1.
Cedar Rapids
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Cedar Rapids /ˈsiːdər ˈræpᵻdz/ is the second largest city in Iowa and is the county seat of Linn County. The city lies on both banks of the Cedar River,20 miles north of Iowa City and 100 miles northeast of Des Moines and it is a part of the Cedar Rapids/Iowa City Corridor of Linn, Benton, Cedar, Jones, Johnson, and Washington counties. Cedar Rapids is a hub of the state, located in the core of the Interstate 380. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city population was 126,326, the estimated population of the three-county Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes the nearby cities of Marion and Hiawatha, was 255,452 in 2008. In the 1990s and 2000s, Hollywood would feature several Cedar Rapidians including actors Bobby Driscoll, Ashton Kutcher, Elijah Wood, the city is also the setting for the musical The Pajama Game and the comedy film Cedar Rapids. Cedar Rapids is nicknamed the City of Five Seasons, for the fifth season, the symbol of the five seasons is the Tree of Five Seasons sculpture in downtown along the north river bank. The name Five Seasons and representations of the sculpture throughout the city in many forms. The location of present-day Cedar Rapids was in the territory of the Fox, the first permanent settler, Osgood Shepherd, arrived in 1838. When Cedar Rapids was first established in 1838, William Stone named the town Columbus, in 1841 it was resurveyed and renamed by N. B. They named the town Cedar Rapids for the rapids in the Cedar River at the site, Cedar Rapids was incorporated on January 15,1849. Cedar Rapids annexed the community of Kingston in 1870, the economic growth of Cedar Rapids increased in 1871 upon the founding of the Sinclair meatpacking company. In 2010, the Census Bureau reported Cedar Rapids population as 87. 98% white, and 5. 58% black. During the Iowa flood of 2008, the Cedar River reached a high of 31.12 feet on June 13,2008. 1,126 city blocks were flooded, or more than 10 square miles,561 city blocks were severely damaged and this is 14% of the citys total area. It is estimated 1300 or more properties are to be demolished in the Cedar Rapids area because of the flood, more than 4000 members of the Iowa National Guard were called up to assist the city. The temporary levies became saturated not only with the flood waters, the inundation of southern Minnesota, central and western Wisconsin, and northeastern Iowa by Hurricane Paines remnants began on September 21 and 22 and continued until the end of September 2016. This cresting in Cedar Rapids was below the estimate of 25 feet and the revised estimate of 23 feet. This flood was above levels considered to have about a 1 percent chance of occurring in a given year
2.
Iowa
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Iowa is a U. S. state in the Midwestern United States, bordered by the Mississippi River on the east and the Missouri River and the Big Sioux River on the west. Surrounding states include Wisconsin and Illinois to the east, Missouri to the south, Nebraska and South Dakota to the west, in colonial times, Iowa was a part of French Louisiana and Spanish Louisiana, its state flag is patterned after the flag of France. After the Louisiana Purchase, people laid the foundation for an economy in the heart of the Corn Belt. Iowa is the 26th most extensive in area and the 30th most populous of the 50 United States. Its capital and largest city by population is Des Moines, Iowa has been listed as one of the safest states in which to live. Its nickname is the Hawkeye State, Iowa derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many Native American tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa is bordered by the Mississippi River on the east, the Missouri River and the Big Sioux River on the west, Iowa is the only state whose east and west borders are formed entirely by rivers. Iowa has 99 counties, but 100 county seats because Lee County has two, the state capital, Des Moines, is in Polk County. Iowas bedrock geology generally increases in age from west to east, in northwest Iowa, Cretaceous bedrock can be 74 million years old, in eastern Iowa Cambrian bedrock dates to c.500 million years ago. Iowa is generally not flat, most of the consists of rolling hills. Iowa can be divided into eight landforms based on glaciation, soils, topography, Loess hills lie along the western border of the state, some of which are several hundred feet thick. Northeast Iowa along the Mississippi River is part of the Driftless Zone, consisting of steep hills, several natural lakes exist, most notably Spirit Lake, West Okoboji Lake, and East Okoboji Lake in northwest Iowa. To the east lies Clear Lake, man-made lakes include Lake Odessa, Saylorville Lake, Lake Red Rock, Coralville Lake, Lake MacBride, and Rathbun Lake. The states northwest area has remnants of the once common wetlands. Iowas natural vegetation is tallgrass prairie and savanna in areas, with dense forest and wetlands in flood plains and protected river valleys. Most of Iowa is used for agriculture, crops cover 60% of the state, grasslands cover 30%, as of 2005 Iowa ranked 49th of U. S. states in public land holdings. Endangered or threatened plants include western prairie fringed orchid, eastern prairie fringed orchid, Meads milkweed, prairie bush clover, the explosion in the number of high-density livestock facilities in Iowa has led to increased rural water contamination and a decline in air quality. Iowa has a continental climate throughout the state
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
5.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
6.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
7.
Photographer
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A photographer is a person who makes photographs. As in other arts, the definitions of amateur and professional are not entirely categorical, a professional photographer is likely to take photographs to make money, by salary or through the display, sale or use of those photographs. An amateur photographer may take photographs for pleasure and to record an event, emotion, place, as a person without a monetary motivation. A professional photographer may be an employee, for example of a newspaper, or may contract to cover a planned event such as a wedding or graduation. Others, including paparazzi and fine art photographers, are freelancers, first making a picture, some workers, such as crime scene detectives, estate agents, journalists and scientists, make photographs as part of other work. Photographers who produce moving rather than still pictures are often called cinematographers, videographers or camera operators, an amateur may make considerable sums entering work in contests for prize money or through occasional inclusion of their work in magazines or the archive of a photo agency. The term professional may also imply preparation, for example, by academic study, Photographers are also categorized based on the subjects they photograph. Some photographers explore subjects typical of such as landscape, still life. The exclusive right of photographers to copy and use their products is protected by copyright, countless industries purchase photographs for use in publications and on products. This is usually referred to as usage fee and is used to distinguish from production fees, an additional contract and royalty would apply for each additional use of the photograph. The contract may be for one year, or other duration. The photographer usually charges a royalty as well as a one-time fee, the contract may be for non-exclusive use of the photograph or for exclusive use of the photograph. The contract can also stipulate that the photographer is entitled to audit the company for determination of royalty payments. A royalty is also based on the size at which the photo will be used in a magazine or book. Photos taken by a photographer working on assignment are often work for hire belonging to the company or publication unless stipulated otherwise by contract. There are major companies who have maintained catalogues of stock photography and images for decades, such as Getty Images, commercial photographers may also promote their work to advertising and editorial art buyers via printed and online marketing vehicles. Many people upload their photographs to social networking websites and other websites and those interested in legal precision may explicitly release them to the public domain or under a free content license. Some sites, including Wikimedia Commons, are punctilious about licenses, the dictionary definition of photographer at Wiktionary Media related to Photographers at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Fania Marinoff
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Fania Marinoff was a Russian-born American actress. She played supporting and lead roles in dozens of Broadway plays between 1903 and 1937, and eight U. S. silent movies between 1914 and 1917, born in Odessa, Russian Empire, she was the youngest of 13 siblings. She came to the United States as a child with her elder brother Louis. She married Carl Van Vechten in 1914 and they had met two years earlier, and their marriage lasted over 50 years, despite rumors of Van Vechtens homosexuality. She died in 1971 in Englewood, New Jersey from pneumonia
9.
Fine-art photography
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Fine art photography is photography created in accordance with the vision of the artist as photographer. Here is a list of definitions of the related terms art photography, artistic photography, Fine art photography, A picture that is produced for sale or display rather than one that is produced in response to a commercial commission. Fine art photography, The production of images to fulfill the vision of a photographer. Artistic photography, A frequently used but somewhat vague term, the idea underlying it is that the producer of a given picture has aimed at something more than a merely realistic rendering of the subject, and has attempted to convey a personal impression. Fine art photography, Also called decor photography, or photo decor and that can be used as wall art. Among the definitions that can be found in scholarly articles are, In 1961, Dr S. D. Jouhar founded the Photographic Fine Art Association, and he was its Chairman. Their definition of Fine Art was “Creating images that evoke emotion by a process in which ones mind. A1986 ethnographic and historical study by Schwartz did not directly define fine art photography, historically, has sometimes been applied to any photography whose intention is aesthetic, as distinguished from scientific, commercial, or journalistic, for this meaning, use photography. One photography historian claimed that the earliest exponent of Fine Art or composition photography was John Edwin Mayall, successful attempts to make fine art photography can be traced to Victorian era practitioners such as Julia Margaret Cameron, Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, and Oscar Gustave Rejlander and others. In the U. S. F. Holland Day, Alfred Stieglitz and Edward Steichen were instrumental in making photography a fine art, in the UK as recently as 1960, photography was not really recognised as a Fine Art. Dr S. D. Jouhar said, when he formed the Photographic Fine Art Association at that time - At the moment photography is not generally recognized as anything more than a craft, in the USA photography has been openly accepted as Fine Art in certain official quarters. It is shown in galleries and exhibitions as an Art, there is not corresponding recognition in this country. The London Salon shows pictorial photography, but it is not generally understood as an art, whether a work shows aesthetic qualities or not it is designated Pictorial Photography which is a very ambiguous term. Breakthrough star artists in the 1970s and 80s, such as Sally Mann, Robert Mapplethorpe, Robert Farber, others investigated a snapshot aesthetic approach. American organizations, such as the Aperture Foundation and the Museum of Modern Art, have much to keep photography at the forefront of the fine arts. Until the mid-1950s it was considered vulgar and pretentious to frame a photograph for a gallery exhibition. Prints were usually simply pasted onto blockboard or plywood, or given a white border in the darkroom, prints were thus shown without any glass reflections obscuring them. Steichens famous The Family of Man exhibition was unframed, the pictures pasted to panels, even as late as 1966 Bill Brandts MoMA show was unframed, with simple prints pasted to thin plywood
10.
Harlem Renaissance
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The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem, New York, spanning the 1920s. During the time, it was known as the New Negro Movement, the Harlem Renaissance was considered to be a rebirth of African-American arts. The Harlem Renaissance is generally considered to have spanned from about 1918 until the mid-1930s, many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this flowering of Negro literature, as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, until the end of the Civil War, the majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the South. During the Reconstruction Era, the emancipated African Americans, freedmen, began to strive for civic participation, political equality and economic, soon after the end of the Civil War the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 gave rise to speeches by African-American Congressmen addressing this Bill. By 1875 sixteen blacks had been elected and served in Congress, the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 was denounced by black Congressmen and resulted in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, part of Reconstruction legislation by Republicans. By the late 1870s, Democratic whites managed to power in the South. From 1890 to 1908 they proceeded to pass legislation that disenfranchised most Negros and many poor whites and they established white supremacist regimes of Jim Crow segregation in the South and one-party block voting behind southern Democrats. Convict laborers were typically subject to forms of corporal punishment, overwork. While a small number of blacks were able to land shortly after the Civil War. As life in the South became increasingly difficult, African Americans began to migrate north in great numbers, most of the African-American literary movement arose from a generation that had memories of the gains and losses of Reconstruction after the Civil War. Sometimes their parents or grandparents had been slaves and their ancestors had sometimes benefited by paternal investment in cultural capital, including better-than-average education. Many in the Harlem Renaissance were part of the early 20th century Great Migration out of the South into the Negro neighborhoods of the North, African Americans sought a better standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. Others were people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the Caribbean who came to the United States hoping for a better life, uniting most of them was their convergence in Harlem. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by the middle class. Harlem became an African-American neighborhood in the early 1900s, in 1910, a large block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African-American realtors and a church group. Many more African Americans arrived during the First World War, due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Great Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often by more recent ethnic immigrants, continued to affect African-American communities, even in the North
11.
Gertrude Stein
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Gertrude Stein was an American novelist, poet, playwright, and art collector. Born in the Allegheny West neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and raised in Oakland, California, Stein moved to Paris in 1903, in 1933, Stein published a quasi-memoir of her Paris years, The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, written in the voice of her partner, Alice B. Toklas, an American-born member of the Parisian avant-garde, the book became a literary bestseller and vaulted Stein from the relative obscurity of the cult-literature scene into the limelight of mainstream attention. Her books include Q. E. D. about a romantic affair involving several of Steins female friends, Fernhurst, a fictional story about a romantic affair, Three Lives. In Tender Buttons, Stein commented on lesbian sexuality and her activities during World War II have been the subject of analysis and commentary. After the war ended, Stein expressed admiration for another Nazi collaborator, some have argued that certain accounts of Steins wartime activities have amounted to a witch hunt. Stein, the youngest of a family of five children, was born on February 3,1874, in Allegheny, Pennsylvania to upper-middle-class Jewish parents, Daniel and her father was a wealthy businessman with real estate holdings. German and English were spoken in their home, when Stein was three years old, she and her family moved to Vienna, and then Paris. Accompanied by governesses and tutors, the Steins endeavored to imbue their children with the sensibilities of European history. Stein attended First Hebrew Congregation of Oaklands Sabbath school, during their residence in Oakland, they lived for four years on a ten-acre lot, and Stein built many memories of California there. She would often go on excursions with her brother, Leo, Stein found formal schooling in Oakland unstimulating, but she read often, Shakespeare, Wordsworth, Scott, Burns, Smollett, Fielding, and more. When Stein was 14 years old, her mother died, Three years later, her father died as well. Steins eldest brother, Michael Stein, then took over the family holdings and in 1892 arranged for Gertrude and another sister, Bertha. Here she lived with her uncle David Bachrach, who in 1877 had married Gertrudes maternal aunt, in Baltimore, Stein met Claribel and Etta Cone, who held Saturday evening salons that she would later emulate in Paris. The Cones shared an appreciation for art and conversation about it, Stein attended Radcliffe College, then an annex of Harvard University, from 1893 to 1897 and was a student of psychologist William James. In 1934, behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner interpreted Steins difficult poem Tender Buttons as an example of normal motor automatism. In a letter Stein wrote during the 1930s, she explained that she never accepted the theory of writing, here can be automatic movements
12.
Cedar Rapids, Iowa
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Cedar Rapids /ˈsiːdər ˈræpᵻdz/ is the second largest city in Iowa and is the county seat of Linn County. The city lies on both banks of the Cedar River,20 miles north of Iowa City and 100 miles northeast of Des Moines and it is a part of the Cedar Rapids/Iowa City Corridor of Linn, Benton, Cedar, Jones, Johnson, and Washington counties. Cedar Rapids is a hub of the state, located in the core of the Interstate 380. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city population was 126,326, the estimated population of the three-county Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes the nearby cities of Marion and Hiawatha, was 255,452 in 2008. In the 1990s and 2000s, Hollywood would feature several Cedar Rapidians including actors Bobby Driscoll, Ashton Kutcher, Elijah Wood, the city is also the setting for the musical The Pajama Game and the comedy film Cedar Rapids. Cedar Rapids is nicknamed the City of Five Seasons, for the fifth season, the symbol of the five seasons is the Tree of Five Seasons sculpture in downtown along the north river bank. The name Five Seasons and representations of the sculpture throughout the city in many forms. The location of present-day Cedar Rapids was in the territory of the Fox, the first permanent settler, Osgood Shepherd, arrived in 1838. When Cedar Rapids was first established in 1838, William Stone named the town Columbus, in 1841 it was resurveyed and renamed by N. B. They named the town Cedar Rapids for the rapids in the Cedar River at the site, Cedar Rapids was incorporated on January 15,1849. Cedar Rapids annexed the community of Kingston in 1870, the economic growth of Cedar Rapids increased in 1871 upon the founding of the Sinclair meatpacking company. In 2010, the Census Bureau reported Cedar Rapids population as 87. 98% white, and 5. 58% black. During the Iowa flood of 2008, the Cedar River reached a high of 31.12 feet on June 13,2008. 1,126 city blocks were flooded, or more than 10 square miles,561 city blocks were severely damaged and this is 14% of the citys total area. It is estimated 1300 or more properties are to be demolished in the Cedar Rapids area because of the flood, more than 4000 members of the Iowa National Guard were called up to assist the city. The temporary levies became saturated not only with the flood waters, the inundation of southern Minnesota, central and western Wisconsin, and northeastern Iowa by Hurricane Paines remnants began on September 21 and 22 and continued until the end of September 2016. This cresting in Cedar Rapids was below the estimate of 25 feet and the revised estimate of 23 feet. This flood was above levels considered to have about a 1 percent chance of occurring in a given year
13.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
14.
Opera
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Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below
15.
Modern dance
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Modern dance is a broad genre of western concert or theatrical dance, primarily arising out of Germany and the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Modern dance is considered to have emerged as a rejection of. Socioeconomic and cultural factors contributed to its development. In the late 19th century, dance artists such as Isadora Duncan, Maud Allan, moving into the 1960s, new ideas about dance began to emerge, as a response to earlier dance forms and to social changes. Eventually, postmodern dance artists would reject the formalism of modern dance, and include such as performance art, contact improvisation, release technique. American modern dance can be divided into three periods or eras, Modern dance has evolved with each subsequent generation of participating artists. Artistic content has morphed and shifted from one choreographer to another, artists such as Graham and Horton developed techniques in the Central Modern Period that are still taught worldwide, and numerous other types of modern dance exist today. In America, increasing industrialization, the rise of a class, and the decline of Victorian social strictures led to, among other changes. It was in this atmosphere that a new dance was emerging as much from a rejection of social structures as from a dissatisfaction with ballet, womens colleges began offering aesthetic dance courses by the end of the 1880s. Emil Rath, who wrote at length about this emerging artform at the stated, Music and rhythmic bodily movement are twin sisters of art. 1877, Isadora Duncan was a predecessor of modern dance with her stress on the center or torso, bare feet, loose hair, free-flowing costumes, and incorporation of humor into emotional expression. She was inspired by classical Greek arts, folk dances, social dances, nature, natural forces, and new American athleticism such as skipping, running, jumping, leaping and she thought that ballet was ugly and meaningless gymnastics. Although she returned to the United States at various points in her life and she returned to Europe and died in Nice in 1927. 1891, Loie Fuller began experimenting with the effect that gas lighting had on her silk costumes, Fuller developed a form of natural movement and improvisation techniques that were used in conjunction with her revolutionary lighting equipment and translucent silk costumes. She patented her apparatus and methods of lighting that included the use of coloured gels and burning chemicals for luminescence. 1905, Ruth St. Denis, influenced by the actress Sarah Bernhardt and Japanese dancer Sada Yacco, developed her translations of Indian culture and her performances quickly became popular and she toured extensively while researching Oriental culture and arts. Other pioneers included Kurt Jooss and Harald Kreutzberg, an accomplished choreographer, she was a founding artist of the first American Dance Festival in Bennington. Holm choreographed extensively in the fields of dance and musical theater
16.
Isadora Duncan
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Angela Isadora Duncan was an American dancer who performed to acclaim throughout Europe. Isadora Duncan was born in San Francisco, the youngest of the four children of Joseph Charles Duncan, a banker, mining engineer and connoisseur of the arts and her brothers were Augustin Duncan and Raymond Duncan, her sister, Elizabeth Duncan, was also a dancer. Soon after Isadoras birth, her father was exposed in illegal dealings. Her parents divorced when she was an infant, and her mother moved with her family to Oakland and she worked there as a seamstress and piano teacher. From ages six to ten Duncan attended school but, finding it constricting she dropped out, as her family was very poor, she and her three siblings earned money by teaching dance to local children. In 1896 Duncan became part of Augustin Dalys theater company in New York and her father, along with his third wife and their daughter, died in 1898 when the British passenger steamer SS Mohegan hit some rocks off the coast of Cornwall. Duncan began her career at a very early age by giving lessons in her home to other neighborhood children. Her novel approach to dance was evident in these classes, in which she followed fantasy and improvised. A desire to travel brought her to Chicago where she auditioned for theater companies. This took her to New York City where her unique vision of dance clashed with the popular pantomimes of theater companies, in New York Duncan took some classes with Marie Bonfanti but was quickly disappointed in ballet routine. Feeling unhappy and unappreciated in America, Duncan moved to London in 1898, there she performed in the drawing rooms of the wealthy, drawing inspiration from the Greek vases and bas-reliefs in the British Museum. The earnings from these engagements enabled her to rent a studio where she developed her work, from London, she traveled to Paris, where she drew inspiration from the Louvre and the Exposition Universelle of 1900. In 1902, Loie Fuller invited Duncan to tour with her and this took Duncan all over Europe as she created new works using her innovative technique, which emphasized natural movement over the rigid technique of ballet. She spent most of the rest of her life touring Europe, to achieve her mission, she opened schools to teach young women her dance philosophy. The first was established in 1904 in Berlin-Grunewald, Germany and this institution was the birthplace of the Isadorables – Anna, Maria-Theresa, Irma, Liesel, Gretel, and Erika. – Duncans protégées, who would go on to continue her legacy, Duncan legally adopted all six Isadorables in 1919, and they took the Duncan last name. Later, Duncan established a school in Paris that was closed due to the outbreak of World War I. In 1910, Duncan met the occultist Aleister Crowley at a party where he refers to Duncan under the name Lavinia King, Crowley wrote of Duncan, Isadora Duncan has this gift of gesture in a very high degree
17.
Anna Pavlova
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Anna Pavlovna Pavlova was a Russian prima ballerina of the late 19th and the early 20th centuries. She was a principal artist of the Imperial Russian Ballet and the Ballets Russes of Sergei Diaghilev, Pavlova is most recognized for the creation of the role The Dying Swan and, with her own company, became the first ballerina to tour ballet around the world. Anna Pavlovna Pavlova was born on February 12,1881 in Ligovo, Saint Petersburg and her mother, Lyubov Feodorovna, was a laundress. When she was three years old her mother married Matvey Pavlov, who adopted her and gave her his surname. Pavlovas passion for the art of ballet was ignited when her mother took her to a performance of Marius Petipas original production of The Sleeping Beauty at the Imperial Maryinsky Theater, the lavish spectacle made an impression on Pavlova. When she was nine, her mother took her to audition for the renowned Imperial Ballet School, because of her youth, and what was considered her sickly appearance, she was rejected, but at age 10 in 1891 she was accepted. She appeared for the first time on stage in Marius Petipas Un conte de fées, young Pavlovas years of training were difficult. Classical ballet did not come easily to her and her severely arched feet, thin ankles, and long limbs clashed with the small, compact body favoured for the ballerina of the time. Her fellow students taunted her with such nicknames as The broom, undeterred, Pavlova trained to improve her technique. She would practice and practice after learning a step, in 1898, she entered the classe de perfection of Ekaterina Vazem, former Prima ballerina of the Saint Petersburg Imperial Theatres. During her final year at the Imperial Ballet School, she performed roles with the principal company. She graduated in 1899 at age 18, chosen to enter the Imperial Ballet a rank ahead of corps de ballet as a coryphée and she made her official début at the Mariinsky Theatre in Pavel Gerdts Les Dryades prétendues. Her performance drew praise from the critics, particularly the great critic, such a style in many ways harked back to the time of the romantic ballet and the great ballerinas of old. Pavlova performed in various variations, pas de deux and pas de trois in such ballets as La Camargo, Le Roi Candaule, Marcobomba. She tried desperately to imitate the renowned Pierina Legnani, Prima ballerina assoluta of the Imperial Theaters, once during class she attempted Legnanis famous fouettés, causing her teacher Pavel Gerdt to fly into a rage. It is positively more than I can bear to see the pressure such steps put on your delicate muscles, I beg you to never again try to imitate those who are physically stronger than you. You must realize that your daintiness and fragility are your greatest assets and you should always do the kind of dancing which brings out your own rare qualities instead of trying to win praise by mere acrobatic tricks. Pavlova rose through the ranks quickly, becoming a favorite of the old maestro Petipa and it was from Petipa himself that Pavlova learned the title role in Paquita, Princess Aspicia in The Pharaohs Daughter, Queen Nisia in Le Roi Candaule, and Giselle
18.
Loie Fuller
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Loie Fuller was an American dancer who was a pioneer of both modern dance and theatrical lighting techniques. An early free dance practitioner, Fuller developed her own natural movement, Fuller combined her choreography with silk costumes illuminated by multi-coloured lighting of her own design. Although Fuller became famous in America through works such as the serpentine dance and her warm reception in Paris during a European tour persuaded Fuller to remain in France and continue her work. A regular performer at the Folies Bergère with works such as Fire Dance, an 1896 film of the Serpentine Dance by the pioneering film-makers Auguste and Louis Lumière gives a hint of what her performance was like. Fuller held many patents related to stage lighting including chemical compounds for creating color gel, Fuller was also a member of the Société astronomique de France. Fuller supported other pioneering performers, such as fellow United States-born dancer Isadora Duncan, Fuller helped Duncan ignite her European career in 1902 by sponsoring independent concerts in Vienna and Budapest. Loie Fullers original stage name was Louie, in modern French Louïe is the word for a sense of hearing. When Fuller reached Paris she gained a nickname which was a pun on Louie/Louïe and she was renamed Loïe - this nickname is a corruption of the early or Medieval French Loïe, a precursor to Louïe, which means receptiveness or understanding. She was also referred to by the nickname Lo Lo Fuller, Fuller formed a close friendship with Queen Marie of Romania, their extensive correspondence has been published. With Queen Marie and American businessman Samuel Hill, Fuller helped found the Maryhill Museum of Art in rural Washington State, Fuller occasionally returned to America to stage performances by her students, the Fullerets or Muses, but spent the end of her life in Paris. She died of pneumonia on January 1,1928 in Paris and she was cremated and her ashes are interred in the columbarium at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. Her sister, Mollie Fuller, had a career as an actress. Fullers work has been experiencing a resurgence of professional and public interest, rhonda K. Garelicks 2009 study entitled Electric Salome demonstrates her centrality not only to dance, but also modernist performance. Sally R. Sommer has written extensively about Fullers life and times Marcia and Richard Current published a biography entitled Loie Fuller, and Giovanni Lista compiled a 680-page book of Fuller-inspired art work and texts in Loïe Fuller, Danseuse de la Belle Epoque,1994. Recently, Stéphanie de Giusto directed the movie La Danseuse about the life of Loïe Fuller, with actresses Soko as Loïe, Jody Sperling choreographed Sokos dances for the movie, served as creative consultant and was Sokos dance coach, training her in Fuller technique. The movie was presented at the Cannes Film Festival in 2016, Fuller continues to be an influence on contemporary choreographers. Sperling, who re-imagines Fullers genre from a perspective, has choreographed dozens of works inspired by Fuller and expanded Fullers vocabulary. Sperlings company Time Lapse Dance consists of six dancers all versant in Fuller-style technique, another is Ann Cooper Albright, who collaborated with a lighting designer on a series of works that drew inspiration from Fuller’s original lighting design patents
19.
Richmond, Virginia
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Richmond is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. It is the center of the Richmond Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Greater Richmond Region and it was incorporated in 1742, and has been an independent city since 1871. As of the 2010 census, the population was 204,214, in 2015, the population was estimated to be 220,289, the Richmond Metropolitan Area has a population of 1,260,029, the third-most populous metro in the state. Richmond is located at the line of the James River,44 miles west of Williamsburg,66 miles east of Charlottesville. Surrounded by Henrico and Chesterfield counties, the city is located at the intersections of Interstate 95 and Interstate 64, Major suburbs include Midlothian to the southwest, Glen Allen to the north and west, Short Pump to the west and Mechanicsville to the northeast. The site of Richmond had been an important village of the Powhatan Confederacy, and was settled by English colonists from Jamestown in 1609. The present city of Richmond was founded in 1737 and it became the capital of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780. During the American Civil War, Richmond served as the capital of the Confederate States of America, the city entered the 20th century with one of the worlds first successful electric streetcar systems. The Jackson Ward neighborhood is a hub of African-American commerce. Richmonds economy is driven by law, finance, and government, with federal, state. Dominion Resources and MeadWestvaco, Fortune 500 companies, are headquartered in the city, in 1737, planter William Byrd II commissioned Major William Mayo to lay out the original town grid. The settlement was laid out in April 1737, and was incorporated as a town in 1742, Richmond recovered quickly from the war, and by 1782 was once again a thriving city. A permanent home for the new government, the Virginia State Capitol building, was designed by Thomas Jefferson with the assistance of Charles-Louis Clérisseau, after the American Revolutionary War, Richmond emerged as an important industrial center. The legacy of the canal boatmen is represented by the figure in the center of the city flag, on April 17,1861, five days after the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, the legislature voted to secede from the United States and joined the Confederacy. Official action came in May, after the Confederacy promised to move its capital to Richmond. It became the target of Union armies, especially in the campaigns of 1862. The Seven Days Battles followed in late June and early July 1862, during which Union General McClellan threatened to take Richmond, three years later, as March 1865 ended, the Confederate capitol became indefensible. On March 25, Confederate General John B, gordons desperate attack on Fort Stedman east of Petersburg failed
20.
Philadelphia Museum of Art
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The Philadelphia Museum of Art is an art museum originally chartered in 1876 for the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. The main museum building was completed in 1928 on Fairmount, a located at the northwest end of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway at Eakins Oval. The museum administers collections containing over 240,000 objects including major holdings of European, American and Asian origin, the various classes of artwork include sculpture, paintings, prints, drawings, photographs, armor and decorative arts. The attendance figure for the museum was 751,797 in 2015, the museum is also one of the largest art museums in the world based on gallery space. The museum also administers the historic houses of Mount Pleasant and Cedar Grove. The museum and its annexes are owned by the City of Philadelphia, as of 2017, the standard adult admission price is $20 which allows entrance to the main building and all annexes for two consecutive days. The museum is closed on Mondays except on some holidays, several special exhibitions are held in the museum every year, including touring exhibitions arranged with other museums in the United States and abroad. Special exhibitions may have a charge for entrance. Philadelphia celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence with the 1876 Centennial Exposition and its art building, Memorial Hall, was intended to outlast the Exhibition and house a permanent museum. The Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art opened on May 10,1877 and its permanent collection began with objects from the Exhibition and gifts from the public impressed with the Exhibitions ideals of good design and craftsmanship. European and Japanese fine and decorative art objects and books for the Museums library were among the first donations, the location outside of Center City, however, was fairly distant from many of the citys inhabitants. Admission was charged until 1881, then was dropped until 1962, starting in 1882, Clara Jessup Moore donated a remarkable collection of antique furniture, enamels, carved ivory, jewelry, metalwork, glass, ceramics, books, textiles and paintings. The Countess de Brazzas lace collection was acquired in 1894 forming the nucleus of the lace collection, in 1893 Anna H. Wilstach bequeathed a large painting collection, including many American paintings, and an endowment of half a million dollars for additional purchases. Works by James Abbott McNeill Whistler and George Inness were purchased within a few years, in the early 1900s, the Museum started an education program for the general public, as well as a membership program. Fiske Kimball was the director during the rapid growth of the 1920s. After World War II the collections grew with gifts, such as the John D. McIlhenny, early modern art dominated the growth of the collections in the 1950s, with acquisitions of the Louise and Walter Arensberg and the A. E. Gallatin collections. The gift of Philadelphian Grace Kellys wedding dress is perhaps the best known gift of the 1950s, extensive renovation of the building lasted from the 1960s through 1976. Major acquisitions included the Carroll S. Tyson, Jr. and Samuel S. White III and Vera White collections,71 objects from designer Elsa Schiaparelli, in 1976 there were celebrations and special exhibitions for the centennial of the Museum and the bicentennial of the nation
21.
Alfred A. Knopf
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Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. is a New York publishing house that was founded by Alfred A. Knopf Sr. in 1915. The publisher had a reputation for a pursuit of perfection and elegant taste and it was acquired by Random House in 1960 and is now part of the Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. The Knopf publishing house is associated with its borzoi colophon, which was designed by co-founder Blanche Knopf in 1925, Knopf was founded in 1915 by Alfred A. Knopf, Sr. with a $5,000 advance from his father. The first office was located in New Yorks Candler Building, the publishing house was officially incorporated in 1918, with Alfred Knopf as president, Blanche Knopf as vice-president, and Samuel Knopf as treasurer. Blanche and Alfred traveled abroad regularly and were known for publishing European, Asian, william A. Koshland joined the company in 1934, and worked with the firm for more than fifty years, rising to take the positions of President and Chairman of the Board. Blanche became President in 1957 when Alfred became Chairman of the Board, Alfred Knopf retired in 1972, becoming chairman emeritus of the firm until his death in 1984. Alfred Knopf also had a home in Purchase, New York. Beginning in 1920, Knopf also produced a chapbook, for the purpose of promoting new books, the Borzoi was published periodically over the years, the first being a hardback called the Borzoi and sometimes quarterly as the Borzoi Quarterly. In 1923 Knopf also started publishing periodicals, beginning with The American Mercury, founded by H. L. Mencken and George Jean Nathan, following the Good Neighbor policy, Blanche Knopf visited South America in 1942, so the firm could start producing texts from there. She was one of the first publishers to visit Europe after World War II and her trips, and those of other editors, brought in new writers from Europe, South America, and Asia. Alfred traveled to Brazil in 1961, which spurred a corresponding interest on his part in South America and their son, Alfred Pat Jr. was hired on as secretary and trade books manager after the war. In a 1957 advertisement in the Atlantic Monthly, Alfred A. Knopf published the Borzoi Credo, the credo includes a list of what Knopfs beliefs for publishing including the statement that he never published an unworthy book. Among a list of beliefs listed is the final one--I believe that magazines, movies, television, in 1960 Random House acquired Alfred A. Knopf. It is believed that the decision to sell was prompted by Alfred A. Knopf, Jr. leaving Knopf to found his own book company, Atheneum Books in 1959. While there have many notable editors at Knopf there have only been three editors-in-chief-- Alfred A. Knopf, Sr. Robert Gottlieb and Sonny Mehta. Knopf also employed literary scouts to good advantage, at least 17 Nobel Prize and 47 Pulitzer Prize winning authors have been published by Knopf, though they have also passed at times on subsequently notable books. Knopf books conclude with a page titled A Note on the Type. In addition, Knopf books date the year of the current printing on the title page
22.
Paul Robeson
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Paul Leroy Robeson was an American bass singer and actor who became involved with the Civil Rights Movement. He became politically involved in response to the Spanish Civil War, fascism and his advocacy of anti-imperialism, affiliation with communism, and criticism of the United States government caused him to be blacklisted during the McCarthy era. In 1915 Robeson won a scholarship to Rutgers College, where he was twice named a consensus All-American and was the class valedictorian. Almost eighty years later, he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame and he received his LL. B. from Columbia Law School, while playing in the National Football League. At Columbia, he sang and acted in productions, and, after graduating, he became a figure in the Harlem Renaissance with performances in The Emperor Jones. Robeson first appeared outside the US in 1928 in the London premier of Show Boat, Robeson next appeared as Othello in London before becoming an international cinema star during the 1930s through roles in Show Boat and Sanders of the River. He became increasingly attuned to the sufferings of people of other cultures, despite being warned of his economic ruin if he became politically active, he set aside his theatrical career to advocate the cause of the Republican forces of the Spanish Civil War. He then became active in the Council on African Affairs, during World War II, he supported Americas war efforts and won accolades for his portrayal of Othello on Broadway. However, his history of supporting pro-Soviet policies brought scrutiny from the FBI, after the war ended, the CAA was placed on the Attorney Generals List of Subversive Organizations and Robeson was investigated during the age of McCarthyism. Due to his decision not to recant his public advocacy of pro-Soviet policies, he was denied a passport by the U. S. State Department and he moved to Harlem and published a periodical critical of United States policies. His right to travel was restored by the 1958 United States Supreme Court decision, Kent v. Dulles. In the early 1960s he retired and lived the years of his life privately in Philadelphia. Paul Robeson was born in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1898, to Reverend William Drew Robeson and his mother was from a prominent Quaker family of mixed ancestry, African, Anglo-American, and Lenape. Robeson had three brothers, William Drew, Jr. Reeve, and Ben, and one sister, in 1900, a disagreement between William and white financial supporters of Witherspoon arose with apparent racial undertones, which were prevalent in Princeton. William, who had the support of his entirely black congregation, the loss of his position forced him to work menial jobs. Three years later when Robeson was six, his mother, who was nearly blind, William found a stable parsonage at the St. Thomas A. M. E. Zion in 1910, where Robeson would fill in for his father during sermons when he was called away. His athletic dominance elicited racial taunts which he ignored, prior to his graduation, he won a statewide academic contest for a scholarship to Rutgers. He took a job as a waiter in Narragansett Pier, Rhode Island
23.
Langston Hughes
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James Mercer Langston Hughes was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist from Joplin, Missouri. He was one of the earliest innovators of the then-new literary art form called jazz poetry, Hughes is best known as a leader of the Harlem Renaissance in New York City. He famously wrote about the period that the negro was in vogue, like many African Americans, Hughes has complex ancestry. Both of Hughes paternal great-grandmothers were enslaved African Americans and both of his paternal great-grandfathers were white slave owners in Kentucky, according to Hughes, one of these men was Sam Clay, a Scottish-American whiskey distiller of Henry County and supposedly a relative of the statesman Henry Clay. The other was Silas Cushenberry, a Jewish-American slave trader of Clark County, Hughess maternal grandmother Mary Patterson was of African-American, French, English and Native American descent. One of the first women to attend Oberlin College, she married Lewis Sheridan Leary, also of mixed race, Leary subsequently joined John Browns raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859 and died from his wounds. In 1869 the widow Mary Patterson Leary married again, into the elite and her second husband was Charles Henry Langston, of African-American, Euro-American and Native American ancestry. He and his younger brother John Mercer Langston worked for the abolitionist cause, Charles Langston later moved to Kansas, where he was active as an educator and activist for voting and rights for African Americans. Charles and Marys daughter Caroline was the mother of Langston Hughes, Langston Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri, the second child of school teacher Carrie Mercer Langston and James Nathaniel Hughes. Langston Hughes grew up in a series of Midwestern small towns, Hughes father left his family and later divorced Carrie. He traveled to Cuba and then Mexico, seeking to escape the racism in the United States. After his parents separated, his mother traveled seeking employment, and young Langston Hughes was raised mainly in Lawrence, Kansas by his maternal grandmother, Mary Patterson Langston. Through the black American oral tradition and drawing from the activist experiences of her generation and he spent most of his childhood in Lawrence. In his 1940 autobiography The Big Sea he wrote, I was unhappy for a long time, after the death of his grandmother, Hughes went to live with family friends, James and Mary Reed, for two years. Later, Hughes lived again with his mother Carrie in Lincoln and she had remarried when he was still an adolescent, and eventually they moved to Cleveland, Ohio, where he attended high school. His writing experiments began when he was young, while in grammar school in Lincoln, Hughes was elected class poet. He stated that in retrospect he thought it was because of the stereotype about African Americans having rhythm, I was a victim of a stereotype. There were only two of us Negro kids in the class and our English teacher was always stressing the importance of rhythm in poetry
24.
Ethel Waters
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Ethel Waters was an American singer and actress. She frequently performed jazz, big band, and pop music, on the Broadway stage and in concerts and her notable recordings include Dinah, Stormy Weather, Taking a Chance on Love, Heat Wave, Supper Time, Am I Blue. Cabin in the Sky, Im Coming Virginia, and her version of the spiritual His Eye Is on the Sparrow, Waters was the second African American, after Hattie McDaniel, to be nominated for an Academy Award. She was also the first African-American woman to be nominated for an Emmy Award and he played no role in raising Ethel. Soon after she was born, her mother married Norman Howard, Ethel used the surname Howard as a child, before reverting to her fathers name. She was raised in poverty by her grandmother, Sally Anderson, Waters never lived in the same place for more than 15 months. She said of her childhood, I never was a child. I never was cuddled, or liked, or understood by my family, Waters grew tall, standing 5 9½ in her teens. According to the historian and archivist Rosetta Reitz, Waterss birth in the North. Waters married at the age of 13, but her husband was abusive, on her 17th birthday, she attended a costume party at a nightclub on Juniper Street. She was persuaded to sing two songs and impressed the audience so much that she was offered work at the Lincoln Theatre in Baltimore. She later recalled that she earned the rich sum of ten dollars a week, after her start in Baltimore, Waters toured on the black vaudeville circuit. As she described it later, I used to work from nine until unconscious, despite her early success, she fell on hard times and joined a carnival, traveling in freight cars along the carnival circuit and eventually reaching Chicago. She did not last long with them, though, and soon headed south to Atlanta, Smith demanded that Waters not compete in singing blues opposite her. Waters conceded and sang ballads and popular songs, around 1919, Waters moved to Harlem and there became a celebrity performer in the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s. Her first Harlem job was at Edmonds Cellar, a club with a black patronage and she acted in a blackface comedy, Hello 1919. The jazz historian Rosetta Reitz pointed out that by the time Waters returned to Harlem in 1921, in 1921, Waters became the fifth black woman to make a record, for the tiny Cardinal Records. She later joined Black Swan Records, where Fletcher Henderson was her accompanist, Waters later commented that Henderson tended to perform in a more classical style than she preferred, often lacking the damn-it-to-hell bass
25.
Richard Wright (author)
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Richard Nathaniel Wright was an American author of sometimes controversial novels, short stories, poems, and non-fiction. Literary critics believe his work helped change race relations in the United States in the mid-20th century, Richard Nathaniel Wright was born on September 4,1908, at Ruckers Plantation, between the train town of Roxie and the larger river city of Natchez, Mississippi. His autobiography, Black Boy, covers the interval in his life from 1912 until May 1936 and he was the son of Nathan Wright and Ella (b.1884 Mississippi- d. Jan 13,1959 Chicago, Illinois}. His parents were free after the Civil War, both sets of his grandparents had been born into slavery and freed as a result of the war. Richards father left the family when the boy was six years old, in 1916 his mother Ella moved with Richard and his younger brother to live with her sister Maggie and her husband Silas Hoskins in Elaine, Arkansas. This was also in the area of the Mississippi Delta and former cotton plantations, the Wrights were forced to flee after Silas Hoskins disappeared, reportedly killed by a white man who coveted his successful saloon business. After his single-parent mother became incapacitated by a stroke, Richard was separated from his younger brother, at the age of 12, he had not yet had a single complete year of schooling. Soon Richard and his moved to the home of his maternal grandmother in the state capital, Jackson, Mississippi. There he was able to attend school regularly. After a year, at the age of 13 he entered the Jim Hill public school, in his grandparents pious, Seventh-Day Adventist household, Richard felt stifled by his aunt and grandmother, who tried to force him to pray so that he might find God. He later threatened to leave home because his Grandmother Wilson refused to him to work on Saturdays. This early strife with his aunt and grandmother left him with a permanent, at the age of 15, while in eighth grade, Wright published his first story, The Voodoo of Hells Half-Acre, in the local Black newspaper Southern Register. He described the story as about a villain who sought a widows home, after excelling in grade school and junior high, in 1923, Wright earned the position of class valedictorian of Smith Robertson junior high school. He was assigned to write a paper to be delivered at graduation in a public auditorium, Later, he was called to the principals office, where the principal gave him a prepared speech to present in place of his own. Richard challenged the principal, saying. the people are coming to hear the students, the principal threatened him, suggesting that Richard might not be allowed to graduate if he persisted, despite having passed all the examinations. He also tried to entice Richard with an opportunity to become a teacher, determined not to be called an Uncle Tom, Richard refused to deliver the principals address, written to avoid offending the white school district officials. Despite pressure even from his classmates, Richard delivered his speech as he had planned, in September that year, Wright registered for mathematics, English, and history courses at the new Lanier High School, constructed for black students in Jackson. He had to stop attending classes after a few weeks of irregular attendance because he needed to earn money for family expenses, the next year, at the age of 17, Wright moved on his own to Memphis, Tennessee, in November 1925
26.
Zora Neale Hurston
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Zora Neale Hurston was an African-American novelist, short story writer, folklorist, and anthropologist. Of Hurstons four novels and more than 50 published short stories, plays, Hurston was the fifth of eight children of John Hurston and Lucy Ann Hurston, two former slaves. Her father was a Baptist preacher, tenant farmer, and carpenter and she was born in Notasulga, Alabama, on January 7,1891, where her father grew up and her grandfather was the preacher of a Baptist church. When she was three, her moved to Eatonville, Florida, in 1887 it was one of the first all-black towns to be incorporated in the United States. Hurston said she felt that Eatonville was home to her as she grew up there. Her father later was elected as mayor of the town in 1897 and in 1902 became preacher of its largest church, Hurston later used Eatonville as a backdrop in her stories. It was a place where African Americans could live as they desired, in 1901, some northern schoolteachers visited Eatonville and gave Hurston a number of books that opened her mind to literature, she described it as a kind of birth. Hurston spent the remainder of her childhood in Eatonville, and describes the experience of growing up there in her 1928 essay, How It Feels to Be Colored Me. Her father remarried to Matte Moge, this was considered a minor scandal, Hurstons father and stepmother sent her away to a Baptist boarding school in Jacksonville, Florida. They eventually stopped paying her tuition and the school expelled her and she later worked as a maid to the lead singer in a traveling Gilbert & Sullivan theatrical company. In 1917, Hurston began attending Morgan College, the school division of Morgan State University. At this time, apparently to qualify for a free high-school education and she graduated from the high school of Morgan State University in 1918. In 1918, Hurston began her studies at Howard University, where she one of the earliest initiates of Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc. and co-founded The Hilltop. While there, she took courses in Spanish, English, Greek and public speaking, in 1921, she wrote a short story, John Redding Goes to Sea, which qualified her to become a member of Alaine Lockes literary club, The Stylus. Hurston left Howard in 1924 and in 1925 was offered a scholarship by Barnard trustee Annie Nathan Meyer to Barnard College, Columbia University, Hurston received her B. A. in anthropology in 1928, when she was 37. While she was at Barnard, she conducted research with noted anthropologist Franz Boas of Columbia University. She also worked with Ruth Benedict as well as fellow anthropology student Margaret Mead, after graduating from Barnard, Hurston spent two years as a graduate student in anthropology at Columbia University. Living in Harlem in the 1920s, Hurston befriended the likes of Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen and her apartment, according to some accounts, was a popular spot for social gatherings
27.
Wallace Thurman
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Wallace Henry Thurman was an American novelist active during the Harlem Renaissance. He also wrote essays, worked as an editor, and was a publisher of short-lived newspapers and literary journals. He is best known for his novel The Blacker the Berry, A Novel of Negro Life, Thurman was born in Salt Lake City to Beulah and Oscar Thurman. When Thurman was less than an old, his father abandoned his wife. It was not until Wallace was 30 years old that he met his father, between his mothers many marriages, Wallace and his mother lived in Salt Lake City with Emma Jackson, his maternal grandmother. Jackson ran a saloon from her home, selling alcohol without a license, Thurmans early life was marked by loneliness, family instability and illness. He began grade school at age six in Boise, Idaho, from 1910 to 1914, Thurman lived in Chicago. Moving with his mother, he finished school in Omaha. During this time, he suffered from persistent heart attacks, while living in Pasadena, California in the winter of 1918, Thurman caught influenza during the worldwide Influenza Pandemic. He recovered and returned to Salt Lake City, where he finished high school and he enjoyed the works of Plato, Aristotle, Shakespeare, Havelock Ellis, Flaubert, Charles Baudelaire and many others. He wrote his first novel at the age of 10 and he attended the University of Utah from 1919 to 1920 as a pre-medical student. In 1922 he transferred to the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, while in Los Angeles, he met and befriended the writer Arna Bontemps, and became a reporter and columnist for a black-owned newspaper. He started a magazine, Outlet, intended to be a West Coast equivalent to The Crisis, in 1925 Thurman moved to Harlem. During the next decade, he worked as a ghostwriter, a publisher, and editor, as well as writing novels, plays, in 1926, he became the editor of The Messenger, a socialist journal addressed to blacks. There he was the first to publish the stories of Langston Hughes. Thurman left the journal in October 1926 to become the editor of World Tomorrow, the following month, he collaborated in founding the literary magazine Fire. Devoted to the Younger Negro Artists, among its contributors were Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Richard Bruce Nugent, Aaron Douglas, and Gwendolyn B. He was able to only one issue of Fire
28.
Nigger Heaven
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Nigger Heaven is a 1926 novel written by Carl Van Vechten, set during the Harlem Renaissance in the United States in the 1920s. The book and its title have been controversial since its publication, the novel is a portrayal of life in the great black walled city of Harlem. It describes the interactions of intellectuals, political activists, bacchanalian workers, the plot of the novel concerns two people, a quiet librarian and an aspiring writer, who try to keep their love alive as racism denies them every opportunity. This roman à clef became an instant bestseller and served as a pocket guide to Harlem. It also split the black community, as some, e. g. Langston Hughes and Nella Larsen, appreciated it, while others like Countee Cullen. Du Bois, regarded it as an affront to the hospitality of black folks, the book fuelled a period of Harlemania, during which the area of Harlem became en vogue among white people, who then frequented its cabarets, bars, and so on. It is also believed to be the source of the phrase, Van Vechten by the 1920s was a noted music and dance critic in New York. Knopf had already published several of his novels by the time Nigger Heaven was conceived and he first became fascinated with Harlem when he read a book by a young black writer, Walter White. He sought out White, who worked for the NAACP, and White introduced him to many black artists, “This will not be a novel about Negroes in the South or white contacts or lynchings. It will be about NEGROES, as they live now in the new city of Harlem. ”Nigger heaven was a used in the 19th century to refer to church balconies. The short novel begins with a prologue about a violent pimp named Scarlet Creeper, the main part of the book is structured as two novellas. She briefly has a relationship with a writer named Byron Kasson and they have extended conversations on literature, the second novella is Byrons story. He greatly resents the segregated nature of New York, after his relationship with Mary, he takes up with a debauched socialite as they explore the wild-side of Harlem. The socialite dumps him adding to his negative views on the society in which they live. The novel ends with a violent confrontation involving Scarlet and Byron, while Scarlet is at fault, the book, due in part to the inclusion of the pejorative nigger in its title, was met with mixed reception. It was initially banned in Boston, Van Vechtens own father was said to have written his son two letters imploring that he change the title to something less offensive. Van Vechten discussed the title with poet Countee Cullen, who was enraged by it, Van Vechten was not averse to having the controversy serve as publicity, and he knew at least some in Harlem would defend him. The ambivalence about the book, its title, and what it signifies about the author, has continued into the 21st century
29.
Vanity Fair (magazine)
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Vanity Fair is a magazine of popular culture, fashion, and current affairs published by Condé Nast in the United States. The first version of Vanity Fair was published from 1913 to 1936, the imprint was revived in 1983, and came to include four European editions of the magazine. The current editor is Graydon Carter, Condé Montrose Nast began his empire by purchasing the mens fashion magazine Dress in 1913. He renamed the magazine Dress and Vanity Fair and published four issues in 1913 and it continued to thrive into the twenties. However, it became a casualty of the Great Depression and declining advertising revenues, although its circulation, Condé Nast announced in December 1935 that Vanity Fair would be folded into Vogue as of the March 1936 issue. Condé Nast Publications, under the ownership of S. I. Newhouse, the first issue was released in February 1983, edited by Richard Locke, formerly of The New York Times Book Review. After three issues, Locke was replaced by Leo Lerman, veteran features editor of Vogue and he was followed by editors Tina Brown and Graydon Carter. Regular writers columnists have included Dominick Dunne, Sebastian Junger, Michael Wolff, Maureen Orth and Christopher Hitchens. Amongst the most famous of these was the August 1991 Leibovitz cover featuring a naked, pregnant Demi Moore, in addition to its controversial photography, the magazine also prints articles on a variety of topics. In 1996, journalist Marie Brenner wrote an exposé on the tobacco industry titled The Man Who Knew Too Much, the article was later adapted into a movie The Insider, which starred Al Pacino and Russell Crowe. S. The magazine also features interviews with celebrities, including a monthly Proust Questionnaire. The magazine was the subject of Toby Youngs book, How to Lose Friends and Alienate People, about his search for success, from 1995, the book has been made into a movie, with Jeff Bridges playing Carter. There are currently five international editions of Vanity Fair being published, namely in the United Kingdom, Spain, France, Italy, the British Vanity Fair was first published in 1991. The Italian Vanity Fair was established in October 2003 and celebrated its 10th anniversary in 2013, Vanity Fair Germany launched in February 2007 at a cost of €50 million, then the most expensive new magazine in Germany in years and Condé Nasts biggest investment outside the United States. After circulation had plummeted from half a million to less than 200,000 per week, a French version started in June 2013. The Spanish version of the magazine was first published in Spain in 2008, in April 2015 Condé Nast México y Latinoamerica was to launch Vanity Fair Mexico. As a successor to a similar invitation-only event annually held by the late agent Irving Paul Lazar, during its first years, the magazines Oscar party was co-hosted by producer Steve Tisch at Mortons in West Hollywood. At first, editor Graydon Carter kept the invitation list small, between 2009 and 2013, the party was held at Sunset Tower
30.
Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library
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The Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library is the rare book library and literary archive of the Yale University Library in New Haven, Connecticut. Situated on Yale Universitys Hewitt Quadrangle, the building was designed by Gordon Bunshaft of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and completed in 1963. Established by a gift of the Beinecke family and given its own endowment, the outer walls are made of translucent veined marble panels quarried from Danby, Vermont, which transmit subdued lighting from outside, while providing protection from direct sunlight. At night, the stone panels transmit light from the interior, the outside dimensions have Platonic mathematical proportions of 1,2,3. The building has been called a jewel box, and also a laboratory for the humanities. The Modernist structure contains furniture designed by Florence Knoll, a public exhibition hall surrounds the glass stack tower, and displays among other things, one of the 48 extant copies of the Gutenberg Bible. Two basement floors extend under much of Hewitt Quadrangle, the first level down, the Court level, centers on a sunken courtyard in front of the Beinecke, which features The Garden. These are abstract allegorical sculptures by Isamu Noguchi that are said to represent time, sun and this level also features a secure reading room for visiting researchers, administrative offices, and book storage areas. The level of the two floors below ground has movable-aisle compact shelving for books and archives. The Beinecke is one of the largest buildings in the world devoted entirely to rare books, the library has room in the central tower for 180,000 volumes and room for over 600,000 volumes in the underground book stacks. During the 1960s, the Claes Oldenburg sculpture Lipstick on Caterpillar Tracks was displayed in Hewitt Quadrangle, the sculpture has since been moved to the courtyard of Morse College, one of the universitys residential dormitories. The elegance of the Beinecke later inspired the structure that protects. In the late 19th century, rare and valuable books of the Library of Yale College were placed on special shelving at the College Library, when the university received a multimillion-dollar bequest from John W. By 1958, the library owned more than 130,000 rare volumes, the amassed collection proved too large for Sterlings reading room, and the reading room unsuited to their preservation. Shortly afterward, they were joined by the James Marshall and Marie-Louise Osborn Collection, now, the collection spans through to the present day, including such modern works as limited-edition poetry and artists books. The library also contains thousands of feet of archival material, ranging from ancient papyri. The library is open to all Yale University students and faculty, in order to access materials, there are a few forms and policies that users must read. For example, in 2006 the library presented Breaking the Binding, Printing and the Third Dimension, a show of flap books, pop-ups, perspective books, panoramas, and peep-shows in printed form
31.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
32.
Kodachrome
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Kodachrome is a brand name for a non-substantive, color reversal film introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1935. It was one of the first successful color materials and was used for both cinematography and still photography, because of its complex processing requirements, the film was sold process-paid in the United States until 1954 when a legal ruling prohibited this. For many years it was used for color photography, especially for images intended for publication in print media. After announcing the return of Ektachrome at the beginning of 2017, Kodachrome was the first color film that used a subtractive color method to be successfully mass-marketed. Previous materials, such as Autochrome and Dufaycolor, had used the additive screenplate methods, until its discontinuation, Kodachrome was the oldest surviving brand of color film. Kodachrome is appreciated in the archival and professional market for its dark-storage longevity, because of these qualities, it was used by professional photographers such as Steve McCurry, Peter Guttman and Alex Webb. McCurry used Kodachrome for his 1984 portrait of Sharbat Gula, the Afghan Girl and it was used by Walton Sound and Film Services in the UK in 1953 for the official 16 mm film of the coronation of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Copies of the film for sale to the public were also produced using Kodachrome and these had several disadvantages because they used a réseau filter made from discrete color elements that were visible upon enlargement. The finished transparencies absorbed between 70% and 80% of light projection, requiring very bright projection lamps, especially for large projections. Using the subtractive method, these disadvantages could be avoided, the first Kodak product called Kodachrome was invented by John Capstaff in 1913. His Kodachrome was a process that used only two colors, blue-green and red-orange. It required two glass plate negatives, one using a panchromatic emulsion and a red filter, the other made using an emulsion insensitive to red light. The two plates could be exposed as a bipack, which eliminated the need for multiple exposures or a color camera. After development, the images were bleached out with chemistry that hardened the bleached portions of the gelatin. Using dyes which were absorbed only by the gelatin, the negative that recorded the blue and green light was dyed red-orange. The result was a pair of positive dye images, the plates were then assembled emulsion to emulsion, producing a transparency that was capable of surprisingly good color rendition of skin tones in portraits. Capstaffs Kodachrome was made available in 1915. It was also adapted for use as a 35 mm motion picture film process, today, this first version of Kodachrome is nearly forgotten, completely overshadowed by the next Kodak product bearing the name Kodachrome
33.
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
34.
Archives of American Art
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The Archives of American Art is the largest collection of primary resources documenting the history of the visual arts in the United States. More than 20 million items of material are housed in the Archives research centers in Washington, D. C. As a research center within the Smithsonian Institution, the Archives houses materials related to a variety of American visual art, all regions of the country and numerous eras and art movements are represented. Among the significant artists represented in its collection are Jackson Pollock, Lee Krasner, Marcel Breuer, Rockwell Kent, John Singer Sargent, Winslow Homer, John Trumbull, and Alexander Calder. In addition to the papers of artists, the Archives collects documentary material from art galleries, art dealers, the Archives of American Art was founded in Detroit in 1954 by then Director of the Detroit Institute of Art, E. P. Richardson, and art collector Lawrence A. Fleischman, concerned about the lack of material relating to American art, the two organized the Archives of American Art with the support of scholars and businessmen. Their intention was to collect materials related to American artists, art dealers, institutions and writers, in 1970 the Archives became part of the Smithsonian Institution, moving its processing center and storage facility from Detroit to the Old Patent Office Building in Washington, D. C. Currently the collection and offices are located at the Victor Building, on 9th Street NW, every year the Archives honors individual contributions to the American art community with the Archives of American Art Medal and art historians with the Lawrence A. Fleischman Award for Scholarly Excellence in the Field of American Art History and these awards are presented at the Archives annual benefit and have been rewarded to Mark di Suvero, Chuck Close, John Wilmerding and others. C. Boston, Detroit, and at the DeYoung Museum in San Francisco, todays affiliates consist of the DeYoung, Boston Public Library, the Amon Carter Museum and The Huntington Library. The Archives also offers microfilm for interlibrary loan at no charge, microfilm is no longer being produced at the Archives as it has been superseded by digitization. With funding from the Terra Foundation for American Art Digitization Program, the Archives has fully digitized numerous collections, the Archives relies heavily on grants and private donations to fund the archival processing and care of collections. In 2009 the Archives acquired 88 collections totaling 717 linear feet, the Archives holds a unique collection of material from notable artists, dealers, critics and collectors. While papers and documents make up a portion of the Archives. These include a bird nest and a Kewpie doll from the collection of artist Joseph Cornell, painter George Luks death mask, and a cast iron model car that belonged to Franz Kline. The earliest letter in the collection was written by John Smibert in 1743, the Archives maintain over 50 paper collections of African American artists. Subjects covered in these personal papers include the experience, racism within the arts. The collection includes the sketchbooks of Palmer Hayden, Horace Pippins illustrated journal of his service during World War I
35.
Fisk University
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Fisk University is a private historically black university founded in 1866 in Nashville, Tennessee, United States. The 40-acre campus is a district listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1930, Fisk was the first African-American institution to gain accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges, accreditations for specialized programs quickly followed. AMA support meant the organization tried to use its sources across the country to aid education for freedmen, enrollment jumped from 200 to 900 in the first several months of the school, indicating freedmens strong desire for education, with ages of students ranging from seven to seventy. The school was named in honor of General Clinton B, Fisk of the Tennessee Freedmens Bureau, who made unused barracks available to the school, as well as establishing the first free schools for white and black children in Tennessee. In addition, he endowed Fisk with a total of $30,000, the American Missionary Associations work was supported by the United Church of Christ, which retains an affiliation with the university. Fisk opened to classes on January 9,1866, James Dallas Burrus, John Houston Burrus, Virginia E. Walker, and America W. Robinson graduated as well and became a member of the Fisk Jubilee Singers. Walker became a missionary while the Burrus brothers were both prominent educators and, during their careers, professors at Fisk. Cravath organized the College Department and the Mozart Society, the first musical organization in Tennessee, rising enrollment added to the needs of the university. In 1870 Adam Knight Spence became principal of the Fisk Normal School, with a strong interest in religion and the arts, Adam Spence supported the start of a student choir. In 1871 the student choir went on a tour in Europe. They toured to raise funds to build the first building for the education of freedmen and they raised nearly $50,000 and funded construction of the renowned Jubilee Hall, now a designated National Historic Landmark. On April 12,1873, the Jubilee Singers sailed for England where they sang before an audience in the presence of the Queen. During the 1880s Fisk had a building program, as well as expanding its curriculum offerings. By the turn of the 20th century, it added black teachers and staff to the university, from 1915 to 1925, Fayette Avery McKenzie was President of Fisk. McKenzies tenure, before and after World War I, was during a turbulent period in American history, McKenzie was eventually forced to resign when his strict policies on dress code, extracurricular activities and other aspects of student life led to student protests. In 1947 Fisk heralded its first African-American president with the arrival of Charles Spurgeon Johnson, Johnson was a premier sociologist, a scholar who had been the editor of Opportunity magazine, a noted periodical of the Harlem Renaissance. In 1952, Fisk was the first predominantly black college to earn a Phi Beta Kappa charter, organized as the Delta of Tennessee Chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa National Honor Society that December, the chapter inducted its first student members on April 4,1953
36.
Museum of the City of New York
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The Museum of the City of New York is a history and art museum in New York City, New York. It was founded by Henry Collins Brown, in 1923 to preserve and present the history of New York City, the museum is a private non-profit organization which receives government support as a member of New York Citys Cultural Institutions Group, commonly known as CIGs. Its other sources of income are endowments, admission fees, the Museum currently hosts the first-ever museum presentation of New York Citys four-century history in its New York At Its Core permanent exhibition. The museum was located in Gracie Mansion, where available space was limited. One of its first major exhibits was Old New York, presented in the Fine Arts Building on West 57th Street in 1926, the success of the project led to a search for a new, permanent headquarters for the museum. A design competition was held between five invited architects, and the Colonial Revival design by Freedlander was selected, the city donated a site on Fifth Avenue, and funds for construction of the museum building were raised by public subscription. The original plans for the building were scaled back as a result of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, nevertheless. On January 24,1967 the museum building was designated a New York City landmark, in 1982, the Museum received The Hundred Year Association of New Yorks Gold Medal Award in recognition of outstanding contributions to the City of New York. In 2000, the Giuliani administration told the museum that it could relocate to the historic Tweed Courthouse near City Hall in Lower Manhattan, el Museo del Barrio would then have moved across the street to occupy the current Museum of the City of New York building. McDonald was replaced in 2002 by Susan Henshaw Jones, who was at the time the president of the National Building Museum in Washington, D. C. There was also an attempt to merge the museum with the New-York Historical Society, which did not come to fruition, the Museums former director, Susan Henshaw Jones, recommitted MCNY to its East Harlem neighborhood by planning an extension to the Museum. The pavilion gallery, designed by the Polshek Partnership, is 3, 000-square-foot glass addition, the total costs for the first phase of refurbishments came to $28 million. In late 2011, the Museum temporarily took over operation of the South Street Seaport Museum which reopened in January 2012, the museums collection of over 1. There are also dioramas about the history as well as its physical environment. The chair was donated by her Brinckerhoff descendants, the collection also includes still photography by film director Stanley Kubrick. MCNY is also home to several recreations of furnished rooms from the house of John D. Rockefeller, notable as well is a model of New Amsterdam based on the Castello Plan of 1660. From October 2004 through July 2009, Perform was the permanent exhibition in New York City focused on theater in New York. It included objects ranging from Bill Bojangles Robinsons tap shoes to advertising materials from Avenue Q, in June 2007, the museum opened its temporary The Glory Days, 1947–1957 exhibit, an in-depth photographic look at the history of professional baseball in New York City
37.
Brandeis University
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Brandeis University /ˈbrændaɪs/ is an American private research university in Waltham, Massachusetts,9 miles west of Boston. Founded in 1948 as a non-sectarian, coeducational institution sponsored by the Jewish community, the university is named after Louis Brandeis, the first Jewish Justice of the U. S Supreme Court. In 2015, it had an enrollment of 5,532 students on its suburban campus spanning over 235 acres. The institution offers more than 43 majors and 46 minors, the university has a strong liberal arts focus and a quarter of its students come from outside the United States. Brandeis was tied for 34th among national universities in the United States in the U. S. News & World Report rankings, Forbes listed Brandeis as 36th nationally for research and 37th for entrepreneurship. Times ranks it 185th globally while USA Today ranks it among the top 10 in the country for economics, the university is also home to the Heller School, ranked as one of the top 10 policy schools in the United States. Middlesex University was a school located in Waltham, Massachusetts. The founder, Dr. John Hall Smith, died in 1944, Smiths will stipulated that the school should go to any group willing to use it to establish a non-sectarian university. Within two years, Middlesex University was on the brink of financial collapse, ruggles Smith, was desperate for a way to save something of Middlesex University. He learned of a New York committee headed by Dr. Israel Goldstein that was seeking a campus to establish a Jewish-sponsored secular university. Goldstein agreed to accept Smiths offer, proceeding to recruit George Alpert, Alpert had worked his way through Boston University School of Law and co-founded the firm of Alpert and Alpert. Alperts firm had an association with the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. He was influential in Bostons Jewish community and his Judaism tended to be social rather than spiritual. He was involved in assisting children displaced from Germany, Alpert was to be chairman of Brandeis from 1946 to 1954, and a trustee from 1946 until his death. By February 5,1946, Goldstein had recruited Albert Einstein, Einstein believed the university would attract the best young people in all fields, satisfying a real need. In March 1946, Goldstein said the foundation had raised ten-million dollars that it would use to open the school by the following year, the foundation purchased Middlesex Universitys land and buildings for two-million dollars. The charter of this operation was transferred to the Foundation along with the campus, the founding organization was announced in August and named The Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, Inc. The new school would be a Jewish-sponsored secular university open to students and faculty of all races and religions
38.
Rotogravure
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Rotogravure is a type of intaglio printing process, which involves engraving the image onto an image carrier. In gravure printing, the image is engraved onto a cylinder because, like offset printing and flexography, once a staple of newspaper photo features, the rotogravure process is still used for commercial printing of magazines, postcards, and corrugated and other product packaging. In the 19th century, a number of developments in photography allowed the production of printing plates. W H fox Talbot mentions in 1852 the use of a textile in the process to create half-tones in the printing plate. A French patent in 1860 describes a reel-fed gravure press, a collaboration between Klic and Fawcett in Lancaster resulted in the founding of the Rembrandt Intaglio Printing Company in 1895, which company produced art prints. In 1906 they marketed the first multi-colour gravure print, in 1912 Messrs Bruckman in Munich produced proofs for Bavarian postage stamps which went into production in 1914. Also in 1912 newspaper supplements printed by reel-fed gravure were on sale in London, irving Berlins song Easter Parade specifically refers to these type of supplements in the lines the photographers will snap us, and youll find that youre in the rotogravure. And the song Hooray for Hollywood contains the line …armed with photos from local rotos referring to young actresses hoping to make it in the movie industry, Gravure is one of several printing techniques being actively used in the new field of printed electronics. In direct gravure printing, the ink is applied directly to the cylinder, one printing unit consists of the following components, an engraved cylinder whose circumference can differ according to the layout of the product being made. g. The desired pattern is achieved by engraving with a laser or a diamond tool, if the cylinder is chemically etched, a resist is transferred to the cylinder before etching. The resist protects the non-image areas of the cylinder from the etchant, after etching, the resist is stripped off. The operation is analogous to the manufacture of printed circuit boards, following engraving, the cylinder is proofed and tested, reworked if necessary, and then chrome plated. While the press is in operation, the cylinder is partially immersed in the ink tray. As the cylinder rotates, it draws excess ink onto its surface, the position of the blade relative to the nip is normally variable. Next, the substrate gets sandwiched between the roller and the gravure cylinder, this is where the ink gets transferred from the recessed cells to the web. Once in contact with the substrate, the surface tension pulls the ink out of the cell. Then the inked substrate goes through a dryer because it must be dry before going through the next color unit. Gravure is a printing process capable of consistent high quality printing
39.
National Endowment for the Arts
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The National Endowment for the Arts is an independent agency of the United States federal government that offers support and funding for projects exhibiting artistic excellence. It was created by an act of the U. S. Congress in 1965 as an independent agency of the federal government, the NEA had its offices in Washington, D. C. It was awarded Tony Honors for Excellence in Theatre in 1995, in March of 2017, a proposal to eliminate all federal funding for the program was put forward by the Trump administration. The NEA is dedicated to supporting excellence in the arts, both new and established, bringing the arts to all Americans, and providing leadership in arts education. Between 1965 and 2008, the agency has made in excess of 128,000 grants, from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, Congress granted the NEA an annual funding of between $160 and $180 million. In 1996, Congress cut the NEA funding to $99, since 1996, the NEA has partially rebounded with a 2015 budget of $146.21 million. For FY2010, the reached the level it was at during the mid-1990s at $167.5 million. The NEA is governed by a Chairman appointed by the President to a four-year term and this body consists of 14 individuals appointed by the President for their expertise and knowledge in the arts, in addition to six ex officio members of Congress who serve in a non-voting capacity. On June 12,2014, Dr. Jane Chu was confirmed as the 11th Chair of the NEA by the Senate, the NEA offers grants in the categories of, 1) Grants for Arts Projects, 2) National Initiatives, and 3) Partnership Agreements. The NEA also grants individual fellowships in literature to creative writers and translators of exceptional talent in the areas of prose, the NEA has partnerships in the areas of state and regional, federal, international activities, and design. The state arts agencies and regional organizations are the NEAs primary partners in serving the American people through the arts. Forty percent of all NEA funding goes to the state arts agencies, the NEA also manages the National Medal of Arts, awarded annually by the President. The NEA is the largest grantmaker to arts organizations in the nation, artist William Powhida has noted that in one single auction, wealthy collectors bought almost a billion dollars in contemporary art at Christies in New York. He further commented, If you had a 2 percent tax just on the auctions in New York you could double the NEA budget in two nights. Upon entering office in 1981, the incoming Ronald Reagan administration intended to push Congress to abolish the NEA completely over a three-year period, another proposal would have halved the arts endowment budget. In 1989, Donald Wildmon of the American Family Association held a press conference attacking what he called anti-Christian bigotry, in an exhibition by photographer Andres Serrano. The work at the center of the controversy was Piss Christ, republican Senators Jesse Helms and Al DAmato began to rally against the NEA, and expanded the attack to include other artists. Prominent conservative Christian figures including Pat Robertson of the 700 Club, on June 12,1989, The Corcoran cancelled the Mapplethorpe exhibition, saying that it did not want to adversely affect the NEAs congressional appropriations
40.
Smithsonian American Art Museum
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The Smithsonian American Art Museum is a museum in Washington, D. C. Together with its museum, the Renwick Gallery, it holds one of the worlds largest and most inclusive collections of art, from the colonial period to the present. Most exhibitions take place in the main building, the old Patent Office Building. The museum provides electronic resources to schools and the public through its education program, including Artful Connections. Since 1951, the museum has maintained a traveling exhibition program, as of 2013, American Arts main building, the Old Patent Office Building, is a National Historic Landmark and is considered an example of Greek Revival architecture in the United States. It was designed by architects Robert Mills, and Thomas U, during the 1990s, the Smithsonian Institution worked on restoring the building. According to the Smithsonian Institution, Extraordinary effort was made to use new technologies to restore the historic fabric of the building. During the renovation, the Lunder Conservation Center, the Luce Foundation Center for American Art, Nan Tucker McEvoy Auditorium, and the Robert and Arlene Kogod Courtyard were added to the building. The Luce Foundation Center for American Art is an art storage and study center. The Lunder Conservation Center is the first art conservation facility to allow the public permanent behind-the-scenes views of the work of museums. In 2008, the American Alliance of Museums awarded reaccreditation to the Smithsonian American Art Museum, as of 2014, Elizabeth Broun is Director of the museum. American Art has maintained a traveling exhibition program since 1951.5 million visitors, since 2006, thirteen exhibitions have toured to more than 30 cities. American Art provides electronic resources to schools and the public as part of programs such as Artful Connections. Artful Connections gives real-time video conference tours of American Art, numerous researchers and millions of virtual visitors per year use these databases. Also, American Art and Heritage Preservation work together in a joint project, Save Outdoor Sculpture, the museum produces a peer-reviewed periodical, American Art, for new scholarship. Since 1993, American Art has been had an online presence and it has one of the earliest museum websites when, in 1995, it launched its own website. EyeLevel, the first blog at the Smithsonian Institution, was started in 2005 and, as of 2013, the blog has approximately 12,000 readers each month. Part of the Smithsonian Institution, the museum has a variety of American art, with more than 7,000 artists represented
41.
Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon
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Antony Charles Robert Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon, GCVO, RDI, commonly known as Lord Snowdon, was a British photographer and film maker. He was married to Princess Margaret, younger daughter of King George VI, Armstrong-Jones was the only son from the marriage of the barrister Ronald Armstrong-Jones and his first wife Anne Messel. Armstrong-Joness paternal grandfather was Sir Robert Armstrong-Jones, the British psychiatrist and his paternal grandmother was the daughter of Sir Owen Roberts, the Welsh educationalist. A maternal uncle was Oliver Messel and a maternal great-grandfather was the Punch cartoonist Linley Sambourne, armstrong-Joness parents separated when he was young and as a schoolboy he contracted polio while on holiday at their country home in Wales. For the entire six months that he was in Liverpool Royal Infirmary recuperating and he coxed the winning Cambridge boat in the 1950 Boat Race. After university, Armstrong-Jones began a career as a photographer in fashion, design and he later became known for his royal studies, among which were the official portraits of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh for their 1957 tour of Canada. In the early 1960s, Armstrong-Jones became the adviser of The Sunday Times Magazine. His subjects include Barbara Cartland, Laurence Olivier, Anthony Blunt, in 1968 he made his first documentary film Dont Count the Candles, for the US television station CBS, on the subject of aging. It won seven awards including two Emmys and this was followed by Love of a kind, about the British and animals, Born to be small about people of restricted growth and Happy being happy. More than 180 of his photographs were displayed in an exhibition that honoured what the museums called a career with sharp edges. Snowdon was an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society – he was awarded the Hood Medal of the Society in 1978, in 2006, Tomas Maier, creative director of Bottega Veneta, sought Snowdon to photograph his Fall/Winter 2006 campaign. Armstrong-Jones co-designed the aviary of the London Zoo and he also had a major role in designing the physical arrangements for the 1969 investiture of his nephew Prince Charles as Prince of Wales. He was granted a patent for a type of electric wheelchair in 1971, in June 1980 Lord Snowdon started an award scheme for disabled students. This scheme, administered by the Snowdon Trust, provides grants, Lord Snowdon served as a trustee of the National Fund for Research into Crippling Diseases, with the Polio Research Fund. He was president for England of the International Year of Disabled Persons in 1981 and he was provost of the Royal College of Art from 1995 to 2003. He was married first to Princess Margaret, and second to Lucy Mary Lindsay-Hogg, in February 1960, Snowdon, then known as Antony Armstrong-Jones, became engaged to the Queens sister, Princess Margaret, and they married on 6 May 1960 at Westminster Abbey. The couple made their home in apartments at Kensington Palace and he was created Earl of Snowdon and Viscount Linley, of Nymans in the County of Sussex on 6 October 1961. The couple had two children, David, 2nd Earl of Snowdon, born 3 November 1961, and Lady Sarah, the marriage began to collapse early and publicly
42.
Christopher Isherwood
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Christopher William Bradshaw Isherwood was an English-American novelist. Isherwood was born in 1904 on his familys estate close to the Cheshire-Derbyshire border and he was the elder son of Frank Bradshaw Isherwood, a professional soldier who fought in the Boer War, by his wife Kathleen, whose family were successful merchants. Frank Isherwood was the son of John Henry Isherwood, head of the gentry family of Isherwood of Marple Hall and Wyberslegh Hall, Cheshire. The Isherwood family estates came into their possession on the marriage of Mary Bradshaw to Nathaniel Isherwood and he deliberately failed his tripos and left Corpus Christi College, Cambridge without a degree in 1925. For the next few years he lived with violinist André Mangeot, worked as secretary to Mangeots string quartet, during this time he wrote a book of nonsense poems, People One Ought to Know, with illustrations by Mangeots eleven-year-old son, Sylvain. It was not published until 1982, fisher reintroduced him to W. H. Auden, and Isherwood became Audens literary mentor and partner in an intermittent, casual liaison. Auden sent his poems to Isherwood for comment and approval, through Auden, Isherwood met Stephen Spender, with whom he later spent much time in Germany. His first novel, All the Conspirators, appeared in 1928 and it was an anti-heroic story, written in a pastiche of many modernist novelists, about a young man who is defeated by his mother. In 1928–29 Isherwood studied medicine at Kings College London, but gave up his studies six months to join Auden for a few weeks in Berlin. Rejecting his upper class background and embracing his attraction to men, he remained in Berlin. There, he indulged his taste for pretty youths. He went to Berlin in search of boys and found one called Heinz, commenting on John Henry Mackays Der Puppenjunge, Isherwood wrote, It gives a picture of the Berlin sexual underworld early in this century which I know, from my own experience, to be authentic. In 1931 he met Jean Ross, the inspiration for his fictional character and he also met Gerald Hamilton, the inspiration for the fictional Mr Norris. In September 1931 the poet William Plomer introduced him to E. M. Forster and they became close and Forster served as his mentor. Isherwoods second novel, The Memorial, was story of conflict between mother and son, based closely on his own family history. During one of his trips to London he worked with the director Berthold Viertel on the film Little Friend. These works provided the inspiration for the play I Am a Camera, the 1955 film I Am a Camera, Yes/Buggles song Into The Lens/I Am A Camera, the Broadway musical Cabaret, in 1932 he met and fell in love with a young German man named Heinz Neddermeyer. After leaving Berlin in 1933, he and Heinz moved around Europe, Heinz was arrested as a draft-evader in 1937 following his brief return to Germany after he was ejected from Luxembourg as an undesirable alien
43.
W. H. Auden
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Wystan Hugh Auden was an English poet, who later became an American citizen. He was born in York, grew up in and near Birmingham in a professional middle-class family and he attended English independent schools and studied English at Christ Church, Oxford. After a few months in Berlin in 1928–29 he spent five years teaching in English public schools, then travelled to Iceland, in 1939 he moved to the United States and became an American citizen in 1946. He taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities, followed by visiting professorships in the 1950s. From 1947 to 1957 he wintered in New York and summered in Ischia, from 1958 until the end of his life he wintered in New York and summered in Kirchstetten, Austria. Audens poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement, its engagement with politics, morals, love, and religion and he came to wide public attention at the age of twenty-three, in 1930, with his first book, Poems, followed in 1932 by The Orators. Three plays written in collaboration with Christopher Isherwood in 1935–38 built his reputation as a political writer. Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation, and his work in the 1940s, including the long poems For the Time Being and The Sea and the Mirror, focused on religious themes. He won the Pulitzer Prize in Poetry for his 1947 long poem The Age of Anxiety, in 1956–61 he was Professor of Poetry at Oxford, his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis of his 1962 prose collection The Dyers Hand. From around 1927 to 1939 Auden and Isherwood maintained a lasting, throughout his career he was both controversial and influential, and critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive, treating him as a lesser follower of W. B. Yeats and T. S. Eliot, to strongly affirmative, after his death, his poems became known to a much wider public than during his lifetime through films, broadcasts, and popular media. Auden was born in York, England, to George Augustus Auden, a physician, and Constance Rosalie Auden, née Bicknell, who had trained as a missionary nurse. He was the third of three sons, the eldest, George Bernard Auden, became a farmer, while the second, John Bicknell Auden and he traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood. He believed he was of Icelandic descent, and his fascination with Icelandic legends. In 1908 his family moved to Homer Road, Solihull, near Birmingham, Audens lifelong psychoanalytic interests began in his fathers library. From the age of eight he attended boarding schools, returning home for holidays, until he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer, but his passion for words had already begun. He wrote later, words so excite me that a story, for example. Auden attended St Edmunds School, Hindhead, Surrey, where he met Christopher Isherwood, later famous in his own right as a novelist
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