioni della Nuova Europa,1975 Studi meridionali, Anno 5, fasc
Vittorio Miele
–
Vittorio Miele
Vittorio Miele
–
Vittorio Miele, Carabinieri
Vittorio Miele
–
Vittorio Miele, oil painting
Vittorio Miele
–
Vittorio Miele, Cafè de Paris
43.
Granatieri di Sardegna Mechanized Brigade
–
The Granatieri di Sardegna Mechanized Brigade is a mechanized infantry brigade of the Italian Army, based mainly in Rome and central Italy. The brigade fields one of the oldest regiments of the Army and is one of the regiments of the Italian president. The name of the dates back to the Kingdom of Sardinia. After the ascension to the throne of Charles Albert of Sardinia on 27 April 1831 a major reform of the military of the Kingdom of Piedmont was undertaken, thus on 25 October 1831 the Guards Grenadiers Brigade was raised as one of 10 infantry brigades of the kingdom. The 1st Grenadiers Regiment was founded as Regiment of the Guards on 18 April 1659 by the Duke of Savoy Charles Emmanuel II as his personal bodyguard regiment during military campaigns, the regiment participated in the War of the Spanish Succession where it excelled during the Siege of Turin. During the War of the First Coalition the regiment fought in the Italian campaigns against the French Army of Italy under Napoleon Bonaparte, after France annexed the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1799 the royal family went into exile on Sardinia and the Regiment of the Guards was disbanded. The 2nd Hunters Regiment was founded on 13 July 1774 as Regiment of Sardinia on the eponymous island, after the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 the royal family returned to Turin and the re-building of the Sardinian Army commenced in 1814. In 1814 the Regiment of the Guards was raised again as the Guards Regiment, while the Regiment of Sardinia moved to Turin, when the two regiments were combined in a single brigade in 1831 they became the first units in the order of precedence of the kingdom. The brigade participated in the First Italian War of Independence fighting in the battles of Santa Lucia, Goito, Pastrengo, during the Battle of Goito the Sardinian King Charles Albert rallied the Guards Grenadiers Brigade to his position with the words a me le guardie. Which became the motto of the brigades regiments, after the war on 20 April 1850 the brigade was renamed as Grenadier Brigade and its regiments were renamed as 1st and 2nd Grenadier Regiment. In 1855 the brigade provided two battalions for the Sardinian Expeditionary Corps in the Crimean War, during the Second Italian War of Independence the brigade was involved in a skirmish near Lonato del Garda in June 1859. Afterwards the brigade as part of the 1st Division of the Line under the V Army Corps entered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to aid Giuseppe Garibaldi in his Expedition of the Thousand. The brigade fought at San Giuliano on 26 October 1860 and at Garigliano on 29 October 1860, finally the brigade participated in the siege of Gaeta. After Italy had been unified the brigade moved to Florence, the capital of the newly united Italy, during the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866 the brigade fought at the Battle of Custoza. Between 1871 and 1881 the brigade level had been abolished in the Italian Army, afterwards the brigade participated in the first four Battles of the Isonzo aimed at conquering the city of Gorizia. The brigade tried to capture the Sabotin hill near Gorizia and later fought at Oslavia, there the brigade defended Mount Cenigo- the last position between the Austrians and the Italian plains. A loss of the mountain would have let to the encirclement of the Italian Armies along the Isonzo front, on Mount Cenigo the Granatieri di Sardegna stubbornly held the position even after ammunition had been expended and the enemy had broken into the brigades line. Ultimately the defence of Mount Cenigo ensured that the Austrians had to abandon the offensive, after the Austrian offensive had been defeated the brigade returned to the Isonzo front and participated in the sixth, seventh, and eighth Battle of the Isonzo
Granatieri di Sardegna Mechanized Brigade
–
Coat of Arms Granatieri di Sardegna Brigade
Granatieri di Sardegna Mechanized Brigade
–
Soldiers of 1st Sardinia Grenadiers Regiment during the Bastille Day 2007
Granatieri di Sardegna Mechanized Brigade
–
Italian
Festa della Repubblica Parade, 2007
44.
Forced labour
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Unfree labour includes all forms of slavery, and related institutions. According to the Marxian economics, under capitalism, workers never keep all of the wealth they create, as some of it goes to the profit of capitalists. Slavery was common in ancient societies, including ancient Greece, ancient Rome, ancient Israel, ancient China, classical Arab states, as well as many societies in Africa. Being sold into slavery was a fate of populations conquered in wars. The term slavery is often applied to situations which do not meet the above definitions, examples are the Repartimiento system in the Spanish Empire, or the work of Indigenous Australians in northern Australia on sheep or cattle stations, from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century. In the latter case, workers were rarely or never paid, in late 16th century Japan, unfree labour or slavery was officially banned, but forms of contract and indentured labour persisted alongside the period penal codes forced labour. Somewhat later, the Edo period penal laws prescribed non-free labour for the family of executed criminals in Article 17 of the Gotōke reijō. The 1711 Gotōke reijō was compiled from over 600 statutes promulgated between 1597 and 1696, according to Kevin Bales, in Disposable People, New Slavery in the Global Economy, there are now an estimated 27 million slaves in the world. Convict or prison labour is another form of unfree labour. The forced labour of convicts has often been regarded with lack of sympathy, three British colonies in Australia — New South Wales, Van Diemens Land and Western Australia — provide probably the best examples of the state use of convict labour. A considerable number of Irish convicts were sentenced to transportation for treason while fighting for Irish independence from British rule, more than 165,000 convicts were transported to Australian colonies from 1788 to 1868. Most British or Irish convicts who were sentenced to transportation, however and it is estimated that in the last 50 years more than 50 million people have been sent to Chinese laogai camps. Chinas Laogai system and North Koreas Kwalliso camps are current examples, about 12 million forced labourers, most of whom were Poles and Soviet citizens, were employed in the German war economy inside Nazi Germany. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha were forced to work by the Japanese military, about 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning there was a death rate of 80%. Kerja rodi, was the term for forced labor in Indonesia during Dutch colonisation, the Khmer Rouge attempted to turn Cambodia into a classless society by depopulating cities and forcing the urban population into agricultural communes. The entire population was forced to become farmers in labour camps, a specific kind of truck system, in which credit advances are made against future work, is known in the U. S. as debt bondage. Many scholars have suggested that use such systems to exploit workers and/or indebt them
Forced labour
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Convict labourers in Australia in the early 20th century.
Forced labour
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Slavery
Forced labour
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American prisoner "
chain gang " laborers, 2006. Notice the shackles on the feet of the prisoners.
Forced labour
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Female forced laborers wearing "OST" (
Ost-Arbeiter) badges are liberated from a camp near Lodz, January 1945.
45.
Garibaldi Division
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The 19th Infantry Division Venezia was a mountain infantry division of the Reggio Esercito was raised in 1934 to serve in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War under the name Gavinana division. It was demobilized and reduced to the brigade in July,1936, the only difference between line infantry divisions and mountain infantry divisions was that the latters artillery was carried by pack mules instead of the standard horse-drawn carriages. Italys real mountain warfare divisions were the six divisions manned by the Alpini mountain troops. In October–November 1943, it has gradually get transformed into the partisan Garibaldi division fighting together with Yugoslav Partisans against Axis, the Gavinana division was staying in Eritrea near Ethiopian border in the Adi Quala and Enda-Ghergis. 3 October 1935, it crossed Mareb River as part of the Italian II Corps, on that day, it crushed an Ethiopian fortified position at De’āro Teklē. 4 October 1935, the Gavinana division have captured the Ādī Ābun town, the advance than largely stopped, as several battles were fought around Adwa, particularly at Inda Mīka’ēl to the south of the town. After the eventual Ethiopian counter-attack was stalled, the Gavinana division has participated in the Second Battle of Tembien, starting from 26 February 1936 an attack around Shire, 5–7 March 1936, it reached Indabaguna town. 9 March 1936, the Gavinana division have occupied Debarq, and 2 April 1936, have stopped at Dabat and it was relieved from the front-line duties 22 April 1936 and sent to Axum. For the rest of war, it participated in operations around Mendefera. The reformed Venezia division was mobilized for the occupation of Albania and it was responsible for the cities of Elbasan and Pogradec. 10 June 1940, the Venezia division was close to Yugoslavian border in the valley of Drin,26 October 1940, it got the orders to transfer to the Greek border to Korçë area. 2 November 1940, the Venezia division was relocated to the south of Lake Prespa to parry an anticipated Greek attack and its defence stretched along Zaroshkë-Bilisht-Kapshticë line. 3 November 1940, the Greek forces have attacked the right flank. Although the Venezia division initially held the position, during 4–5 November 1940, it was pushed out of Kapshticë, Bilisht and Bitincke towns, falling back to the Devoll river. Consequently, Greek have shifted the focus of their attacks on centre and left flank of the Venezia division, meanwhile, the Venezia division was outflanked on south by Greek breakthrough to Ersekë16 November 1940. It tried to rectify the frontline by pulling out the southern flank from the Devoll river valley, while Greek intensified their attacks on retreating Italians 17–19 November 1940. 21 November 1940, the contact with neighbour Italian forces on the flank was lost. The Greek resumed their attacks 26 November 1940, but the Venezia division have started to retreat to Shkumbin river valley only 29 November 1940, after again being outflanked from the right
Garibaldi Division
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Insignia of the Venezia Division prior to joining the
Partisans.
46.
Wehrmacht
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The Wehrmacht was the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1946. It consisted of the Heer, the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe, after the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, one of Adolf Hitler’s most overt and audacious moves was to establish the Wehrmacht, a modern armed forces fully capable of offensive use. In December 1941, Hitler designated himself as commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht, the Wehrmacht formed the heart of Germany’s politico-military power. In the early part of World War II, Hitlers generals employed the Wehrmacht through innovative combined arms tactics to devastating effect in what was called a Blitzkrieg, the Wehrmachts new military structure, unique combat techniques, newly developed weapons, and unprecedented speed and brutality crushed their opponents. Closely cooperating with the SS, the German armed forces committed war crimes and atrocities. By the time the war ended in Europe in May 1945, only a few of the Wehrmacht’s upper leadership were tried for war crimes, despite evidence suggesting that more were involved in illegal actions. The German term Wehrmacht generically describes any nations armed forces, for example, the Frankfurt Constitution of 1848 designated all German military forces as the German Wehrmacht, consisting of the Seemacht and the Landmacht. In 1919, the term Wehrmacht also appears in Article 47 of the Weimar Constitution, establishing that, from 1919, Germanys national defense force was known as the Reichswehr, a name that was dropped in favor of Wehrmacht on 21 May 1935. In January 1919, after World War I ended with the signing of the armistice of 11 November 1918, in March 1919, the national assembly passed a law founding a 420, 000-strong preliminary army, the Vorläufige Reichswehr. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were announced in May, the army was limited to one hundred thousand men with an additional fifteen thousand in the navy. The fleet was to consist of at most six battleships, six cruisers, submarines, tanks and heavy artillery were forbidden and the air-force was dissolved. A new post-war military, the Reichswehr, was established on 23 March 1921, General conscription was abolished under another mandate of the Versailles treaty. The Reichswehr was limited to 115,000 men, and thus the armed forces, under the leadership of Hans von Seeckt, though Seeckt retired in 1926, the army that went to war in 1939 was largely his creation. Germany was forbidden to have an air-force by the Versailles treaty, nonetheless and these officers saw the role of an air-force as winning air-superiority, tactical and strategic bombing and providing ground support. That the Luftwaffe did not develop a strategic bombing force in the 1930s was not due to a lack of interest, but because of economic limitations. The leadership of the Navy led by Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, officers who believed in submarine warfare led by Admiral Karl Dönitz were in a minority before 1939. By 1922, Germany had begun covertly circumventing the conditions of the Versailles Treaty, a secret collaboration with the Soviet Union began after the treaty of Rapallo. Major-General Otto Hasse traveled to Moscow in 1923 to further negotiate the terms, Germany helped the Soviet Union with industrialization and Soviet officers were to be trained in Germany
Wehrmacht
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Werner Goldberg, who was blond and blue-eyed, was used in Wehrmacht recruitment posters as the "ideal German soldier". He was later dismissed after it became known that he was a half Jew.
Wehrmacht
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The straight-armed
Balkenkreuz, a stylized version of the
Iron Cross, the emblem of the Wehrmacht
Wehrmacht
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Inspection of German conscripts
Wehrmacht
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A
Volga Tatar Wehrmacht unit
47.
Silver Medal of Military Valor
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The Silver Medal of Military Valor is an Italian medal for gallantry. Italian medals for valor were first instituted by Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia on 21 May 1793, with a medal, and, below it. These were intended for officers or common soldiers who had distinguished themselves in combat. These medals fell into disuse during the period of Napoleonic domination, according to royal decree no.753 of 24 May 1915, the number of times one individual could receive a medal for valor was limited to three, after which a promotion was foreseen. This limit was abolished with royal decree no.975 of 15 June 1922, during World War I, the medal was awarded to military personnel, units above the level of company and civilians for exceptional valor in the face of the enemy. During World War I, the medal was given out some 38,614 times for acts of heroism. Thus, the Italian Silver Medal for Military Valor is equivalent in frequency and prestige to the British Military Cross, italo Balbo William George Barker VC Carlo Emanuele Buscaglia Federico Cafiero Mark W
Silver Medal of Military Valor
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Ernest Hemingway as an Italian Front
Red Cross ambulance driver.
48.
Alfa Romeo 159
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The Alfa Romeo 159 is a compact executive car produced by the Italian manufacturer Alfa Romeo between 2004 and 2011. It was introduced at the 2005 Geneva Motor Show as a replacement for the 156, the 159 uses the GM/Fiat Premium platform, shared with the Alfa Romeo Brera and Spider production cars, and with the Kamal and Visconti concept cars. The 159 placed third in the 2006 European Car of the Year awards, production of the 159 ended within the end of 2011, although it is still marketed in several countries. The Alfa Romeo 159 had a development, being designed in the midst of the Fiat-General Motors joint venture which was terminated in 2005. Originally, the 159 was intended to use GMs Epsilon platform, however, in 2008, changes made to the interior, dashboard, instruments and materials, and aluminium components were introduced, which reduced kerb weight by 45 kilograms. Consequently, of its executive car platform, the 159 is larger than its predecessor at 4660 millimetres long some 225 mm longer than the Alfa 156,1828 mm wide and 1417 mm high. The 159s size made it more comfortable than the 156 due to its larger. However, the growth in dimensions deterred many 156 owners from considering the 159 as a direct replacement model. The 159 was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro in collaboration with the Centro Stile Alfa Romeo, the nose features a traditional Alfa Romeo V-shaped grille and bonnet, and cylindrical head light clusters. Similar to its counterpart, front of the car was influenced by 2002 Brera Concept also by Giugiaro. A high waistline broadens until it reaches the rear C pillar, several exterior design cues were intended to make the car appear larger, supposedly to appeal to potential buyers in the United States, however, the 159 was never exported to that region. The interior also features styling treatments familiar from earlier cars, including the 156, several levels of trim are available, depending on market. Four trim levels, Progression, Distinctive, Exclusive and Turismo Internazionale, in the UK there were three levels of trim, Turismo, Lusso and Turismo Internazionale. Among other options, the 159 was also available with the Blue&Me infotainment system, a Sportwagon variant was introduced at the Geneva Motor Show in 2006. An automatic gearbox option for the 2.4 JTDM diesel model was launched that year. In 2007 a four-wheel drive diesel model was released and the 2. 4-litre diesel engines power increased to 210 PS. For model year 2008, the mechanics and interiors of the 159 were further developed, the 3.2 litre V6 model is offered in front wheel drive configuration, achieving a top speed of 250 kilometres per hour. All model variants are equipped with Alfas electronic Q2 limited slip differential, as a result of newly introduced aluminium components, a 45 kilograms weight reduction has been achieved
Alfa Romeo 159
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Alfa Romeo 159 2.0 JTDm ECO Elegante
Alfa Romeo 159
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159 Sportwagon.
Alfa Romeo 159
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Polizia Penitenziaria 's 159.
Alfa Romeo 159
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Carabinieri 's 159 "Gazzella", partially armoured vehicle.
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Kingdom of Sardinia
Italian Republic
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Esercito Italiano (Army) 
Marina Militare (Navy) 
Aeronautica Militare (Air Force) 
