1.
Classical period (music)
–
The dates of the Classical period in Western music are generally accepted as being between about the year 1730 and the year 1820. This article is about the period in most of the 18th century to the early 19th century, though overlapping with the Baroque. The Classical period falls between the Baroque and the Romantic periods, Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than Baroque music and is less complex. It is mainly homophonic, using a melody line over a subordinate chordal accompaniment. It also makes use of style galant which emphasized light elegance in place of the Baroques dignified seriousness, variety and contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before and the orchestra increased in size, range, and power. The harpsichord was replaced as the keyboard instrument by the piano. Instrumental music was considered important by Classical period composers, vocal music, such as songs for a singer and piano, choral works, and opera were also important during this period. Ludwig van Beethoven is regarded either as a Romantic composer or a Classical period composer who was part of the transition to the Romantic era, Franz Schubert is also a transitional figure, as were Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Luigi Cherubini, and Carl Maria von Weber. The period is referred to as the era of Viennese Classic or Classicism, since Gluck, Mozart, Haydn, Salieri. In the middle of the 18th century, Europe began to move toward a new style in architecture, literature, and this style sought to emulate the ideals of Classical antiquity, especially those of Classical Greece. Classical music was still linked to aristocratic Court culture and supported by absolute monarchies. Classical music used formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, in contrast with the richly layered music of the Baroque era, Classical music moved towards simplicity rather than complexity. In addition, the size of orchestras began to increase. The remarkable development of ideas in natural philosophy had already established itself in the public consciousness, in particular, Newtons physics was taken as a paradigm, structures should be well-founded in axioms and be both well-articulated and orderly. This move meant that chords became a more prevalent feature of music. As a result, the structure of a piece of music became more audible. The new style was encouraged by changes in the economic order. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility became the patrons of instrumental music, while public taste increasingly preferred lighter
2.
Johann Sebastian Bach
–
Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist
3.
Georg Philipp Telemann
–
Georg Philipp Telemann was a German Baroque composer and multi-instrumentalist. Almost completely self-taught in music, he became a composer against his familys wishes, after studying in Magdeburg, Zellerfeld, and Hildesheim, Telemann entered the University of Leipzig to study law, but eventually settled on a career in music. He held important positions in Leipzig, Sorau, Eisenach, and Frankfurt before settling in Hamburg in 1721, Telemanns music incorporates several national styles and is even at times influenced by Polish popular music. He remained at the forefront of all new musical tendencies and his music is an important link between the late Baroque and early Classical styles, Telemann was born in Magdeburg, then the capital of the Duchy of Magdeburg, Brandenburg-Prussia. His father Heinrich, deacon at the Church of the Holy Spirit, the future composer received his first music lessons at 10, from a local organist, and became immensely interested in music in general, and composition in particular. Despite opposition from his mother and relatives, who forbade any musical activities, Telemann found it possible to study and compose in secret, even creating an opera at age 12. Telemann was becoming equally adept both at composing and performing, teaching himself flute, oboe, violin, recorder, double bass, in 1701 he graduated from the Gymnasium and went to Leipzig to become a student at the Leipzig University, where he intended to study law. He ended up becoming a musician, regularly composing works for Nikolaikirche. In 1702 he became director of the opera house Opernhaus auf dem Brühl. Prodigiously productive, Telemann supplied a wealth of new music for Leipzig, including operas, one of which was his first major opera. However, he engaged in a conflict with the cantor of Thomaskirche. The conflict intensified when Telemann started employing numerous students for his projects, including those that were Kuhnaus, Telemann left Leipzig in 1705 at the age of 24 after receiving an invitation to become Kapellmeister for the court of Count Erdmann II of Promnitz at Sorau. He became Konzertmeister on 24 December 1708 and Secretary and Kapellmeister in August 1709, during his tenure at Eisenach Telemann created a very large amount of music, at least four annual cycles of church cantatas, dozens of sonatas and concertos, and other works. In 1709 he married Amalie Louise Juliane Eberlin, lady-in-waiting to the Countess of Promnitz and their daughter was born in January 1711. The mother died soon afterwards, leaving Telemann depressed and distraught, after less than a year he sought another position, and moved to Frankfurt on 18 March 1712 at the age of 31 to become city music director and Kapellmeister at the Barfüsserkirche. In Frankfurt, he gained his mature personal style. Here, as in Leipzig, he was a force in the citys musical life. By 1720 he had adopted the use of the da capo aria, operas such as Narciso, which was brought to Frankfurt in 1719, written in the Italian idiom of composition, made a mark on Telemanns output
4.
Baroque music
–
Baroque music is a style of Western art music composed from approximately 1600 to 1750. This era followed the Renaissance music era, and was followed in turn by the Classical era, Baroque music forms a major portion of the classical music canon, being widely studied, performed, and listened to. The Baroque period saw the creation of tonality, an approach to writing music in which a song or piece is written in a particular key, during the Baroque era, professional musicians were expected to be accomplished improvisers of both solo melodic lines and accompaniment parts. A characteristic Baroque form was the dance suite, while the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music, dance suites were designed for listening, not for accompanying dancers. During the period, composers and performers used more elaborate ornamentation, made changes in musical notation. Many musical terms and concepts from this era, such as toccata, fugue, dense, complex polyphonic music, in which multiple independent melody lines were performed simultaneously, was an important part of many Baroque choral and instrumental works. The word baroque comes from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning misshapen pearl, the term Baroque is generally used by music historians to describe a broad range of styles from a wide geographic region, mostly in Europe, composed over a period of approximately 150 years. The systematic application by historians of the baroque to music of this period is a relatively recent development. In 1919, Curt Sachs became the first to apply the five characteristics of Heinrich Wölfflins theory of the Baroque systematically to music, all of these efforts resulted in appreciable disagreement about time boundaries of the period, especially concerning when it began. In English the term acquired currency only in the 1940s, in the writings of Bukofzer, nevertheless, the term has become widely used and accepted for this broad range of music. It may be helpful to distinguish the Baroque from both the preceding and following periods of musical history, the Baroque period is divided into three major phases, early, middle, and late. Although they overlap in time, they are dated from 1580 to 1630, from 1630 to 1680. In reference to music, they based their ideals on a perception of Classical musical drama that valued discourse, the early realizations of these ideas, including Jacopo Peris Dafne and LEuridice, marked the beginning of opera, which were a catalyst for Baroque music. Concerning music theory, the widespread use of figured bass represents the developing importance of harmony as the linear underpinnings of polyphony. Harmony is the end result of counterpoint, and figured bass is a representation of those harmonies commonly employed in musical performance. With figured bass, numbers, accidentals or symbols were placed above the bassline that was read by keyboard instrument players such as players or pipe organists. The numbers, accidentals or symbols indicated to the player what intervals she should play above each bass note. The keyboard player would improvise a chord voicing for each bass note and this led to the idea that certain sequences of chords, rather than just notes, could provide a sense of closure at the end of a piece—one of the fundamental ideas that became known as tonality
5.
Rhetoric
–
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, wherein a writer or speaker strives to inform, persuade or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of study and a productive civic practice. Its best known definition comes from Aristotle, who considers it a counterpart of both logic and politics, and calls it the faculty of observing in any case the available means of persuasion. The five canons of rhetoric, which trace the traditional tasks in designing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome, invention, arrangement, style, memory, along with grammar and logic, rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. From Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, it was a part of Western education. Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times, although some have limited rhetoric to the specific realm of political discourse, many modern scholars liberate it to encompass every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. Many contemporary approaches treat rhetoric as human communication that includes purposeful, Public relations, lobbying, law, marketing, professional and technical writing, and advertising are modern professions that employ rhetorical practitioners. Because the ancient Greeks highly valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as a tool to influence politics. Consequently, rhetoric remains associated with its political origins, however, even the original instructors of Western speech—the Sophists—disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to the Sophists, such as Gorgias, a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on any topic and this method suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his Encomium to Helen, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking for his own pleasure to prove the blamelessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the Trojan War. Looking to another key rhetorical theorist, Plato defined the scope of rhetoric according to his opinions of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric as a means of deceit instead of discovering truth, in Gorgias, one of his Socratic Dialogues, Plato defines rhetoric as the persuasion of ignorant masses within the courts and assemblies. Rhetoric, in Platos opinion, is merely a form of flattery and functions similarly to cookery, thus, Plato considered any speech of lengthy prose aimed at flattery as within the scope of rhetoric. Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and narrowed its focus by defining three genres of rhetoric—deliberative, forensic or judicial, and epideictic, when one considers that rhetoric included torture, it is clear that rhetoric cannot be viewed only in academic terms. However, the enthymeme based upon logic was viewed as the basis of rhetoric, however, since the time of Aristotle, logic has changed. For example, Modal logic has undergone a major development that also modifies rhetoric, yet, Aristotle also outlined generic constraints that focused the rhetorical art squarely within the domain of public political practice
6.
Galant music
–
In music, galant refers to the style which was fashionable from the 1720s to the 1770s. This movement featured a return to simplicity and immediacy of appeal after the complexity of the late Baroque era. C. P. E. Bach and Daniel Gottlob Türk and this musical style was part of the wider galant movement in art at the time. The word galant derives from French, where it was in use from at least the 16th century, in the early 18th century, a Galant Homme described a person of fashion, elegant, cultured and virtuous. The German theorist Johann Mattheson appears to have been fond of the term, Mattheson was apparently the first to refer to a galant style in music, in his Das forschende Orchestre of 1721. All were composing Italian opera seria, a musical style. The rejection of so much accumulated learning and formula in music is paralleled only by the rejection in the early 20th century of the structure of key relationships. Not every contemporary was delighted with this revolutionary simplification, Johann Samuel Petri, the change was as much at the birth of Romanticism as it was of Classicism. Some of the works of the portuguese composer Carlos Seixas are firmly in the galant style, the affinities of galant style with Rococo in the visual arts are easily overplayed, but characteristics that were valued in both genres were freshness, accessibility and charm. Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen, mit Exempeln und achtzehn Probe-Stücken in sechs Sonaten erläutert, berlin, In verlegung des auctoris, gedruckt bey C. F. Classic and Romantic Music, A Comprehensive Survey, translated by M. D. Herter Norton, grout, Donald Jay, and Claude V. Palisca. A History of Western Music, fifth edition, Music in European Capitals, The Galant Style, 1720–1780. Heartz, Daniel, and Bruce Alan Brown, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Heartz, Daniel, and Bruce Allen Brown, New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Ornamentation According to C. P. E. Bach and J. J. Quantz, klavierschule, oder, Anweisung zum Klavierspielen für Lehrer und Lernende, mit kritischen Anmerkungen. Leipzig, Schwickert, Halle, Hemmerde und Schwetschke, the Harvard Dictionary of Music, fourth edition, edited by Don Michael Randel. Harvard University Press Reference Library 16, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press
7.
Johann Christian Bach
–
Johann Christian Bach was a composer of the Classical era, the eleventh surviving child and youngest son of Johann Sebastian Bach. He is sometimes referred to as the London Bach or the English Bach, due to his time spent living in the British capital and he is noted for influencing the concerto style of Mozart. Johann Christian Bach was born to Johann Sebastian and Anna Magdalena Bach in Leipzig and his distinguished father was already 50 at the time of his birth, which would perhaps contribute to the sharp differences between his music and that of his father. Even so, his father first instructed him in music and that continued until his death in 1750. He enjoyed a career, first as a composer then as a performer playing alongside Carl Friedrich Abel. He composed cantatas, chamber music, keyboard and orchestral works, operas, Bach lived in Italy for many years starting in 1756, studying with Padre Martini in Bologna. He became organist at the Milan cathedral in 1760, during his time in Italy, he converted from Lutheranism to Catholicism and devoted much time to the composition of church music, including two Masses, a Requiem and a Te Deum. His first major work was a Mass, which received an excellent performance, in 1762, Bach travelled to London to première three operas at the Kings Theatre, including Orione on 19 February 1763. That established his reputation in England, and he became music master to Queen Charlotte and he met soprano Cecilia Grassi in 1766 and married her shortly thereafter. She was his junior by eleven years, by the late 1770s, his music was no longer popular and his fortunes declined. His steward had embezzled almost all his wealth and Bach died in debt in London on New Years Day,1782. Queen Charlotte covered the expenses of the estate and provided a pension for Bachs widow. He was buried in the graveyard of St. Pancras Old Church, Bachs career is given in the fourth volume of Charles Burneys History of Music. There are two others named Johann Christian Bach in the Bach family tree, but neither was a composer, Mozart, when aged 8, met Johann Christian Bach in London and became an admirer of his music. Mozart arranged three sonatas from the latters Op.5 into keyboard concertos, in later life Mozart often acknowledged the artistic debt he owed to Johann Christian. The works of JC Bach are given W numbers, from Ernest Warburtons Thematic catalog of his works, notes Sources Hans T. David, A. Mendel, C. The New Bach Reader, A Life of Johann Sebastian Bach in Letters, John Christian Bach, Mozarts Friend and Mentor. Johann Sebastian Bach, his work and influence on the music of Germany, Vol I, Vol II, Vol III Charles Sanford Terry
8.
Weimar
–
Weimar is a city in the federal state of Thuringia, Germany. It is located between Erfurt in the west and Jena in the east, approximately 80 kilometres southwest of Leipzig,170 kilometres north of Nuremberg and 170 kilometres west of Dresden. Together with the neighbour-cities Erfurt and Jena it forms the metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 inhabitants. Weimar is well known because of its cultural heritage and its importance in German history. The city was a point of the German Enlightenment and home of the leading characters of the literary genre of Weimar Classicism. Until 1948, Weimar was the capital of Thuringia, today, many places in the city centre have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage sites and tourism is one of the leading economic sectors of Weimar. Relevant institutions in Weimar are the Bauhaus University, the Liszt School of Music, in 1999, Weimar was the European Capital of Culture. Archaeological finds dating back to the Thuringii epoch show that the Weimar part of the Ilm valley was settled early, the oldest records regarding Weimar date to 899. Its name changed over the centuries from Wimares through Wimari to Wimar and finally Weimar, it is derived from Old High German wīh-, another theory derives the first element from OHG win. The place was the seat of the County of Weimar, first mentioned in 949, in 1062 it was united with the County of Orlamünde to the new County of Weimar-Orlamünde, which existed until the Thuringian Counts War in 1346 and fell to the Wettins afterwards. The Weimar settlement emerged around the wooden castle and two small churches dedicated to St Peter, and to St James. In 1240, the count founded the monastery in Oberweimar. Soon after, the counts of Weimar founded the town, which was an independent parish since 1249, from 1262 the citizens used their own seal. Nevertheless, the influence of the Weimar counts was declining as the influence of the Wettins in Thuringia increased. Hence, the new town was relatively marginal in a regional context. The settlement around St James Church developed into a suburb during the 13th century, after becoming part of the Wettins territory in 1346, urban development improved. The Wettins fostered Weimar by abolishing socage and granting privileges to the citizens, now Weimar became equal to other Wettinian cities like Weißensee and grew during the 15th century, with the establishment of a town hall and the current main church. Weimar acquired woad trade privileges in 1438, the castle and the walls were finished in the 16th century, making Weimar into a full city
9.
Godparent
–
A godparent, in many denominations of Christianity, is someone who sponsors a childs baptism, although the term has also been used in a legal sense. A male godparent is a godfather, and a female godparent is a godmother, as early as the 2nd century AD, infant baptism had begun to gain acceptance among Christians for the spiritual purification and social initiation of infants. The requirement for some confession of faith necessitated the use of adults who acted as sponsors for the child and they vocalized the confession of faith and acted as guarantors of the child’s spiritual upbringing. Normally, these sponsors were the parents of a child, as emphasized in 408 by St. Augustine who suggested that they could, it seems exceptionally. Within a century, the Corpus Juris Civilis indicates that parents had been replaced in this role almost completely and this was clarified in 813 when the Council of Munich prohibited natural parents from acting as godparents to their own children. This pattern was marked by the creation of legal barriers to marriage that paralleled those for other forms of kin, as confirmation emerged as a separate rite from baptism from the 8th century, a second set of sponsors, with similar prohibitions, also emerged. Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin preserved infant baptism against the attacks of more radical reformers including Anabaptists, in 888, the Catholic Council of Metz attempted to limit the number to one, but proliferation seems to have continued. In early 14th-century Spain, as many as 20 godparents were being chosen, in England, the Synod of Worcester stipulated three sponsors, and this has remained the norm in the Church of England. The Council of Trent attempted to limit the numbers of godparents to one or two, but practice has differed across the Catholic world. They were abolished in 1644 by the Directory of Public Worship promulgated by the English Civil War Parliamentary regime, after the Restoration in 1660, they were reintroduced to Anglicanism, with occasional objections, but dropped by almost every dissenting church. There is some evidence that the institution had lost some of its social importance as well as its universality. At present, in the Church of England, relatives can stand as godparents, godparents should be both baptized and confirmed, but the requirement for confirmation can be waived. There is no requirement for clergy to baptize those from outside their parishes, as a result, individual clergy have considerable discretion over the qualifications of godparents. Many contemporary Anglican rites likewise require parents and godparents to respond on behalf of infant candidates, the Catholic institution of godparenthood survived the Reformation largely unchanged. Someone who belongs to another Christian church cannot become a godparent, a witness does not have any religious role recognized by the Church. Lutherans follow a similar theology of godparents as Roman Catholics and they believe that godparents help with their Christian upbringing, especially if they should lose their parents. Lutherans, like Roman Catholics, believe that a godparent must be both a baptized and confirmed Christian, some Lutherans also follow the Roman Catholic tradition that a Christian who is not affiliated with the Lutheran denomination may serve as a witness rather than a godparent. The Orthodox institution of godparenthood has been the least affected of the traditions by change
10.
St. Thomas School, Leipzig
–
St. Thomas School, Leipzig is a co-educational and public boarding school in Leipzig, Saxony, Germany. It was founded by the Augustinians in 1212 and is one of the oldest schools in the world, St. Thomas is known for its art, language and music education. Johann Sebastian Bach held the position of Thomaskantor from 1723 until his death in 1750, from the 800-Year Anniversary Celebration in 2012 the Thomanerchor and St. Thomas School will be part of Forum Thomanum, an internationally oriented educational center. St. Thomas School was founded in 1212 by Margrave Dietrich von Meißen making it among the oldest schools in Europe and it was run as schola pauperum, meaning a free school intended to benefit the poor, by the Canons Regular of St. Augustine. The St. Thomas Church was founded with the school, the St. Thomas School is first mentioned in documents dating to 1254. In 1539 the city of Leipzig took over ownership of the school, all members of the boys choir attend the school along with other pupils. The Thomaner live in the schools own boarding school, Thomasalumnat, the schools first building was in the present courtyard of the St. Thomas Church. In 1553 an outbuilding was built there, during Johann Sebastian Bachs time as Thomaskantor these buildings were extended, in 1829 they were reconstructed. In 1877 a new building was erected in the Schreberstraße to meet a shortage of space, in 1881 a new building for the boarding school was finished. During the Nazi era the school continued its normal curricula, the school endured the bombings of the night of 3 December 1943 with only the gym and the buildings across from the boarding school being destroyed. The then-rector, Günther Ramin, decided to move the boys to the Königlich Sächsische Fürsten- und Landesschule Sankt Augustin school in Grimma. Because of this, and because most of the students were enlisted. The rectors decision to move the boys was proved right during the bombings of 20 February 1944 when the schools buildings were destroyed. After that, the pupils attended 41. At some stage, the boys rejoined these pupils at Hillerstraße. In 1973 the school moved into a new building in the Pestalozzistraße, the new communist regime in East Germany tried to make an exemplar atheist school out of St. Thomas school, but the churchs influence was immense. After the German reunification in 1990 the pupils numbers increased, since 2008 the school offers its students mathematics, natural sciences, music, and linguistic courses. In September 2000 the school moved into the original building on the Hillerstraße
11.
Cantor (Christianity)
–
Generally a cantor must be competent to choose and to conduct the vocals for the choir, to start any chant on demand, and to be able to identify and correct the missteps of singers placed under him. He may be accountable for the immediate rendering of the music, showing the course of the melody by movements of the hand. There are several titles for the psaltes, which depend on the recognition of his capabilities as a chanter, sometimes connected with an employment, the cantor or chanters sing the many hymns called for during the Divine Services and the Divine Liturgy. A chanter must be knowledgeable about the ecclesiastical modes as well as the structure of the services. At Constantinople the charge of a protopsaltes was prestigious and connected with Byzantine offices, in the tradition of the cathedral rite at Hagia Sophia, there was a distinction between the leader of the right choir and the leader of the left choir. In the Greek tradition, a chanter will often wear the exorason, in the Greek tradition, the chanters are stationed at a psalterion, a chanting podium positioned to the south and sometimes also to the north side of the sanctuary. In the Slavic tradition, the chanters are similarly positioned, before the Second Vatican Council, in the Roman Catholic Church a cantor was the leading singer of the choir, a bona fide clerical role. The medieval cantor of the papal Schola Cantorum was called Prior scholae or Primicerius, in medieval cathedrals, the cantor or precentor directed the music and chant, and was also one of the ranking dignitaries of the chapter. During the 14th century in churches, the cantor began to delegate his instruction of the singers to a master of music. After the introduction of harmonized music, some duties naturally fell to the conductor or choirmaster, today, the cantor is a role that can be performed by a lay person. In parishes without a choir, the cantor serves to lead the responsorial singing with the congregation, the cantors locality in the church is most generally to the right of the choir, and directly to his left is his assistant, formerly called the succentor. A common custom for cantors was the bearing of the staff, which was the mark of his dignity and this custom still survives in some places. In Protestant churches the role of the cantor can be lay or pastoral, johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Philipp Telemann were among the famous musicians employed under this system. In cathedral churches in the Anglican communion, the precentor or head cantor is a member of the governing chapter and his stall is opposite the deans and the two sides of the divided choir are accordingly known as decani and cantoris. Anglican church music Contemporary Catholic liturgical music Gregorian chant Mass Moran, the Choir of the Hagia Sophia. Der byzantinische Chor, wie er sich in den Typika des 10. -12 and this article incorporates text from the public-domain Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913. The Catholic Encyclopedia,1913 Cantor, Merriam-Webster Cantor Byzantine Music, biographies and Recordings of important Psaltes of the Constantinopolitan Patriarchate. John Koukouzeles Teretismos sung by Ensemble Romeiko in Historic Costumes, national Library of Athens, Romeiko Ensemble
12.
Jurisprudence
–
Jurisprudence is the study and theory of law. It includes principles behind law that make the law, scholars of jurisprudence, also known as jurists or legal theorists, hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems, and of legal institutions. Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was focused on the first principles of the law, civil law. Contemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems in two groups, Problems internal to law and legal systems. Problems of law as a social institution as law relates to the larger political and social situation in which it exists. Answers to these questions come from four schools of thought in general jurisprudence. The foundations of law are accessible through reason and it is from these laws of nature that human-created laws gain whatever force they have. Legal positivism, by contrast to natural law, holds that there is no connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from some basic social facts. Legal positivists differ on what facts are. Critical legal studies are a younger theory of jurisprudence that has developed since the 1970s and it holds that the law is largely contradictory, and can be best analyzed as an expression of the policy goals of a dominant social group. A further relatively new field is known as jurisprudence, concerned with the impact of legal processes on wellbeing. The English word is based on the Latin maxim jurisprudentia, juris is the form of jus meaning law. The word is first attested in English in 1628, at a time when the word prudence had the meaning of knowledge of or skill in a matter, the word may have come via the French jurisprudence, which is attested earlier. Ancient Indian jurisprudence is available in various Dharmaśāstra texts starting from the Dharmasutra of Bhodhayana. Jurisprudence already had this meaning in Ancient Rome even if at its origins the discipline was a in the jus of mos maiorum, an iudex then would judge a remedy according to the facts of the case. The law was implemented with new evolutive Institutiones, while remaining in the traditional scheme. Praetors were replaced in the 3rd century BC by a body of prudentes. Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience, under the Roman Empire, schools of law were created, and the activity constantly became more academic
13.
Leipzig University
–
Leipzig University, in Leipzig in the Free State of Saxony, Germany, is one of the worlds oldest universities and the second-oldest university in Germany. Famous alumni include Leibniz, Goethe, Ranke, Nietzsche, Wagner, Angela Merkel, Raila Odinga, Tycho Brahe, and nine Nobel laureates are associated with the university. The university was founded on December 2,1409 by Frederick I, Elector of Saxony and his brother William II, Margrave of Meissen, since its inception, the university has engaged in teaching and research for over 600 years without interruption. The university was modelled on the University of Prague, from which the German-speaking faculty members withdrew to Leipzig after the Jan Hus crisis, the Alma mater Lipsiensis opened in 1409, after it had been officially endorsed by Pope Alexander V in his Bull of Acknowledgment on. Its first rector was Johann von Münsterberg, from its foundation, the Paulinerkirche served as the university church. After the Reformation, the church and the buildings were donated to the university in 1544. As many European universities, the university of Leipzig was structured into colleges responsible for organising accommodation, among the colleges of Leipzig were the Small College, the Large College, the Red College, the College of our Lady and the Pauliner-College. There were also private residential halls, the colleges had jurisdiction over their members. The college structure was abandoned later and today only the names survive, during the first centuries, the university grew slowly and was a rather regional institution. This changed, however, during the 19th century when the university became an institution of higher education. At the end of the 19th century, important scholars such as Bernhard Windscheid, Leipzig University was one of the first German universities to allow women to register as guest students. At its general assembly in 1873, the Allgemeiner Deutscher Frauenverein thanked the University of Leipzig and this was the year that the first woman in Germany obtained her JD, Johanna von Evreinov. Many of the alumni became important scientists. Under Nazi rule many Jews degrees were cancelled, some were reinstated as Karl-Marx University degrees by the GDR. The university was open throughout World War II, even after the destruction of its buildings. After the destruction of most of the buildings and the majority of its libraries and this is what must be preserved as the great repository of value in the university. By the end of the war 60 per cent of the buildings and 70 per cent of its books had been destroyed. The university reopened after the war on February 5,1946, in 1948 the freely elected student council was disbanded and replaced by Free German Youth members
14.
Viadrina European University
–
Viadrina European University is a university located at Frankfurt in Brandenburg, Germany. It is also known as the University of Frankfurt, the city is on the Oder River, which marks the border between Germany and Poland. With 5,200 students — around 1,000 of whom come from Poland — and some 160 teaching staff, the Viadrina is one of Germanys smallest universities. The Latin word Viadrina means belonging to, or situated at, the Oder River, it derives from Viadrus, the name of a presumed river god of the Oder. Actually, an ancient name of the river is not documented, the Alma Mater Viadrina was founded on 26 April 1506 by Elector Joachim I Nestor, with permission from Pope Julius II, as the first principal university of the Margraviate of Brandenburg. The foundation stone was already in 1498 at the site of a demolished synagogue. The notable theologian Konrad Wimpina became founding prorector, construction of the main buildung was completed in 1507. The university was organized into four Faculties of Arts, law, theology, philosophy, within the first year, more than 900 students from all over Germany, Poland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark enrolled. The Viadrina enjoyed an excellent reputation in Brandenburg and the regions, and its graduates had high positions in administration, politics, law. One of its earliest chancellors, Bishop Georg von Blumenthal was an opponent of the Protestant Reformation. In 1518 Johann Tetzel obtained his doctorate at Frankfurt, nevertheless, the University, like its Prussian counterpart, the University of Königsberg established in 1544, turned to Lutheran orthodoxy. Frederick William also opened the Frankfurt University for Jewish students, against fierce resistance by the teaching staff, while damages of the Thirty Years War still had to be repaired, he had a botanical garden laid out next to the university premises. An anatomical theatre was built in 1684 at the behest of physician Bernhardus Albinus, the complete renovation was accomplished in 1693/94. In the course of the Prussian Reforms during the Napoleonic Wars and it merged with the University of Breslau, the Leopoldina established in 1702 by the Habsburg emperor Leopold I, in order to be competitive with the newly founded University of Berlin. Some of the Viadrina professors did, however, accept positions in Berlin, the old university building was taken over by the City of Frankfurt and turned into a schoolhouse. It was hardly damaged in World War II and first used as a home for refugees from the eastern territories. Afterwards the building stood empty until it was demolished in the early 1960s. Only the arch of the entrance has been preserved as a monument
15.
Adolph Menzel
–
Adolph Friedrich Erdmann von Menzel was a German Realist artist noted for drawings, etchings, and paintings. Along with Caspar David Friedrich, he is considered one of the two most prominent German artists of the 19th century, and was the most successful artist of his era in Germany. First known as Adolph Menzel, he was knighted in 1898 and his popularity in his native country, owing especially to History Painting, was such that few of his major paintings left Germany, as many were quickly acquired by museums in Berlin. Menzels graphic works and drawings were widely disseminated, these. It is likely that he felt socially estranged for physical reasons alone—Menzel had a large head, Menzel was born in Breslau, Silesia. His father was a lithographer and intended to educate his son as a professor, however, after resigning his teaching post, Menzel senior set up a lithographic workshop in 1818. In 1830 the family moved to Berlin, and in 1832 Adolph was forced to take over the business on the death of his father. In 1833, he studied briefly at the Berlin Academy of Art, louis Friedrich Sachse of Berlin published his first work in 1833, an album of pen-and-ink drawings reproduced on stone, to illustrate Goethes little poem, Kunstlers Erdenwallen. From 1839 to 1842, he produced 400 drawings, largely introducing to Germany the technique of wood engraving, the artist had a deep sympathy for the Prussian king. Through these works, Menzel established his claim to be considered one of the first, if not actually the first, in the meantime, Menzel had also begun to study, unaided, the art of painting, and he soon produced a great number and variety of pictures. Among those considered most important of these works are Iron Rolling Mill, when invited to paint The Coronation of William I at Koenigsberg, he produced an exact representation of the ceremony without regard to the traditions of official painting. During Menzels life, his paintings were appreciated by Otto von Bismarck and William I, such genre paintings evidence associations with French and English art. He puts there everything that is called for by the character, free, large, and rapid in his drawing, no draftsman is as definitive as he. He was also made a member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris, after his death in 1905 in Berlin, his funeral arrangements were directed by the Kaiser, who walked behind his coffin. Karl Scheffler, Adolf Menzel, Der Mensch, das Werk, elfried Bock, Adolph Menzel, Verzeichnis seines graphischen Werkes. Werner Schmidt, Adolf Menzel, Zeichnungen Verzeichnis und Erläuterungen, ulrich Bischoff, Jens Christian Jensen, Richard Hoppe-Sailer, Wulf Schadendorf, Johann Schlick, Jürgen Schultze, Adolph Menzel, Realist – Historist – Maler des Hofes. Gisela Hopp, Eckhard Schaar, Werner Hofmann, eds, jost Hermand, Adolph Menzel mit Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten. Claude Keisch and Marie Ursula Riemann-Reyher, eds, Adolph Menzel 1815-1905, Between Romanticism and Impressionism
16.
Frederick the Great
–
Frederick II was King of Prussia from 1740 until 1786, the longest reign of any Hohenzollern king. Frederick was the last titled King in Prussia and declared himself King of Prussia after achieving full sovereignty for all historical Prussian lands, Prussia had greatly increased its territories and became a leading military power in Europe under his rule. He became known as Frederick the Great and was affectionately nicknamed Der Alte Fritz by the Prussian, in his youth, Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than the art of war. Upon ascending to the Prussian throne, he attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning acclaim for himself. Near the end of his life, Frederick physically connected most of his realm by conquering Polish territories in the First Partition of Poland and he was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Considering himself the first servant of the state, Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and he modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and pursued religious policies throughout his realm that ranged from tolerance to segregation. He reformed the system and made it possible for men not of noble stock to become judges. Frederick also encouraged immigrants of various nationalities and faiths to come to Prussia, some critics, however, point out his oppressive measures against conquered Polish subjects during the First Partition. Frederick supported arts and philosophers he favored, as well as allowing complete freedom of the press, Frederick is buried at his favorite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam. Because he died childless, Frederick was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II, son of his brother, historian Leopold von Ranke was unstinting in his praise of Fredericks Heroic life, inspired by great ideas, filled with feats of arms. Immortalized by the raising of the Prussian state to the rank of a power, Johann Gustav Droysen was even more extolling. However, by the 21st century, a re-evaluation of his legacy as a great warrior, Frederick, the son of Frederick William I and his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, was born in Berlin on 24 January 1712. The birth of Frederick was welcomed by his grandfather, Frederick I, with more than usual pleasure, with the death of his father in 1713, Frederick William became King of Prussia, thus making young Frederick the crown prince. The new king wished for his sons and daughters to be educated not as royalty and he had been educated by a Frenchwoman, Madame de Montbail, who later became Madame de Rocoulle, and he wished that she educate his children. However, he possessed a violent temper and ruled Brandenburg-Prussia with absolute authority. As Frederick grew, his preference for music, literature and French culture clashed with his fathers militarism, in contrast, Fredericks mother Sophia was polite, charismatic and learned. Her father, George Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg, succeeded to the British throne as King George I in 1714, Frederick was brought up by Huguenot governesses and tutors and learned French and German simultaneously. Although Frederick William I was raised a Calvinist, he feared he was not of the elect, to avoid the possibility of Frederick being motivated by the same concerns, the king ordered that his heir not be taught about predestination
17.
Carl Heinrich Graun
–
Carl Heinrich Graun was a German composer and tenor singer. Along with Johann Adolph Hasse, he is considered to be the most important German composer of Italian opera of his time, Graun was born in Wahrenbrück in the Margraviate of Brandenburg. In 1714, he followed his brother, Johann Gottlieb Graun, to the school of the Kreuzkirche, Dresden, and sang in the Dresdner Kreuzchor and he studied singing with Christian Petzold and composition with Johann Christoph Schmidt. In 1724, Graun moved to Braunschweig, singing at the opera house and he was Kapellmeister to Frederick the Great from his ascension to the throne in 1740 until Grauns death nineteen years later in Berlin. Graun wrote a number of operas and his opera Cesare e Cleopatra inaugurated the opening of the Berlin State Opera in 1742. Montezuma was written to a libretto by King Frederick and his works are rarely played today, though his passion cantata Der Tod Jesu was frequently performed in Germany for many years after his death. His other works include concertos and trio sonatas and he married twice and had a daughter, who became a singer, from his first marriage and four sons from his second. His great-great-great-great-grandson, Vladimir Nabokov, became an eminent 20th-century novelist, grubbs, The Sacred Choral Music of the Graun Brothers,1972 Graun, Carl Heinrich by E. Eugene Helm, in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, ed. Encyclopædia Britannica
18.
Sylvius Leopold Weiss
–
Sylvius Leopold Weiss was a German composer and lutenist. Born in Grottkau near Breslau, the son of Johann Jacob Weiss, also a lutenist, he served at courts in Breslau, Rome, and Dresden, where he died. Until recently, he was thought to have born in 1686. Weiss was one of the most important and most prolific composers of music in history and one of the best-known. He was a teacher to Philip Hyacinth, 4th Prince Lobkowicz, in later life, Weiss became a friend of Wilhelm Friedemann Bach and met J. S. S. Bach, the great harpsichordist and organist, at playing fantasies and fugues, Sylvius Weiss son Johann Adolph Faustinus Weiss succeeded him as a Saxon court lutenist. Weiss probably wrote more than 1000 pieces for lute, from which about 850 attributed pieces survived, most of them grouped into sonatas or suites, Weiss also wrote chamber pieces and concertos, but only the solo parts have survived for most of them. Free scores by Sylvius Leopold Weiss at the International Music Score Library Project Classical Composers Database Silvius Leopold Weiss
19.
Berlin
–
Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
20.
Keyboard instrument
–
A keyboard instrument is a musical instrument played using a keyboard. The most common of these are the piano, organ, and various keyboards, including synthesizers. Other keyboard instruments include celestas, which are struck idiophones operated by a keyboard, and carillons, today, the term keyboard often refers to keyboard-style synthesizers. Another important use of the keyboard is in historical musicology. Particularly in the 18th century, the harpsichord, the clavichord, and the piano were in competition. Hence in a phrase like Mozart excelled as a player the word keyboard is usefully noncommittal. The earliest known keyboard instrument was the Ancient Greek hydraulis, a type of pipe organ, the keys were likely balanced and could be played with a light touch, as is clear from the reference in a Latin poem by Claudian, who says magna levi detrudens murmura tactu. Intent, that is “let him thunder forth as he presses out mighty roarings with a light touch”, from its invention until the fourteenth century, the organ remained the only keyboard instrument. Often, the organ did not feature a keyboard at all, almost every keyboard until the fifteenth century had seven naturals to each octave. The clavichord and the harpsichord appeared during the 14th century—the clavichord probably being earlier, the harpsichord and clavichord were both common until widespread adoption of the piano in the 18th century, after which their popularity decreased. The piano was revolutionary, because a pianist could vary the volume of the sound by varying the vigor with which each key was struck. The pianos full name is gravicèmbalo con piano e forte meaning harpsichord with soft and loud but can be shortened to piano-forte, which means soft-loud in Italian. In its current form, the piano is a product of the late 19th century, in fact, the modern piano is significantly different from even the 19th-century pianos used by Liszt, Chopin, and Brahms. See Piano history and musical performance, keyboard instruments were further developed in the early twentieth century. Early electromechanical instruments, such as the Ondes Martenot, appeared early in the century and this was a very important contribution to the keyboards history. Much effort has gone into creating an instrument that sounds like the piano but lacks its size, the electric piano and electronic piano were early efforts that, while useful instruments in their own right, did not convincingly reproduce the timbre of the piano. Electric and electronic organs were developed during the same period, more recent electronic keyboard designs strive to emulate the sound of specific make and model pianos using digital samples and computer models. Concerns celebrated keyboard players and the various instruments used over the centuries
21.
Sonata
–
Sonata, in music, literally means a piece played as opposed to a cantata, a piece sung. The term evolved through the history of music, designating a variety of forms until the Classical era, when it took on increasing importance, by the early 19th century, it came to represent a principle of composing large-scale works. It was applied to most instrumental genres and regarded—alongside the fugue—as one of two methods of organizing, interpreting and analyzing concert music. Though the musical style of sonatas has changed since the Classical era, most 20th-, the term sonatina, pl. sonatine, the diminutive form of sonata, is often used for a short or technically easy sonata. In the Baroque period, a sonata was for one or more instruments almost always with continuo, sonatas for a solo instrument other than keyboard have been composed, as have sonatas for other combinations of instruments. Although the four, five, or six movements of the sonata da chiesa are also most often in one key, one or two of the internal movements are sometimes in a contrasting tonality. This scheme, however, was not very defined, until the works of Arcangelo Corelli when it became the essential sonata. The sonata da camera consisted almost entirely of idealized dance-tunes, on the other hand, the features of sonata da chiesa and sonata da camera then tended to be freely intermixed. Although nearly half of Bachs 1,100 surviving compositions, arrangements and they are frequently virtuosic, and use more distant harmonic transitions and modulations than were common for other works of the time. They were admired for their variety and invention. Both the solo and trio sonatas of Vivaldi show parallels with the concerti he was writing at the same time. He composed over 70 sonatas, the majority of which are of the solo type, most of the rest are trio sonatas. The sonatas of Domenico Paradies are mild and elongated works with a graceful and this evolution stretched over fifty years. The term came to both to the structure of individual movements and to the layout of the movements in a multi-movement work. In the transition to the Classical period there were several names given to multimovement works, including divertimento, serenade, the usage of sonata as the standard term for such works began somewhere in the 1770s. Haydn labels his first piano sonata as such in 1771, after which the term divertimento is used sparingly in his output, the term sonata was increasingly applied to either a work for keyboard alone, or for keyboard and one other instrument, often the violin or cello. It was less and less frequently applied to works with more than two instrumentalists, for piano trios were not often labelled sonata for piano, violin. Initially the most common layout of movements was, Allegro, which at the time was understood to not only a tempo
22.
Harpsichord
–
A harpsichord is a musical instrument played by means of a keyboard. It produces sound by plucking a string when a key is pressed, Harpsichord designates the whole family of similar plucked keyboard instruments, including the smaller virginals, muselar, and spinet. The harpsichord was used in Renaissance and Baroque music. During the late 18th century, it disappeared from the musical scene with the rise of the piano. In the 20th century, it made a resurgence, being used in historically informed performances of music, in compositions. Harpsichords vary in size and shape, but all have the basic functional arrangement. The player depresses a key that rocks over a pivot in the middle of its length, the other end of the key lifts a jack that holds a small plectrum, which plucks the string. When the player releases the key, the far end returns to its rest position, the plectrum, mounted on a tongue that can swivel backwards away from the string, passes the string without plucking it again. As the key reaches its rest position, a felt damper atop the jack stops the strings vibrations and these basic principles are explained in detail below. The keylever is a pivot, which rocks on a balance pin that passes through a hole drilled through the keylever. The jack is a thin, rectangular piece of wood that sits upright on the end of the keylever, the jacks are held in place by the registers. These are two strips of wood, which run in the gap between pinblock and bellyrail. The registers have rectangular mortises through which the pass as they can move up. The registers hold the jacks in the location needed to pluck the string. In the jack, a plectrum juts out almost horizontally and passes just under the string, historically, plectra were made of bird quill or leather, many modern harpsichords have plastic plectra. When the front of the key is pressed, the back of the key rises, the jack is lifted, the vertical motion of the jack is then stopped by the jackrail, which is covered with soft felt to muffle the impact. When the key is released, the falls back down under its own weight. This is made possible by having the plectrum held in a tongue attached with a pivot and a spring to the body of the jack
23.
Clavichord
–
The clavichord is a European stringed keyboard instrument known from the late Medieval, through the Renaissance, Baroque and Classical eras. Historically, it was used as a practice instrument and as an aid to composition. The clavichord produces sound by striking brass or iron strings with metal blades called tangents. Vibrations are transmitted through the bridge to the soundboard, the name is derived from the Latin word clavis, meaning key and chorda meaning string, especially of a musical instrument. An analogous name is used in other European languages, many languages also have another name derived from Latin manus, meaning hand. Other names refer to the nature of a fully fretted clavichord. Italian also used sordino, a reference to its quiet sound, the clavichord was invented in the early fourteenth century. In 1504, the German poem Der Minne Regeln mentions the terms clavicimbalum and clavichordium, One of the earliest references to the clavichord in England occurs in the privy-purse expenses of Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII, in an entry dated August 1502, Item. The same day, Hugh Denys for money by him delivered to a stranger that gave the queen a payre of clavycordes, in crowns form his reward iiii libres. The clavichord was very popular from the 16th century to the 18th century, but mainly flourished in German-speaking lands, Scandinavia, and it had fallen out of use by 1850. In the late 1890s, Arnold Dolmetsch revived clavichord construction and Violet Gordon-Woodhouse, among others, although most of the instruments built before the 1730s were small, the latest instruments were built up to seven feet long with a six octave range. Today clavichords are played primarily by Renaissance, Baroque, and Classical music enthusiasts and they attract many interested buyers, and are manufactured worldwide. There are now numerous clavichord societies around the world, and some 400 recordings of the instrument have made in the past 70 years. Leading modern exponents of the instrument have included Derek Adlam, Christopher Hogwood, Richard Troeger, Thurston Dart, Wim Winters, stevie Wonder uses a Clavinet in many of his songs, such as Superstition and Higher Ground. A Clavinet played through an instrument amplifier with guitar effect pedals is often associated with funky, guy Sigsworth has played clavichord in a modern setting with Björk, notably on the studio recording of All Is Full of Love. Björk also made use of and even played the instrument herself on the song My Juvenile of her 2007 album Volta. Tori Amos uses the instrument on Little Amsterdam from the album Boys for Pele, Amos also featured her use of the Clavinet on her 2004 recording Not David Bowie, released as part of her 2006 box set, A Piano, The Collection. In 1976 Oscar Peterson played songs from Porgy And Bess on the clavichord, keith Jarrett also recorded an album entitled Book of Ways in which he plays a series of clavichord improvisations
24.
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
–
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was a German writer, philosopher, dramatist, publicist and art critic, and one of the most outstanding representatives of the Enlightenment era. His plays and theoretical writings substantially influenced the development of German literature and he is widely considered by theatre historians to be the first dramaturg in his role at Abel Seylers Hamburg National Theatre. Lessing was born in Kamenz, a town in Saxony, to Johann Gottfried Lessing. His father was a Lutheran minister and wrote on theology, Young Lessing studied at the Latin School in Kamenz from 1737 to 1741. With a father who wanted his son to follow in his footsteps, after completing his education at St. Afras, he enrolled at the University of Leipzig where he pursued a degree in theology, medicine, philosophy, and philology. It was here that his relationship with Karoline Neuber, a famous German actress and he translated several French plays for her, and his interest in theatre grew. During this time, he wrote his first play, The Young Scholar, Neuber eventually produced the play in 1748. From 1748 to 1760, Lessing lived in Leipzig and Berlin and he began to work as a reviewer and editor for the Vossische Zeitung and other periodicals. Lessing formed a connection with his cousin, Christlob Mylius. In 1750, Lessing and Mylius teamed together to begin a periodical publication named Beitrage zur Historie und Aufnahme des Theatres, the publication ran only four issues, but it caught the publics eye and revealed Lessing to be a serious critic and theorist of drama. In 1752 he took his masters degree in Wittenberg, from 1760 to 1765, he worked in Breslau as secretary to General Tauentzien during the Seven Years War between Britain and France, which had effects in Europe. It was during this time that he wrote his famous Laokoon, in 1765 Lessing returned to Berlin, leaving in 1767 to work for three years at the Hamburg National Theatre. Actor-manager, Konrad Ackermann, began construction on Germanys first permanent theatre in Hamburg, Johann Friedrich Löwen established Germanys first national theatre, the Hamburg National Theatre. The owners hired Lessing as the critic of plays and acting. The theatres main backer was Abel Seyler, a former currency speculator who since became known as the patron of German theatre. There he met Eva König, his future wife and his work in Hamburg formed the basis of his pioneering work on drama, titled Hamburgische Dramaturgie. Unfortunately, because of losses due to pirated editions of the Hamburgische Dramaturgie. In 1770 Lessing became librarian at the library, now the Herzog August Library
25.
Johann Joachim Quantz
–
Johann Joachim Quantz was a German flutist, flute maker and Baroque music composer. He composed hundreds of flute sonatas and concertos, and wrote On Playing the Flute, Quantz was born as Hanß Jochim Quantz in Oberscheden, near Göttingen, in the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg. His father, Andreas Quantz, was a blacksmith who died when Hans was not yet 11, on his deathbed, from 1714 on, Quantz studied composition extensively and pored over scores of the masters to adopt their style. In 1716 he joined the band in Dresden, where in 1717 he studied counterpoint with Jan Dismas Zelenka. In March 1718 he was appointed oboist in the newly formed Dresden Polish Chapel of August II, Elector of Saxony and he became good friends with Johann Georg Pisendel, concertmaster of the Royal Orchestra, who greatly influenced his style. Between 1724 and 1727 Quantz completed his education by doing a Grand Tour of Europe as a flutist. He studied counterpoint with Francesco Gasparini in Rome, met Alessandro Scarlatti in Naples, befriended the flutist Michel Blavet in Paris, in 1728 Quantz accompanied August II on a state visit to Berlin. The Queen of Prussia was impressed and wanted to hire him, though August II refused, he allowed Quantz to travel to Berlin as often as he was asked to. That year the Crown Prince, Frederick II of Prussia, decided to study the flute, Quantz later told writer Friedrich Nicolai that he once had to hide in a closet during an outburst of Fredericks domineering father, who disapproved of his sons musical studies. Until 1741 Quantz remained at the Saxon Court in Dresden and he married Anna Rosina Carolina Schindler in 1737, the marriage was not happy, and it was generally known in Berlin that Quantzs wife tyrannized him. When Frederick II became King of Prussia in 1740, Quantz finally accepted a position as flute teacher and he joined that court in December 1741 and stayed there for the rest of his career. He made flutes from at least 1739 and was an innovator in design, adding a second key to help with intonation. It is a source of reference regarding performance practice and flute technique in the 18th century. Quantz remained at Fredericks court at Potsdam until his death in 1773, a biography appeared in 1755 in Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurgs Historisch-kritischen Beyträgen zur Aufnahme der Musik, another, in Italian, followed in 1762. His grandnephew, Albert Quantz, published a biography in 1877. Few of Quantzs works were published during his lifetime, most of them are for transverse flute, including more than 200 sonatas, around 300 concertos,45 trio sonatas, and various flute duets, trios, and quartets. The works list was established by Horst Augsbach, QV stands for Quantz Verzeichnis, and Anh. for Anhang when the authenticity of the works is spurious. Quantz and his Versuch, three studies, Quantz heute, Der Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen als Lehrbuch für unser Musizieren
26.
Franz Benda
–
Franz Benda or Czech, František Benda was a Bohemian violinist and composer, who worked for much of his life at the court of Frederick the Great. Benda was born in Benátky nad Jizerou in Bohemia, the son of Jan Jiří Benda and his brother was the composer Jiří Antonín Benda. Bendas daughter Juliane Reichardt and his granddaughter Louise Reichardt were also composers, Benda wrote his autobiography in 1763, it not only gives a detailed account of his own life but also a valuable record of the lives of other musicians whom he encountered during his career. In his youth Benda was a chorister in Prague and afterward in the Chapel Royal at Dresden, at the same time he began to study the violin, and soon joined a company of strolling musicians who attended fetes, fairs, etc. At eighteen years of age Benda abandoned this wandering life and returned to Prague, going to Vienna, where he pursued his study of the violin under Johann Gottlieb Graun, after two years he was appointed chapel master at Warsaw. In 1732, he entered the service of Frederick the Great, then prince of Prussia. He was a member of the crown princes orchestra, and later became concertmaster to the king and he played about 50,000 concertos over a period of forty years. At Bendas request, Frederick allowed his parents and siblings to move to Potsdam when, as Protestants, Benda was a master of all the difficulties of violin playing, and the rapidity of his execution and the mellow sweetness of his highest notes were unequalled. He had many pupils and wrote a number of works, chiefly exercises and studies for the violin, Benda died in the Nowawes, a small colony near Potsdam set up by Frederick the Great to house Protestant refugees fleeing religious persecution in Bohemia. Descendants of Benda also continue in the musical line. In the 20th century, František Benda was a composer of film scores, the Benda Chamber Orchestra, which carries and honours the name of the Benda musical family, was founded in 1956 in Ústí nad Labem, Northern Bohemia. Benda composed 17 symphonies, numerous concerti and sonatas for violin, www. closelinks. com Free Family Tree Brief HOASM biography Review of disc with concertos by both brothers Free scores by Franz Benda at the International Music Score Library Project
27.
George Frideric Handel
–
George Frideric Handel was a German, later British baroque composer who spent the bulk of his career in London, becoming well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, and organ concertos. Handel received important training in Halle and worked as a composer in Hamburg and Italy before settling in London in 1712 and he was strongly influenced both by the great composers of the Italian Baroque and by the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition. Within fifteen years, Handel had started three commercial opera companies to supply the English nobility with Italian opera, musicologist Winton Dean writes that his operas show that Handel was not only a great composer, he was a dramatic genius of the first order. As Alexanders Feast was well received, Handel made a transition to English choral works, after his success with Messiah he never composed an Italian opera again. Almost blind, and having lived in England for nearly fifty years, he died in 1759 and his funeral was given full state honours, and he was buried in Westminster Abbey in London. Handel was born in 1685 in Halle-on-Saal, Duchy of Magdeburg, to Georg Händel and his father,63 when George Frideric was born, was an eminent barber-surgeon who served the court of Saxe-Weissenfels and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Georg Händel was the son of a coppersmith, Valentin Händel who had emigrated from Eisleben in 1608 with his first wife Anna Belching and they were Protestants and chose reliably Protestant Saxony over Silesia, a Hapsburg possession as religious tensions mounted in the years before the Thirty Years War. Halle was a prosperous city, home of a salt-mining industry. Even the smaller churches all had able organists and fair choirs, and humanities, the Thirty Years War brought extensive destruction to Halle, and by the 1680s it was impoverished. But since the middle of the war the city was under the administration of the Duke of Saxony, the arts and music, however, flourished only among the higher strata, which did not describe Handels family. Handel was the child of this marriage, the first son died still born. Two younger sisters were born after the birth of George Frideric, Dorthea Sophia, born 6 October 1687 and Johanna Christiana, born 10 January 1690. Early in his life Handel is reported to have attended the gymnasium in Halle, Mainwaring is the source for almost all information of Handels childhood, and much of that information came from J. C. Smith, Jr. Handels confidant and copyist. Whether they came from Smith or elsewhere, Mainwaring frequently relates misinformation and it is from Mainwaring that the portrait of Handels father as implacably opposed to any musical education comes. This did nothing to dampen young Handels inclination, in fact, Mainwaring tells the story of Handels secret attic spinnet, Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately conveyd to a room at the top of the house. To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep, but Handel had to have had some experience with the keyboard to have made the impression in Weissenfels that resulted in his receiving formal musical training. Somehow Handel made his way to the organ, where he surprised everyone with his playing. Overhearing this performance and noting the youth of the performer caused the Duke to recommend to Georg Händel that Handel be given musical instruction, Handels father engaged the organist at the Halle parish church, the young Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow, to instruct Handel
28.
Joseph Haydn
–
Joseph Haydn was an Austrian composer of the Classical period. Haydn spent much of his career as a musician for the wealthy Esterházy family at their remote estate. Until the later part of his life, this isolated him from other composers and trends in music so that he was, as he put it, yet his music circulated widely and for much of his career he was the most celebrated composer in Europe. He was a friend and mentor of Mozart, a teacher of Beethoven, Joseph Haydn was born in Rohrau, Austria, a village that at that time stood on the border with Hungary. His father was Mathias Haydn, a wheelwright who served as Marktrichter. Haydns mother Maria, née Koller, had worked as a cook in the palace of Count Harrach. Neither parent could read music, however, Mathias was a folk musician. According to Haydns later reminiscences, his family was extremely musical. Haydns parents had noticed that their son was musically gifted and knew that in Rohrau he would have no chance to obtain serious musical training, Haydn therefore went off with Frankh to Hainburg 12 kilometres away, he never again lived with his parents. Life in the Frankh household was not easy for Haydn, who later remembered being frequently hungry and he began his musical training there, and could soon play both harpsichord and violin. The people of Hainburg heard him sing treble parts in the church choir, Haydn passed his audition with Reutter, and after several months of further training moved to Vienna, where he worked for the next nine years as a chorister. Haydn lived in the Kapellhaus next to the cathedral, along with Reutter, Reutters family, and the other four choirboys, the choirboys were instructed in Latin and other school subjects as well as voice, violin, and keyboard. Reutter was of help to Haydn in the areas of music theory and composition. However, since St. Stephens was one of the musical centres in Europe. Like Frankh before him, Reutter did not always bother to make sure Haydn was properly fed, by 1749, Haydn had matured physically to the point that he was no longer able to sing high choral parts. Empress Maria Theresa herself complained to Reutter about his singing, calling it crowing, one day, Haydn carried out a prank, snipping off the pigtail of a fellow chorister. This was enough for Reutter, Haydn was first caned, then summarily dismissed and he had the good fortune to be taken in by a friend, Johann Michael Spangler, who shared his familys crowded garret room with Haydn for a few months. Haydn immediately began his pursuit of a career as a freelance musician and he was also briefly in Count Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitzs employ, playing the organ in the Bohemian Chancellery chapel at the Judenplatz
29.
Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock
–
Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock was a German poet. His best known work is his epic poem Der Messias, one of his major contributions to German literature was to open it up to exploration outside of French models. Klopstock was born at Quedlinburg, the eldest son of a lawyer, both in his birthplace and on the estate of Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father later rented, he spent a happy childhood. Having been given attention to his physical than to his mental development, he grew up strong. In his thirteenth year, he returned to Quedlinburg and attended the gymnasium there, here he soon became adept in Greek and Latin versification, and wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in German. While still at school, he had drafted the plan of Der Messias on which most of his fame rests. Finding life at that university not to his liking, he transferred in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, in this periodical the first three cantos of Der Messias were published anonymously in hexameter verse in 1748. A new era in German literature had commenced, and the identity of the author became known. In Leipzig he also wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is An meine Freunde and he left the university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of a relative at Langensalza, where unrequited love for a cousin disturbed his peace of mind. Bodmer, however, was disappointed to find in the poet of the Messias a man of strong worldly interests. On his way to the Danish capital, Klopstock met in Hamburg the woman who later in 1754 became his wife, Margareta Möller and she was the daughter of a Hamburg merchant and an enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short, as she died in 1758, leaving him broken-hearted and his grief at her loss finds pathetic expression in the fifteenth canto of the Messias. The poet subsequently published his wifes writings, Hinterlassene Werke von Margareta Klopstock, see also Memoirs of Frederick and Margaret Klopstock and her correspondence with Samuel Richardson, published 1818. Klopstock now relapsed into melancholy, new ideas failed him, in 1770, when King Christian VII dismissed Count Bernstorff from office, he retired with the latter to Hamburg but retained his pension, together with the rank of councillor of legation. In 1773 were published the last five cantos of the Messias, in the following year he published a scheme for the regeneration of German letters, Die Gelehrtenrepublik. In 1775 he traveled south, and making the acquaintance of Goethe on the way, however, he was enthusiastic about the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. The French Republic sent him a diploma of citizenship, but, horrified at the terrible scenes the Revolution had enacted in the name of liberty. At the age of 67 he undertook a second marriage, to Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow and a niece of his late wife, who for many years had been one of his most intimate friends
30.
Moses Mendelssohn
–
Moses Mendelssohn was a German Jewish philosopher to whose ideas the Haskalah, the Jewish enlightenment of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, is indebted. He also established himself as an important figure in the Berlin textile industry, Moses Mendelssohns descendants include the composers Fanny and Felix Mendelssohn and the founders of the Mendelssohn & Co. banking house. Moses Mendelssohn was born in Dessau and his fathers name was Mendel, and it was Moses who adopted the surname Mendelssohn. Without any fear that his own father would take offense, my father assumed the name Mendelssohn, the change, though a small one, was decisive. Mendel was an impoverished scribe — a writer of Torah scrolls —, mosess early education was cared for by his father and by the local rabbi, David Fränkel, who besides teaching him the Bible and Talmud, introduced to him the philosophy of Maimonides. Fränkel received a call to Berlin in 1743, a few months later Moses followed him. A refugee Pole, Zamoscz, taught him mathematics, and a young Jewish physician taught him Latin and he learned to spell and to philosophize at the same time. With his scanty earnings he bought a Latin copy of John Lockes An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and he then made the acquaintance of Aaron Solomon Gumperz, who taught him basic French and English. In 1750, a wealthy silk-merchant, Isaac Bernhard, appointed him to teach his children, Mendelssohn soon won the confidence of Bernhard, who made the young student successively his bookkeeper and his partner. It was possibly Gumperz who introduced Mendelssohn to Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in 1754, the story goes that the first time Mendelssohn met Lessing, they played chess, therefore, in Lessings play Nathan the Wise Nathan and the character Saladin first meet during a game of chess. Lessing had recently produced the drama Die Juden, whose moral was that a Jew can possess nobility of character and this notion was, in the contemporary Berlin of Frederick the Great, generally ridiculed as untrue. Lessing found in Mendelssohn the realization of his dream, within a few months, the two became closely intellectually allied. Lessing also brought Mendelssohn to public attention for the first time, Mendelssohn had written an essay attacking Germans neglect of their native philosophers, without consulting the author, Lessing published Mendelssohns Philosophical Conversations anonymously in 1755. In the same year appeared in Danzig an anonymous satire, Pope a Metaphysician. Mendelssohn became the spirit of Friedrich Nicolais important literary undertakings, the Bibliothek and the Literaturbriefe. In 1762 he married Fromet Guggenheim, who survived him by twenty-six years, in October 1763 the king granted Mendelssohn, but not his wife or children, the privilege of Protected Jew —which assured his right to undisturbed residence in Berlin. As a result of his correspondence with Abbt, Mendelssohn resolved to write on the immortality of the soul, materialistic views were at the time rampant and fashionable, and faith in immortality was at a low ebb. At this favourable juncture appeared Phädon oder über die Unsterblichkeit der Seele, modelled on Platos dialogue of the same name, Mendelssohns work possessed some of the charm of its Greek exemplar and impressed the German world with its beauty and lucidity of style
31.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
–
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. Born in Salzburg, he showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood, already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court, while visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame, during his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons and he composed more than 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, Ludwig van Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote, posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 to Leopold Mozart and Anna Maria, née Pertl and this was the capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, an ecclesiastic principality in what is now Austria, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was the youngest of seven children, five of whom died in infancy and his elder sister was Maria Anna Mozart, nicknamed Nannerl. Mozart was baptized the day after his birth, at St. Ruperts Cathedral in Salzburg, the baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form, as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself Wolfgang Amadè Mozart as an adult, Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, Germany, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg, Leopold became the orchestras deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his sons birth, Leopold published a textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule. When Nannerl was 7, she began lessons with her father. Years later, after her brothers death, she reminisced, He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and he could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. At the age of five, he was composing little pieces
32.
Ludwig van Beethoven
–
Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he one of the most famous. His best-known compositions include 9 symphonies,5 piano concertos,1 violin concerto,32 piano sonatas,16 string quartets, his great Mass the Missa solemnis, and one opera, Fidelio. At the age of 21 he moved to Vienna, where he began studying composition with Joseph Haydn and he lived in Vienna until his death. By his late 20s his hearing began to deteriorate, and by the last decade of his life he was almost completely deaf. In 1811 he gave up conducting and performing in public but continued to compose, many of his most admired works come from these last 15 years of his life. Beethoven was the grandson of Ludwig van Beethoven, a musician from the town of Mechelen in the Duchy of Brabant in the Flemish region of what is now Belgium, who at the age of twenty moved to Bonn. Ludwig was employed as a singer at the court of the Elector of Cologne, eventually rising to become, in 1761. The portrait he commissioned of himself towards the end of his life remained proudly displayed in his grandsons rooms as a talisman of his musical heritage. Ludwig had one son, Johann, who worked as a tenor in the musical establishment and gave keyboard. Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767, she was the daughter of Johann Heinrich Keverich, Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn. There is no record of the date of his birth, however. Of the seven children born to Johann van Beethoven, only Ludwig, the second-born, caspar Anton Carl was born on 8 April 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776. Beethovens first music teacher was his father and he later had other local teachers, the court organist Gilles van den Eeden, Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer, and Franz Rovantini. Beethovens musical talent was obvious at a young age, some time after 1779, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob Neefe, who was appointed the Courts Organist in that year. Neefe taught Beethoven composition, and by March 1783 had helped him write his first published composition, Beethoven soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, at first unpaid, and then as a paid employee of the court chapel conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi. His first three piano sonatas, named Kurfürst for their dedication to the Elector Maximilian Friedrich, were published in 1783, Maximilian Frederick noticed Beethovens talent early, and subsidised and encouraged the young mans musical studies. Maximilian Fredericks successor as the Elector of Bonn was Maximilian Francis, the youngest son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, echoing changes made in Vienna by his brother Joseph, he introduced reforms based on Enlightenment philosophy, with increased support for education and the arts
33.
Felix Mendelssohn
–
Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, born and widely known as Felix Mendelssohn, was a German composer, pianist, organist and conductor of the early Romantic period. A grandson of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, Felix Mendelssohn was born into a prominent Jewish family and he was brought up without religion until the age of seven, when he was baptised as a Reformed Christian. Mendelssohn was recognised early as a prodigy, but his parents were cautious. Mendelssohn enjoyed early success in Germany, where he revived interest in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. The Leipzig Conservatoire, which he founded, became a bastion of this anti-radical outlook, Mendelssohn wrote symphonies, concerti, oratorios, piano music and chamber music. His Songs Without Words are his most famous solo piano compositions and he is now among the most popular composers of the Romantic era. Mendelssohns father was the banker Abraham Mendelssohn, the son of the German Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn and his mother was Lea Salomon, a member of the Itzig family and a sister of Jakob Salomon Bartholdy. Mendelssohn was the second of four children, his older sister Fanny also displayed exceptional, the family moved to Berlin in 1811, leaving Hamburg in disguise fearing French revenge for the Mendelssohn banks role in breaking Napoleons Continental System blockade. Abraham and Lea Mendelssohn sought to give their children – Fanny, Felix, Paul, Fanny became a well-known pianist and amateur composer, originally Abraham had thought that she, rather than Felix, would be the more musical. However, at time, it was not considered proper, by either Abraham or Felix, for a woman to have a career in music, so Fanny remained an active. Abraham was also disinclined to allow Felix to follow a career until it became clear that he seriously intended to dedicate himself to it. Mendelssohn grew up in an intellectual environment, Sarah Rothenburg wrote of the household that Europe came to their living room. Abraham Mendelssohn renounced the Jewish religion, he and his wife decided not to have Felix circumcised. Felix and his siblings were first brought up without religious education, Abraham and his wife Lea were themselves baptised in 1822, formally adopting the surname Mendelssohn Bartholdy for themselves and their children. The name Bartholdy was added at the suggestion of Leas brother, Jakob Salomon Bartholdy, in 1829, his sister Fanny wrote to him of Bartholdy this name that we all dislike. Like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart before him, Mendelssohn was regarded as a child prodigy and he began taking piano lessons from his mother when he was six, and at seven was tutored by Marie Bigot in Paris. After the family moved to Berlin, all four Mendelssohn children studied piano with Ludwig Berger, from at least May 1819 Felix studied counterpoint and composition with Carl Friedrich Zelter in Berlin. This was an important influence on his future career, Zelter had almost certainly been recommended as a teacher by his aunt Sarah Levy, who had been a pupil of W. F. Bach and a patron of C. P. E. Bach
34.
Magnificat
–
It is one of the eight most ancient Christian hymns and perhaps the earliest Marian hymn. Its name comes from the incipit of the Latin version of the canticles text, the text of the canticle is taken directly from the Gospel of Luke where it is spoken by Mary upon the occasion of her Visitation to her cousin Elizabeth. In the narrative, after Mary greets Elizabeth, who is pregnant with John the Baptist, Elizabeth praises Mary for her faith, and Mary responds with what is now known as the Magnificat. Within the whole of Christianity, the Magnificat is most frequently recited within the Liturgy of the Hours, in Western Christianity, the Magnificat is most often sung or recited during the main evening prayer service, Vespers in the Catholic and Lutheran churches, and Evening Prayer in Anglicanism. In Eastern Christianity, the Magnificat is usually sung at Sunday Matins, among Protestant groups, the Magnificat may also be sung during worship services, especially in the Advent season during which these verses are traditionally read. These songs are Marys Magnificat, Zechariahs Benedictus, the angels Gloria in Excelsis Deo, in form and content, these four canticles are patterned on the hymns of praise in Israels Psalter. In structure, these reflect the compositions of pre-Christian contemporary Jewish hymnology. The balance of the two lines bursts out into a dual Magnificat of declaring the greatness of and finding delight in God. Mary symbolizes both ancient Israel and the Lucan faith-community as the author/singer of the Magnificat, the canticle echoes several biblical passages, but the most pronounced allusions are to the Song of Hannah, from the Books of Samuel. Scriptural echoes from the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings complement the main allusions to Hannahs magnificat of rejoicing. Along with the Benedictus, as well as several Old Testament canticles, the Magnificat is included in the Book of Odes, the original language of the Magnificat is Koine Greek, the language of the New Testament. However, in the liturgical and devotional use in Western Christianity, Μεγαλύνει ἡ ψυχή μου τὸν Κύριον καὶ ἠγαλλίασεν τὸ πνεῦμά μου ἐπὶ τῷ Θεῷ τῷ σωτῆρί μου, ὅτι ἐπέβλεψεν ἐπὶ τὴν ταπείνωσιν τῆς δούλης αὐτοῦ. ἰδοὺ γὰρ ἀπὸ τοῦ νῦν μακαριοῦσίν με πᾶσαι αἱ γενεαί, ὅτι ἐποίησέν μοι μεγάλα ὁ δυνατός, καὶ ἅγιον τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ, Ἐποίησεν κράτος ἐν βραχίονι αὐτοῦ, διεσκόρπισεν ὑπερηφάνους διανοίᾳ καρδίας αὐτῶν· καθεῖλεν δυνάστας ἀπὸ θρόνων καὶ ὕψωσεν ταπεινούς, πεινῶντας ἐνέπλησεν ἀγαθῶν καὶ πλουτοῦντας ἐξαπέστειλεν κενούς. ἀντελάβετο Ἰσραὴλ παιδὸς αὐτοῦ, μνησθῆναι ἐλέους, καθὼς ἐλάλησεν πρὸς τοὺς πατέρας ἡμῶν τῷ Αβραὰμ καὶ τῷ σπέρματι αὐτοῦ εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα. The translation of the hymn into Church Slavonic is as follows, Transcription in modern Cyrillic alphabet, Вели́чит душа́ Моя́ Го́спода, Честне́йшую херуви́м и сла́внейшую без сравне́ния серафи́м, без истле́ния Бо́га Сло́ва ро́ждшую, су́щую Богоро́дицу, Тя велича́ем. Я́ко призре́ на смире́ние рабы́ Своея́, се бо от ны́не ублажа́т Мя вси ро́ди, Честне́йшую херуви́м… Я́ко сотвори́ Мне вели́чие Си́льный, и свя́то и́мя Его́, и ми́лость Его́ в ро́ды родо́в боя́щимся Его́. Честне́йшую херуви́м… Сотвори́ держа́ву мы́шцею Свое́ю, расточи́ го́рдыя мы́слию се́рдца их, Честне́йшую херуви́м… Низложи́ си́льныя со престо́л, и вознесе́ смире́нныя, а́лчущия испо́лни благ, и богатя́щияся отпусти́ тщи. Честне́йшую херуви́м… Восприя́т Изра́иля о́трока Своего́, помяну́ти ми́лости, я́коже глаго́ла ко отце́м на́шим, Честне́йшую херуви́м…, Magnificat anima mea Dominum, et exultavit spiritus meus in Deo salvatore meo, quia respexit humilitatem ancillae suae
35.
Cantata
–
A cantata is a vocal composition with an instrumental accompaniment, typically in several movements, often involving a choir. Cantatas for use in the liturgy of church services are called church cantata or sacred cantata, several cantatas were, and still are, written for special occasions, such as Christmas cantatas. Johann Sebastian Bach composed cycles of cantatas for the occasions of the liturgical year. The term originated in the early 17th century simultaneously with opera, prior to that, all cultured music was vocal. With the rise of music the term appeared, while the instrumental art became sufficiently developed to be embodied in sonatas. From the beginning of the 17th century until late in the 18th, a cantata consisted first of a declamatory narrative or scene in recitative, held together by a primitive aria repeated at intervals. Fine examples may be found in the music of Giacomo Carissimi. With the rise of the da capo aria, the became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative. George Frideric Handels numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a large scale. His Latin motet Silete Venti, for solo, shows the use of this form in church music. This is equally evident whether we examine the church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200 are extant. Cantatas were in demand for the services of the Lutheran church. Many secular cantatas were composed for events in the nobility and they were so similar in form to the sacred ones that many of them were parodied to sacred cantatas, for example in Bachs Christmas Oratorio. The term cantata came to be applied almost exclusively to choral works, Anton Bruckner composed several Name-day cantatas, a Festive Cantata and two secular cantatas. Brucknerss Psalm 146 is also in cantata form, mendelssohns Symphony Cantata, the Lobgesang, is a hybrid work, partly in the oratorio style. Robert Schumann wrote the cantata Paradise and the Peri, the full lyric possibilities of a string of choral songs were realized by Johannes Brahms in his Rinaldo, that—like the Walpurgisnacht—was set to a text by Goethe. The competition for the French Prix de Rome prescribed that each candidate submit a cantata, hector Berlioz failed in three attempts before finally winning in 1830 with Sardanapale. While almost all of the Prix de Rome cantatas have long since been forgotten, cantatas, both of the chamber variety and on a grand scale, were composed after 1900 as well
36.
Symphony
–
A symphony is an extended musical composition in Western classical music, most often written by composers for orchestra. Symphonies are scored for string, brass, woodwind, and percussion instruments which altogether number about 30–100 musicians, Symphonies are notated in a musical score, which contains all the instrument parts. Orchestral musicians play from parts which contain just the music for their instrument. A small number of symphonies also contain vocal parts, the word symphony is derived from the Greek word συμφωνία, meaning agreement or concord of sound, concert of vocal or instrumental music, from σύμφωνος, harmonious. The word referred to a variety of different things, before ultimately settling on its current meaning designating a musical form. In late Greek and medieval theory, the word was used for consonance, as opposed to διαφωνία, in the Middle Ages and later, the Latin form symphonia was used to describe various instruments, especially those capable of producing more than one sound simultaneously. Isidore of Seville was the first to use the word symphonia as the name of a two-headed drum, in late medieval England, symphony was used in both of these senses, whereas by the 16th century it was equated with the dulcimer. In German, Symphonie was a term for spinets and virginals from the late 16th century to the 18th century. 16, published in 1607, Lodovico Grossi da Viadanas Sinfonie musicali,18, published in 1610, and Heinrich Schützs Symphoniae sacrae, op. 6, and Symphoniarum sacrarum secunda pars, op,10, published in 1629 and 1647, respectively. Except for Viadanas collection, which contained purely instrumental and secular music, the opera sinfonia, or Italian overture had, by the 18th century, a standard structure of three contrasting movements, fast, slow, fast and dance-like. It is this form that is considered as the direct forerunner of the orchestral symphony. The terms overture, symphony and sinfonia were widely regarded as interchangeable for much of the 18th century, when composers from the 17th century wrote pieces, they expected that these works would be performed by whatever group of musicians were available. A performance of the piece might be done with a basso continuo group as small as a single cello, during the 18th century, the symphony was cultivated with extraordinary intensity. It played a role in areas of public life, including church services. Since the normal size of the orchestra at the time was quite small, laRue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson trace the gradual expansion of the symphonic orchestra through the 18th century. At first, symphonies were string symphonies, written in just four parts, first violin, second violin, viola, occasionally the early symphonists even dispensed with the viola part, thus creating three-part symphonies. A basso continuo part including a bassoon together with a harpsichord or other chording instrument was also possible, the first additions to this simple ensemble were a pair of horns, occasionally a pair of oboes, and then both horns and oboes together
37.
Gellert Odes and Songs
–
Geistliche Oden und Lieder, also known as Gellert Oden, is a collection of songs by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach with texts by Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. One of the best known German poets of his time, Christian Fürchtegott Gellert was a professor of philosophy at Leipzig University, in 1757, at age 42, he published Geistliche Oden und Lieder, a collection of sacred poetry that enjoyed considerable success. The volume was published by George Ludewig Winter in 1758, Bachs foreword is dated February 1,1758. In the 19th century, Beethoven published six settings of Gellerts poems as Gellert Lieder, Op.48, during Bachs lifetime, Gellert Oden was reprinted five times, with the last edition appearing in 1784. Bachs setting remained the only one, covering all 54 poems. The success of this collection inspired Bach to produce more sacred lieder and these included a collection of 42 psalms, titled Psalmen mit Melodien, H.733, and 60 sacred songs published as two volumes of Geistliche Gesänge mit Melodien in 1780–81, H.749,752. Each of Gellerts poems comprises several stanzas, and the structure of stanzas remains the same throughout a given poem, thus Bachs settings provide music for a single stanza, to be repeated and improvised upon, for as many times as there are stanzas in a poem. Contrary to later song cycles, the music is written on two staves instead of three, nevertheless, the parts are sufficiently simple and unornamented as to allow a generous amount of ornamentation and improvisation by the performer. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, in Bach, the Music of Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Boydell & Brewer,2014
38.
Muzio Clementi
–
Muzio Filippo Vincenzo Francesco Saverio Clementi was an Italian/British-born composer, pianist, pedagogue, conductor, music publisher, editor, and piano manufacturer. Encouraged to study music by his father, he was sponsored as a composer by Sir Peter Beckford who took him to England to advance his studies. Later, he toured Europe numerous times from his base in London. It was on one of these occasions, in 1781, that he engaged in a competition with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. He was an influence on Ludwig van Beethoven. Clementi also produced and promoted his own brand of pianos and was a music publisher. Because of this activity, many compositions by Clementis contemporaries and earlier artists have stayed in the repertoire, though the European reputation of Muzio Clementi was second only to Joseph Haydn in his day, his reputation languished for much of the 19th and 20th centuries. Muzio Filippo Vincenzo Francesco Saverio Clementi was born in Rome, Italy, on 23 January 1752 and he was the eldest of the seven children of Nicolò Clementi, a silversmith, and Madalena, née Caisar, who was Swiss. Nicolò soon recognized Muzios musical talent and arranged for private instruction with a relative, Antonio Baroni. At the age of seven Clementi began studies in figured bass with the organist Cordicelli, a few years later, probably when he was 11 or 12, he was given counterpoint lessons by Gaetano Carpani. By the age of 13 Clementi had already composed an oratorio, Martirio de gloriosi santi Giuliano e Celso, when he was 14, in January 1766, he became organist of the parish church of San Lorenzo in Dámaso. In 1766 Sir Peter Beckford, a wealthy Englishman and cousin of William Beckford, twice Lord Mayor of London, visited Rome. He was impressed by the young Clementis musical talent and negotiated with his father to him to his estate, Steepleton Iwerne, north of Blandford Forum in Dorset. Beckford agreed to provide payments to sponsor the boys musical education until he reached the age of 21. In return, he was expected to provide musical entertainment, for the next seven years Clementi lived, performed, and studied at the estate in Dorset. His only compositions dated to this period are the Sonatas WO13 and 14, Mozart used the opening motif of Clementis B-flat major sonata in his overture for The Magic Flute. It was not unusual for composers to borrow from one another, from 1783, and for the next twenty years, Clementi stayed in England, playing the piano, conducting, and teaching. Several of his students include, Johann Baptist Cramer, Ignaz Moscheles, Therese Jansen Bartolozzi, Ludwig Berger, in 1798, Clementi took over the firm Longman and Broderip at 26 Cheapside, initially with James Longman, who left in 1801
39.
Johann Baptist Cramer
–
Johann Baptist Cramer was an English pianist and composer of German origin. He was the son of Wilhelm Cramer, a famous London violinist and conductor, Cramer was born in Mannheim and was brought to London as a child, where he worked for most of his musical career, lived most of his life, and died. From 1782 to 1784, he studied piano under Muzio Clementi and he enjoyed a worldwide reputation, and was particularly appreciated by Beethoven when he visited Vienna, concertized and competed with him. Both were considered the greatest pianists of their time, Beethoven excelling in interpretative expressiveness and he was the English publisher of Beethovens Piano Concerto No.5 and is credited with giving it its nickname, The Emperor. Cramer was one of the most renowned performers of his day. He met Beethoven in Vienna, initiating a mutually rewarding relationship, after 1800, he was based almost exclusively in England. Following the resoundingly successful example of his former teacher Clementi, he became a successful music publisher in London. His many compositions take second place to his prowess, Beethoven considered him the finest pianist of the day from the standpoint of pure technical perfection. His musical instrument manufacturing and music publishing firm, Cramer & Co. was located at 201 Regent Street) and his business partners were Thomas Frederick Beale and Robert Addison. He ended his involvement in the company at the end of 1833. He wrote a number of sonatas and other pieces for piano and they are still considered standard didactic works for piano students. His music is less dramatic and elegant than Clementis, much less adventurous than Dusseks. It is stylistically conservative but replete with the most advanced, idiomatically pianistic passage-work and he wrote some 200 solo piano sonatas, about 50 sonatas for other instruments with piano accompaniment,9 piano concertos, and chamber music. His brother Franz Cramer was Master of the Kings Musick from 1837 until his death in 1848, sonatas in D major, A major, and G major for piano with violin and violoncello ad
40.
Trill (music)
–
The trill is a musical ornament consisting of a rapid alternation between two adjacent notes, usually a semitone or tone apart, which can be identified with the context of the trill. It is sometimes referred to by the German Triller, the Italian trillo, a cadential trill is a trill associated with a cadence. A trill provides rhythmic interest, melodic interest, and—through dissonance—harmonic interest, sometimes it is expected that the trill will end with a turn, or some other variation. Such variations are marked with a few appoggiaturas following the note that bears the trill indication. In most modern musical notation, a trill is indicated with the letters tr above the trilled note. This has sometimes been followed by a line, and sometimes, in the baroque and early classical periods. In those times the symbol was known as a chevron, the following two notations are equivalent, Both the tr and the wavy line are necessary for clarity when the trill is expected to be applied to more than one note. Also, when attached to a single notehead in one part that corresponds to smaller values in another part. The usual way of executing a trill, known as a trill, is to rapidly alternate between the note indicated and the note directly above it in the given scale. Listen to an example of a short passage ending on a trill, the first time, the passage ends in a trill, and the second, the passage does not. These examples are an approximation of how a trill might be executed, in many cases, the rate of the trill will not remain constant as indicated here, but will start slower and become more rapid. Whether a trill is played in this way or not is largely a matter of taste, the number of alternations between notes can vary according to the length of the note in question. Trills may also be played beginning on the note above the one indicated, additionally, a trill is often ended by playing the note below the one indicated followed by the note itself. In the baroque period, a number of signs indicating specific patterns with which a trill should be begun or ended were used, in the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, Johann Sebastian Bach lists a number of these signs together with the correct way to interpret them. Unless one of these signs is indicated, the details of how to play the trill are up to the performer. Beyond the baroque era, specific signs for ornamentation are very rare, continuing through the time of Mozart, the default expectations for the interpretation of trills continued to be similar to those of the baroque. In music after the time of Mozart, the trill usually begins on the principal note, the trill is frequently found in classical music for all instruments, although it is more easily executed on some than others. For example, while it is easy to produce a trill on the flute
41.
Turn (music)
–
In music, ornaments or embellishments are musical flourishes that are not necessary to carry the overall line of the melody, but serve instead to decorate or ornament that line. Many ornaments are performed as fast notes around a central note, the amount of ornamentation in a piece of music can vary from quite extensive to relatively little or even none. The word agrément is used specifically to indicate the French Baroque style of ornamentation, in the baroque period, it was common for performers to improvise ornamentation on a given melodic line. A singer performing a da capo aria, for instance, would sing the melody relatively unornamented the first time, improvised ornamentation continues to be part of the Irish musical tradition, particularly in sean-nós singing but also throughout the wider tradition as performed by the best players. Ornamentation may also be indicated by the composer, a number of standard ornaments are indicated with standard symbols in music notation, while other ornamentations may be appended to the score in small notes, or simply written out normally. Frequently, a composer will have his or her own vocabulary of ornaments, which will be explained in a preface, much like a code. A grace note is a written in smaller type, with or without a slash through it. In Spain, melodies ornamented upon repetition were called diferencias, and can be traced back to 1538, a trill, also known as a shake, is a rapid alternation between an indicated note and the one above. Sometimes it is expected that the trill will end with a turn, such variations are often marked with a few grace notes following the note that bears the trill indication. The trill is indicated by either a tr or a tr~~, with the ~ representing the length of the trill, in Baroque music, the trill is sometimes indicated with a + sign above or below the note. Play There is also a single tone trill variously called trillo or tremolo in late Renaissance, the mordent is thought of as a rapid alternation between an indicated note, the note above or below, and the indicated note again. This article as a whole addresses an approximate nineteenth-century standard, in the Baroque period, a Mordant was what later came to be called an inverted mordent and what is now often called a lower mordent. In the 19th century, however, the name mordent was generally applied to what is now called the upper mordent. Mordents of all sorts might typically, in some periods, begin with an extra inessential note, the same applies to trills, which in Baroque and Classical times would standardly begin with the added, upper note. A lower inessential note may or may not be raised to make it just one semitone lower than the principal note. A turn is a figure consisting of the note above the one indicated, the note itself, the note below the one indicated. It is marked by a mirrored S-shape lying on its side above the staff, the details of its execution depend partly on the exact placement of the turn mark. The following turns, might be executed like this, Play The exact speed at which the notes of a turn are executed can vary, the question of how a turn is best executed is largely one of context, convention, and taste
42.
Mordent
–
In music, a mordent is an ornament indicating that the note is to be played with a single rapid alternation with the note above or below. Like trills, they can be modified by a small flat. The word ultimately is derived from the Latin mordere, the mordent is thought of as a rapid single alternation between an indicated note, the note above or below and the indicated note again. In the Baroque period, a mordent was a lower mordent, in the 19th century, however, the name mordent was generally applied to what is now called the upper mordent, and the lower mordent became known as an inverted mordent. In other languages the situation is different, for example in German Pralltriller, also note that this ornament in French, and sometimes in German, is spelled mordant. Also, mordents of all sorts might typically, in some periods, begin with an extra unessential note, the same applies to trills, which in Baroque and Classical times would typically begin with the added, upper note. Practice, notation, and nomenclature vary widely for all of these ornaments, the slide can be written using a symbol similar to that of the mordent, but placed to the left of the principal note, rather than above it
43.
Figured bass
–
Basso continuo parts, almost universal in the Baroque era, provided the harmonic structure of the music. The phrase is shortened to continuo, and the instrumentalists playing the continuo part are called the continuo group. The titles of many Baroque works make mention of the section, such as J. S. Bachs Concerto for Two Violins, Strings. The makeup of the group is often left to the discretion of the performers. At least one instrument capable of playing chords must be included, such as a harpsichord, organ, lute, theorbo, guitar, regal, or harp. In addition, any number of instruments play in the bass register may be included, such as cello, double bass, bass viol. The most common combination, at least in modern performances, is harpsichord and cello for instrumental works and secular works, such as operas. Harps, lutes, and other instruments are more typical of early 17th-century music. The keyboard player realizes a continuo part by playing, in addition to the bass line, notes above it to complete chords. The figured bass notation, described below, is a guide, but performers are expected to use their musical judgment. Experienced players sometimes incorporate motives found in the instrumental parts into their improvised chordal accompaniment. Modern editions of music usually supply a realized keyboard part, fully written out in staff notation for a player. With the rise in historically informed performance, however, the number of performers who are able to improvise their parts from the figures, as Baroque players would have done, has increased. Basso continuo, though a structural and identifying element of the Baroque period, continued to be used in many works, mostly sacred choral works. An example is C. P. E. Bachs Concerto in D minor for flute, strings and basso continuo. Examples of its use in the 19th century are rarer, but they do exist, masses by Anton Bruckner, Beethoven, the phrase tasto solo indicates that only the bass line is to be played for a short period, usually until the next figure is encountered. This instructs the chord-playing instrumentalist not to play any improvised chords for a period, composers were inconsistent in the usages described below. Especially in the 17th century, the numbers were omitted whenever the composer thought the chord was obvious, early composers such as Claudio Monteverdi often specified the octave by the use of compound intervals such as 10,11, and 15
44.
Counterpoint
–
In music, counterpoint is the relationship between voices that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and contour. It has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition, strongly developing during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, the term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum meaning point against point. Counterpoint generally involves musical lines with strongly independent identities, Counterpoint has been used to designate a voice or even an entire composition. In each era, contrapuntally organized music writing has been subject to rules—sometimes strict ones, chords are the simultaneous soundings of notes, whereas harmonic, vertical features are considered secondary and almost incidental when counterpoint is the predominant textural element. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the produced by that interaction. In the words of John Rahn, It is hard to write a beautiful song and it is harder to write several individually beautiful songs that, when sung simultaneously, sound as a more beautiful polyphonic whole. The way that is accomplished in detail is, some examples of related compositional techniques include, the round, the canon, and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention, the fugue. All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint, Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a strict counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to free counterpoint according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a concept in his Scintille di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, a succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fuxs seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules. The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part, if the final is approached from below, then the leading tone must be raised in a minor key, but not in Phrygian or Hypophrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C♯ is necessary at the cadence, permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. The ascending minor sixth must be followed by motion downwards. The three notes should be from the triad, if this is impossible, they should not outline more than one octave. In general, do not write more than two skips in the same direction, if writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in the other direction. The interval of a tritone in three notes should be avoided as is the interval of a seventh in three notes, there must be a climax or high point in the line countering the cantus firmus. This usually occurs somewhere in the middle of exercise and must occur on a strong beat, an outlining of a seventh is avoided within a single line moving in the same direction
Baynes, T.S., ed. (1878), "Karl Philipp Emmanuel Bach", Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 196
Baynes, T.S., ed. (1878), "
