1.
Personal life
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Personal life is the course of an individuals life, especially when viewed as the sum of personal choices contributing to ones personal identity. In ancient past, most peoples time was limited by the need to meet such as food and shelter. People identified with their role in their community, and engaged in jobs based on necessity rather than personal choice. Privacy in such communities was rare, the modern conception of personal life is an offshoot of modern Western society. A modern person tends to distinguish work from ones personal life. It is a persons choices and preferences outside of work that define personal life, including choice of hobbies, cultural interests, manner of dress. In particular, what activities one engages in during leisure-time defines a persons personal life, for instance, a typical American has about five hours of leisure time per day, more than half of which is spent on watching TV. People in Western countries, such as the United States, tend to value privacy, humans needed survival skills for the sake of both themselves and their community, food needed to be harvested and shelters needed to be maintained. There was little privacy in a community, and people identified one another according to their social role, jobs were assigned out of necessity rather than personal choice. People in such cultures found their identity not through their individual choices—indeed, such individuals, if asked to describe themselves, would speak of the collective of which they were part, the tribe, the Church, the nation. Even in the 21st century, survival issues dominate in many countries and societies, for example, the continents of Africa and Asia are still largely mired in poverty and third-world conditions, without technology, secure shelter, or reliable food sources. In such places, the concepts of a life, self-actualization, personal fulfillment. The English philosopher John Locke figures among the pioneers in discussing the concept of individual rights, in the 17th century he promoted the natural rights of the individual to life, liberty, and property, and included the pursuit of happiness as one of the individuals goals. The notion of a life, as currently understood, is in part an artifact of modern Western society. People in the United States of America, especially, place a value on privacy. Since the colonial period, commentators have noted Americans individualism and their pursuit of self-definition, indeed, the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution explicitly raise the pursuit of happiness and the expectation of privacy to the level of rights. George Lakoff sees the metaphor of life as a journey as a noteworthy structuring idea in our culture, in modern times, many people have come to think of their personal lives as separate from their work. This paradigm regards work and recreation as distinct, one is either on the job or not, employees have certain hours they are bound to work, and work during recreational time is rare
2.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
3.
Person
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The common plural of person, people, is often used to refer to an entire nation or ethnic group. The plural persons is often used in philosophical and legal writing, in ancient Rome, the word persona or prosopon originally referred to the masks worn by actors on stage. The various masks represented the various personae in the stage play, the concept of person was further developed during the Trinitarian and Christological debates of the 4th and 5th centuries in contrast to the word nature. During the theological debates, some tools were needed so that the debates could be held on common basis to all theological schools. The purpose of the debate was to establish the relation, similarities and differences between the Λóγος/Verbum and God, the philosophical concept of person arose, taking the word prosopon from the Greek theatre. Therefore, Christus and God were defined as different persons and this concept was applied later to the Holy Ghost, the angels and to all human beings. Since then, a number of important changes to the meaning and use have taken place. Personhood is the status of being a person, defining personhood is a controversial topic in philosophy and law, and is closely tied to legal and political concepts of citizenship, equality, and liberty. According to law, only a person or legal personality has rights, protections, privileges, responsibilities. Various debates have focused on questions about the personhood of different classes of entities, historically, the personhood of animals, women, and slaves has been a catalyst of social upheaval. The category may exclude some human entities in prenatal development, personal identity is the unique identity of persons through time. That is to say, the necessary and sufficient conditions under which a person at one time, in the modern philosophy of mind, this concept of personal identity is sometimes referred to as the diachronic problem of personal identity. The synchronic problem is grounded in the question of what features or traits characterize a person at one time. Identity is an issue for both continental philosophy and analytic philosophy, a key question in continental philosophy is in what sense we can maintain the modern conception of identity, while realizing many of our prior assumptions about the world are incorrect. The Concept of Personality in Greek and Christian Thought, in Studies in Philosophy and the History of Philosophy. Edited by J. K. Ryan, Washington, Catholic University of America Press, pp. 20–60 Lukes, Steven, Carrithers, Michael, Collins, Steven, eds. The Category of the Person, Anthropology, Philosophy, History, persons, A Study of Possible Moral Agents in the Universe. The Person, Readings in Human Nature
4.
Cursus honorum
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The cursus honorum was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. It was designed for men of senatorial rank, the cursus honorum comprised a mixture of military and political administration posts. Each office had an age for election. There were minimum intervals between holding successive offices and laws forbade repeating an office and these rules were altered and flagrantly ignored in the course of the last century of the Republic. For example, Gaius Marius held consulships for five years in a row between 104 BC and 100 BC, officially presented as opportunities for public service, the offices often became mere opportunities for self-aggrandizement. The reforms of Lucius Cornelius Sulla required a period between holding another term in the same office. To have held office at the youngest possible age was considered a great political success. Cicero expressed extreme pride not only in being a novus homo who became consul even though none of his ancestors had served as a consul. The cursus honorum began with ten years of duty in the Roman cavalry or in the staff of a general who was a relative or a friend of the family. The ten years of service were intended to be mandatory in order to qualify for office, but in practice. A more prestigious position was that of a military tribune, in the early Roman Republic,24 men at the age of around 20 were elected by the Tribal Assembly to serve as a commander in the legions, with six tribunes to each and command rotating among them. Tribunes could also be appointed by the consuls or by military commanders in the field as necessary. After the reforms of Gaius Marius in 107 BC, the six tribunes acted as officers for the legionary Legatus and were appointed tasks. The following steps of the cursus honorum were achieved by direct election every year, the first official post was that of quaestor. Candidates had to be at least 30 years old, however, men of patrician rank could subtract two years from this and other minimum age requirements. Twenty quaestors served in the administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They could also serve as the paymaster for a legion, a young man who obtained this job was expected to become a very important official. An additional task of all quaestors was the supervision of public games, as a quaestor, an official was allowed to wear the toga praetexta, but was not escorted by lictors, nor did he possess imperium
5.
Profession
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The term is a truncation of the term liberal profession, which is, in turn, an Anglicization of the French term profession libérale. Medieval and early modern tradition recognized only four professions, divinity, medicine, the military officer, just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, others may decline. Disciplines formalized more recently, such as architecture, now have equally long periods of study associated with them, originally, any regulation of the professions was self-regulation through bodies such as the College of Physicians or the Inns of Court. With the growing role of government, statutory bodies have taken on this role. It may be resisted as limiting the freedom to innovate or to practice as in their professional judgement they consider best. An example was in 2008, when the British government proposed wide statutory regulation of psychologists, besides regulating access to a profession, professional bodies may set examinations of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code. Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice. This requirement is set out by the Educational Department Bureau of Hong Kong, Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs, professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work. This usually means the freedom to exercise their professional judgement, however, it also has other meanings. Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests, one major implication of professional autonomy is the traditional ban on corporate practice of the professions, especially accounting, architecture, medicine, and law. This means that in many jurisdictions, these professionals cannot do business through regular for-profit corporations, the obvious implication of this is that all equity owners of the professional business entity must be professionals themselves. This avoids the possibility of an owner of the firm telling a professional how to do his or her job. But because professional business entities are locked out of the stock market. Professions enjoy a social status, regard and esteem conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily from the social function of their work. All professions involve technical, specialized and highly skilled work often referred to as professional expertise, training for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications without which entry to the profession is barred. Updating skills through continuing education is required through training and this power is used to control its own members, and also its area of expertise and interests
6.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
7.
Richard Florida
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Florida is an American urban studies theorist. Floridas focus is on social and economic theory and he is currently a professor and head of the Martin Prosperity Institute at the Rotman School of Management at the University of Toronto. Florida received a PhD from Columbia University in 1986, prior to joining George Mason Universitys School of Public Policy, where he spent two years, he taught at Carnegie Mellon Universitys Heinz College in Pittsburgh from 1987 to 2005. He was named a Senior Editor at The Atlantic in March 2011 after serving as a correspondent for TheAtlantic. com for a year, Florida lives in Toronto and Miami and is married to Rana Florida. Florida is best known for his concept of the creative class and this idea was expressed in Floridas best-selling books The Rise of the Creative Class, Cities and the Creative Class, and The Flight of the Creative Class. A book focusing on the surrounding urban renewal and talent migration. Florida refers to these collectively as the creative class. He posits that the creative class fosters an open, dynamic and this environment, in turn, attracts more creative people, as well as businesses and capital. He has devised his own ranking systems that rate cities by a Bohemian index, a Gay index, Floridas earlier work focused on innovation by manufacturers, including the continuous-improvement systems implemented by such automakers as Toyota. Floridas ideas have been criticized from a variety of political perspectives and his theories have been criticized as being elitist, and his data have been questioned. Researchers have also criticized Floridas work for its methodology, other critics have said that the conditions it describes may no longer exist, and that his theories may be better suited to politics, rather than economics. Florida has gone on to reply to a number of these objections. Floridas book, The Rise of the Creative Class came at the end of the boom in 2002. It was followed by a prequel titled Cities and the Creative Class, one author characterizes him as an influence on radical centrist political thought. Some scholars have voiced concern over Floridas influence on urban planners throughout the United States, a 2010 book, Weird City, examines Floridas influence on planning policy in Austin, Texas. The Great Reset, How New Ways of Living and Working Drive Post-Crash Prosperity,2010, the Flight of the Creative Class. The New Global Competition for Talent,2005, Cities and the Creative Class,2005. The Rise of the Creative Class, and How Its Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life,2002
8.
Labour economics
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Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour. Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers, Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services and the demanders of labour services, and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. In economics, labour is a measure of the work done by human beings and it is conventionally contrasted with such other factors of production as land and capital. There are theories which have developed a concept called human capital, there are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to the labour market, microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income, the labour force is defined as the number of people of working age, who are either employed or actively looking for work. The participation rate is the number of people in the force divided by the size of the adult civilian noninstitutional population. The unemployment level is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed, the unemployment rate is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The employment rate is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population, in these statistics, self-employed people are counted as employed. Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and they can be contrasted with flow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants. Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment, for example, internet search engines have reduced the cost, structural unemployment – This reflects a mismatch between the skills and other attributes of the labour force and those demanded by employers. The process of globalization has contributed to changes in labour markets. Natural rate of unemployment – This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment and it is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to achieve, given that some frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable. Economists do not agree on the level of the rate, with estimates ranging from 1% to 5%. The estimated rate varies from country to country and from time to time, demand deficient unemployment – In Keynesian economics, any level of unemployment beyond the natural rate is probably due to insufficient goods demand in the overall economy. During a recession, aggregate expenditure is deficient causing the underutilisation of inputs, neoclassical economists view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the forces of supply and demand jointly determine price and quantity
9.
Social capital
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It is generally seen as a form of capital that produces public goods for a common good. During the 1990s and 2000s the concept has become popular in a wide range of social science disciplines. The term social capital was in intermittent use from about 1890, in the first half of the 19th century, Alexis de Tocqueville had observations about American life that seemed to outline and define social capital. He observed that Americans were prone to meeting at as many gatherings as possible to all possible issues of state, economics. The high levels of transparency caused greater participation from the people, the French writer highlighted also that the level of social participation in American society was directly linked to the equality of conditions. John Dewey used the term in his monograph entitled School and Society in 1900, jane Jacobs used the term early in the 1960s. Although she did not explicitly define the social capital, her usage referred to the value of networks. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu used the term in 1972 in his Outline of a Theory of Practice, and clarified the term some years later in contrast to cultural, economic, and symbolic capital. Sociologists James Coleman, and Barry Wellman & Scot Wortley adopted Glenn Lourys 1977 definition in developing and popularising the concept, john Dewey may have made the first direct mainstream use of social capital in The School and Society in 1899, though he did not offer a definition. The power of community governance has been stressed by many philosophers from antiquity to the 18th century, from Aristotle to Thomas Aquinas and Edmund Burke. This vision was criticised at the end of the 18th century, with the development of the idea of Homo Economicus. The debate of community versus modernization of society and individualism has been the most discussed topic among the fathers of sociology and they were convinced that industrialisation and urbanization were transforming social relationship in an irreversible way. They observed a breakdown of traditional bonds and the development of anomie. After Tönnies and Webers works, reflection on social links in modern society continued with interesting contributions in the 1950s and in the 1960s and they proposed themes similar to those of the founding fathers, with a more pessimistic emphasis on the development of society. All these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social concept in the following decades. He also transforms social capital from a resource possessed by individuals to an attribute of collectives, focusing on norms, mahyar Arefi identifies consensus building as a direct positive indicator of social capital. Consensus implies shared interest and agreement among various actors and stakeholders to induce collective action, collective action is thus an indicator of increased social capital. First, social capital is not equally available to all, in much the way that other forms of capital are differently available
10.
Human resource management
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Human resource management is the management of human resources. It is designed to maximize employee performance in service of an employers strategic objectives, HR is primarily concerned with the management of people within organizations, focusing on policies and on systems. HR departments are responsible for overseeing employee benefits design, employee recruitment, training and development, performance appraisal, HR is a product of the human relations movement of the early 20th century, when researchers began documenting ways of creating business value through the strategic management of the workforce. Human Resources is a field focused on maximizing employee productivity. Human Resources professionals manage the capital of an organization and focus on implementing policies and processes. They can be specialists focusing in on recruiting, training, employee relations or benefits, Recruiting specialists are in charge of finding and hiring top talent. Training and development professionals ensure that employees are trained and have continuous development and this is done through training programs, performance evaluations and reward programs. Employee relations deals with concerns of employees when policies are broken, someone in benefits develops compensation structures, family leave programs, discounts and other benefits that employees can get. On the other side of the field are Human Resources Generalists or Business Partners and these human resources professionals could work in all areas or be labor relations representatives working with unionized employees. In startup companies, trained professionals may perform HR duties, academic and practitioner organizations may produce field-specific publications. Businesses are moving globally and forming more diverse teams and it is the role of human resources to make sure that these teams can function and people are able to communicate cross culturally and across borders. Due to changes in business, current topics in human resources are diversity, in the current global work environment, most companies focus on lowering employee turnover and on retaining the talent and knowledge held by their workforce. New hiring not only entails a high cost but also increases the risk of a newcomer not being able to replace the person who worked in a position before, HR departments strive to offer benefits that will appeal to workers, thus reducing the risk of losing corporate knowledge. The Human Resources field evolved first in 18th century Europe from an idea by Robert Owen. These men knew that people were crucial to the success of an organization and they expressed that the well being of employees led to perfect work. Without healthy workers, the organization would not survive, HR later emerged as a specific field in the early 20th century, influenced by Frederick Winslow Taylor. Taylor explored what he termed scientific management others later referred to Taylorism and he eventually keyed in on one of the principal inputs into the manufacturing process—labor—sparking inquiry into workforce productivity. Likewise in the United States, the worlds first institution of education dedicated to workplace studies — the School of Industrial
11.
Business coaching
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Coaching is a form of development in which a person called a coach supports a learner or client in achieving a specific personal or professional goal by providing training, advice and guidance. The learner is sometimes called a coachee, the first use of the term coach in connection with an instructor or trainer arose around 1830 in Oxford University slang for a tutor who carried a student through an exam. The word coaching thus identified a process used to people from where they are to where they want to be. The first use of the term in relation to sports came in 1861, professional coaching uses a range of communication skills to help clients shift their perspectives and thereby discover different approaches to achieve their goals. These skills can be used in almost all types of coaching, there may be some overlap between certain types of coaching activities. The concept of ADHD coaching was first introduced in 1994 by psychiatrists Edward M. Hallowell, ADHD coaching is a specialized type of life coaching that uses specific techniques designed to assist individuals with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. The goal of ADHD coaching is to mitigate the effects of executive function deficit, Coaches work with clients to help them better manage time, organize, set goals and complete projects. Unlike psychologists or psychotherapists, ADHD coaches do not provide any therapy or treatment, their focus is only on daily functioning and behaviour aspects of the disorder. The ultimate goal of ADHD coaching is to help develop an inner coach. A2010 study from Wayne State University evaluated the effectiveness of ADHD coaching on 110 students with ADHD, the research team concluded that the coaching was highly effective in helping students improve executive functioning and related skills as measured by the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory. Yet, not every ADHD person needs a coach and not everyone can benefit from using a coach, business coaching is a type of human resource development for business leaders. It provides positive support, feedback and advice on an individual or group basis to improve personal effectiveness in the business setting, business coaching is also called executive coaching, corporate coaching or leadership coaching. Coaches help their clients advance towards specific professional goals, an industrial organizational psychologist is one example of executive coach. Business coaching is not restricted to external experts or providers, research studies suggest that executive coaching has a positive impact on workplace performance. In some countries, there is no certification or licensing required to be a business or executive coach, further, standards and methods of training coaches can vary widely between coaching organizations. Many business coaches refer to themselves as consultants, a business relationship than one which exclusively involves coaching. Career coaching focuses on work and career and is similar to career counseling, career coaching is not to be confused with life coaching, which concentrates on personal development. Another common term for a coach is career guide
12.
Job satisfaction
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Job satisfaction or employee satisfaction has been defined in many different ways. Others believe it is not as simplistic as this definition suggests, researchers have also noted that job satisfaction measures vary in the extent to which they measure feelings about the job. The concept of job satisfaction has been developed in many ways by different researchers and practitioners. Others have defined it as simply how content an individual is with his or her job and it is assessed at both the global level, or at the facet level. Job satisfaction scales vary in the extent to which they assess the feelings about the job or the cognitive assessment of the job. Affective job satisfaction is a subjective construct representing an emotional feeling individuals have about their job, hence, affective job satisfaction for individuals reflects the degree of pleasure or happiness their job in general induces. Cognitive job satisfaction is an objective and logical evaluation of various facets of a job. Job satisfaction can also be seen within the context of the range of issues which affect an individuals experience of work. Job satisfaction can be understood in terms of its relationships with key factors, such as general well-being, stress at work, control at work, home-work interface. Weightage factor of each such attribute based on exhaustive survey has been calculated, total job satisfaction level of males is found to be higher than that of woman. Total job satisfaction level in manufacturing sector is found to be very low, the assessment of job satisfaction through employee anonymous surveys became commonplace in the 1930s. Although prior to time there was the beginning of interest in employee attitudes. Latham and Budworth note that Uhrbrock in 1934 was one of the first psychologists to use the newly developed attitude measurement techniques to assess factory worker attitudes. They also note that in 1935 Hoppock conducted a study that focused explicitly on job satisfaction that is affected by both the nature of the job and relationships with coworkers and supervisors, Edwin A. Locke’s Range of Affect Theory is arguably the most famous job satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job. Further, the states that how much one values a given facet of work moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/aren’t met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively and negatively, compared to one who doesn’t value that facet. This theory also states that too much of a particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker values that facet
13.
Employment
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Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment, benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws or regulations or legal contracts, employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. The main ways for employers to workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online. Employers and job seekers also find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees, a more traditional approach is with a Help Wanted sign in the establishment. Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments, employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview. Training and development refers to the effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve job satisfaction. There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, in sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions, employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets, employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover. Organizational justice is a perception and judgement of employers treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the relationship is also a part of organizational justice. Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working. Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time and this is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include such as notice periods, severance pay. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some jobs, some employees may have tenure
14.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
15.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
16.
Skilled worker
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A skilled worker is any worker who has special skill, training, knowledge, and ability in their work. A skilled worker may have attended a college, university or technical school, or, a skilled worker may have learned their skills on the job. Examples of skilled labor include software development, paramedics, police officers, soldiers, physicians, crane operators, drafters, painters, plumbers, craftsmen, cooks and these workers can be either blue-collar or white-collar workers, with varied levels of training or education. In the northern region of the United States, craft unions may have served as the catalyst to ferment a strong solidarity in favor of skilled labor in the period of the Gilded Age, the Knights argued that the specialization of industrialization had undermined the bargaining power of skilled labor. The period between 1901 and 1925 signals the rise and fall of the Socialist Party of America which depended on skilled workers. Skilled workers were the heart of the movement before World War I but during the 1920s, they lost much of their enthusiasm. In the 20th century, in Nazi Germany, the class was subdivided into, agricultural workers, unskilled and semi-skilled workers, skilled craft workers, other skilled workers. After the end of World War II, West Germany surpassed France in the employment of skilled labor needed at a time when industrialization was sweeping Europe at a fast pace. West Germanys preponderance in the training of skilled workers in technical schools, was the factor to outweigh the balance between the two countries. In the first decade of the 21st century, the wage of a highly skilled machinist in the United States of America is $3,000 to $4,000 per month. In China, the wage for a factory worker is $150 a month. While most jobs require some level of skill, skilled workers bring some degree of expertise to the performance of a given job. For example, a worker who inspects new televisions for whether they turn on or off can fulfil this job with little or no knowledge of the inner workings of televisions. However, someone who repairs televisions would be considered a worker, since such a person would possess the knowledge to be able to identify. In addition to the use of the term, various agencies or governments. Such definitions can affect matters such as immigration, licensure and eligibility for travel or residency, citizenship and Immigration Services, skilled worker positions are not seasonal or temporary and require at least two years of experience or training. Skilled work varies in type, education requirements and availability, such differences are often reflected in titling, opportunity, responsibility and salary. Both skilled and non-skilled workers are vital and indispensable for the smooth-running of a free-market and/or capitalist society, generally, however, individual skilled workers are more valued to a given company than individual non-skilled workers, as skilled workers tend to be more difficult to replace
17.
Temporary work
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Temporary work or temporary employment refers to an employment situation where the working arrangement is limited to a certain period of time based on the needs of the employing organization. Temporary employees are sometimes called contractual, seasonal, interim, casual staff, outsourcing, freelance, in some instances, temporary, highly skilled professionals refer to themselves as consultants. Temporary workers may work full-time or part-time depending on the individual situation, in some instances, temporary workers receive benefits, but usually benefits are only given to permanent employees as a cost-cutting measure by the employer to save money. Not all temporary employees find jobs through an employment agency. A temporary work agency, temp agency or temporary staffing firm finds, other companies, in need of short-term workers, contract with the temporary work agency to send temporary workers, or temps, on assignments to work at the other companies. Temporary employees are used in work that has a cyclical nature. There has indeed been a paradigm shift since the 1940s in the way firms utilize the temporary worker. Throughout the Fordist era, temporary workers made up a rather marginal proportion of the labor force in North America. In contrast, in the Post-Fordist period, characterized by neoliberalism, deindustrialization and the dismantling of the welfare state, in this paradigm, the idea of the temporary worker as a stopgap solution to permanent labor became an entirely normative employment alternative to permanent work. As the market began to transform from Fordism to a regime of capital accumulation, the social regulation of labor markets. This transformation has been characterized by a restructuring that emphasized flexibility within spaces of work, labor markets, employment relationships, wages. Most governments in Western Europe started to deregulate temporary work, and indeed, global processes of neoliberalism and market rule contributed greatly to this increasing pressure put on local labor markets towards flexibility. This greater flexibility within labor markets is important at the level, particularly within OECD countries. The temporary labor industry is worth over €157 billion per year, the biggest temporary work agencies are most profitable in emerging economies of the Global North, and those that have undergone market liberalization, deregulation and regulation. The desire to market flexible, adaptable temporary workers has become a driving, through this process, the ideal temporary worker has today become largely imagined, produced and marketed by temporary agencies. The role of an agency is as a third party between client employer and client employee. This third party, handles remuneration, work scheduling, complaints, taxes, client firms request the type of job that is to be done, and the skills required to do it. Client firms can also terminate an assignment and are able to file a complaint about the temp, Work schedules are determined by assignment, which is determined by the agency and can last for an indeterminate period of time, extended to any point and cut short
18.
Laborer
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A laborer or labourer — see variation in English spelling — is a person who works in one of the construction trades, traditionally considered unskilled manual labor, as opposed to skilled labor. Laborers are also employed outside of the industry, in fields such as road paving, shoveling snow, digging graves, chain gangs. In the division of labor, laborers have all blasting, hand tools, power tools, air tools, and small heavy equipment, the 1st century BC engineer Vitruvius writes in detail about laborer practices at that time. In his experience a good crew of laborers is just as valuable as any aspect of construction. Other than the addition of pneumatics, laborer practices have changed little, with the advent of advanced technology and its introduction into the construction field, the laborers have been quick to include much of this technology as being laborers work. In addition, a five gallon bucket with additional tools, toolbelt suspenders, water jug, personal safety equipment, for example full leather boots, high strength pants - Carhartt or jeans - socks, lip balm, and climate specific outerwear, are provided by the individual. These other classifications typically include the heavy equipment operators, ironworkers, carpenters, masons, teamsters/truck drivers, in addition, work that typically was shunned by journeymen of other trade unions tradesman/craftsman or was given to their apprentices is generally done by laborers in the absence of apprentices. An example is the operators who in the division of labor have all the equipment, the same is true for most other trades except the ironworkers who are notorious for protecting their work and not wanting anyone else to touch their steel, tie-wire or Kliens. The advantage to this system is that many laborers gain sufficient experience working with another trade to journeyman-in while earning a higher wage than an apprentice. Many foremen will gradually give a laborer extra responsibility until they are performing at a journeyman level, Union, heavy construction and highway construction laborers earn on average $25. 47/h compared to 13. 72/h for non-union laborers. It is not uncommon for young engineers, construction managers. However, unlike engineers, laborers are not usually employed full-time year round, the additional pay they receive is often balanced out by the lesser unemployment checks they receive while out of work. These unemployment checks supplement the winter pay laborers often earn as independent contractors, on average young engineers earn 40,000 to 60,000 while union laborers on average earn 50,000 to 80,000. Engineers are not immune to being out of work, in heavy civil work some are employed on a project basis and they are not guaranteed a place on any subsequent projects, though this is in practice often the case. The value of work put in place by laborers and the value of avoided rework, Union laborers earn more than unfree labor and can be an avenue for those who are uneducated and with no resources to become educated and with resources. There are dangers associated with laboring, many laborers are severely injured or killed in accidents each year while performing work duties. Alcoholism, drug use, and drug abuse are common although most companies require drug screening for all new hires, if a laborer is injured on the job they are immediately given a drug test. If the test results are then they are ineligible for any Workers compensation benefits
19.
Wage labour
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Wage labour is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, where the worker sells his or her labour power under a formal or informal employment contract. These transactions usually occur in a market where wages are market determined. A wage labourer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her power in this way. In modern mixed economies such as those of the OECD countries, the most common form of wage labour currently is ordinary direct, or full-time. However, wage labour takes many forms, and explicit as opposed to implicit contracts are not uncommon. Economic history shows a variety of ways, in which labour is traded and exchanged. The differences show up in the form of, Employment status – a worker could be employed full-time, part-time and he or she could be employed for example temporarily for a specific project only, or on a permanent basis. Part-time wage labour could combine with part-time self-employment, the worker could be employed also as an apprentice. So the labour might be performed on a more or less voluntary basis, or on a more or less involuntary basis, in which there are many gradations. Method of payment – The work done could be paid in cash or in kind, in some cases, the worker might be paid in the form of credit used to buy goods and services, or in the form of stock options or shares in an enterprise. Method of hiring – the worker might engage in a labour-contract on his or her own initiative, but he or she may also hire out their labour via an intermediary to a third party. In this case, he or she is paid by the intermediary, in some cases, labour is subcontracted several times, with several intermediaries. Another possibility is that the worker is assigned or posted to a job by a political authority, many Socialists see wage labour as a major, if not defining, aspect of hierarchical industrial systems. Most opponents of the institution support worker self-management and economic democracy as alternatives to wage labour and to capitalism. As some opponents of wage labour take influence from Marxist propositions, many are opposed to private property, wage labour has long been compared to slavery by socialists. As a result, the wage slavery is often utilised as a pejorative for wage labour. According to Noam Chomsky, analysis of the implications of wage slavery goes back to the Enlightenment era. Both the Milgram and Stanford experiments have been useful in the psychological study of wage-based workplace relations
20.
Recruitment
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Recruitment is a core function of human resource management. Recruitment refers to the process of attracting, selecting and appointing suitable candidates for jobs within an organization. Recruitment can also refer to processes involved in choosing individuals for unpaid positions, internet-based technologies to support all aspects of recruitment have become widespread. From these the relevant information is captured in such documents as job descriptions, often, a company already has job descriptions for existing positions. Where already drawn up, these documents may require review and updating to reflect current requirements, prior to the recruitment stage, a person specification should be finalized. Sourcing is the use of one or more strategies to attract or identify candidates to fill job vacancies and this initial research for candidates—also called name generation—produces contact information for potential candidates, whom the recruiter can then discreetly contact and screen. Various psychological tests can assess a variety of KSAOs, including literacy, assessments are also available to measure physical ability. Recruiters and agencies may use applicant tracking systems to filter candidates, along with tools for psychometric testing. In many countries, employers are legally mandated to ensure their screening and selection processes meet equal opportunity, employers are likely to recognize the value of candidates who encompass soft skills such as interpersonal or team leadership. Many companies, including organizations and those that recruit from a range of nationalities, are also often concerned about whether candidate fits the prevailing company culture. The word disability carries few positive connotations for most employers, research has shown that employer biases tend to improve through first-hand experience and exposure with proper supports for the employee and the employer making the hiring decisions. As for most companies, money and job stability are two of the factors to the productivity of a disabled employee, which in return equates to the growth. Hiring disabled workers produce more advantages than disadvantages, there is no difference in the daily production of a disabled worker. IRS grants companies Disabled Access Credit when they meet eligibility criteria, many major corporations recognize the need for diversity in hiring to compete successfully in a global economy. Other organizations, for universities and colleges, have been slow to embrace diversity as an essential value for their success. Recruitment Process Outsourcing, or commonly known as RPO is a form of business process outsourcing where a company engages a third party provider to all or part of its recruitment process. Advantages include the familiarity with the employee and their competencies insofar as they are revealed in their current job. It can be quicker and have a lower cost to hire someone internally, niche firms tend to focus on building ongoing relationships with their candidates, as the same candidates may be placed many times throughout their careers
21.
Employment contract
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An employment contract or contract of employment is a kind of contract used in labour law to attribute rights and responsibilities between parties to a bargain. The contract is between an employee and an employer and it has arisen out of the old master-servant law, used before the 20th century. But generally, the contract of employment denotes a relationship of economic dependence, a contract of employment usually defined to mean the same as a contract of service. The purpose of the line is to attribute rights to some kinds of people who work for others. This could be the right to a wage, holiday pay, sick leave, fair dismissal, a written statement of the contract, the right to organise in a union. In Roman law the equivalent dichotomy was that between locatio conductio operarum and locatio conductio operis, the terminology is complicated by the use of many other sorts of contracts involving one person doing work for another. Instead of being considered an employee, the individual could be considered a worker or as having an employment relationship or a professional or a dependent entrepreneur, different countries will take more or less sophisticated, or complicated approaches to the question. Main articles, Labour economics and Contemporary slavery Anarcho-syndicalists and other socialists who criticise wage slavery, to treat abilities in this manner is also implicitly to accept that the exchange between employer and worker is like any other exchange of material property. The answer to the question of how property in the person can be contracted out is no such procedure is possible. Labour power, capacities or services, cannot be separated from the person of the worker like pieces of property, united States,209 U. S. ” Mark Freedland, The Personal Employment Contract Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-924926-1
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