1.
Corvallis, Oregon
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Corvallis /kɔːrˈvælᵻs/ is a city in central western Oregon, United States. It is the county seat of Benton County and the city of the Corvallis, Oregon Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 54,462 and its population was estimated by the Portland Research Center to be 55,298 in 2013. Corvallis is the location of Oregon State University, a large Hewlett-Packard research campus, at a longitude of 123°17 west, the city is the westernmost city in the contiguous 48 states with a population larger than 50,000. Avery arrived in Oregon from the east, averys primitive 1846 dwelling was the first home within the boundaries of todays Corvallis and his land claim included the southern section of the contemporary city. Avery was quickly joined by other settlers along the banks of the Willamette River, the discovery of gold in California in 1848 temporarily stalled development of a township, with Avery leaving his Oregon claim to try his hand at mining in the fall of that year. His stay would prove to be brief and in January 1849 Avery returned to Oregon with a stock of provisions with a view to opening a store. During the year 1849, Avery opened his store at the site, platted the land, and surveyed a town site on his land claim, naming the community Marysville. It is possible that the city was named after early settler Mary Lloyd, in the summer of 1851 Joseph Avery and William Dixon each granted back-to-back 40 acre land parcels from their land holdings for the establishment of a county seat. Averys holding lay to the south and Dixons to the north, with the Benton Country Courthouse marking the line of demarcation between these two land parcels. In December 1853 the 5th Oregon Territorial Legislature met in Salem, a heated debate followed, with the name ultimately awarded to Marysville in an act passed on December 20,1853. Corvallis was incorporated as a city on January 29,1857, nineteenth-century Corvallis saw a three-year boom beginning in 1889, which began with the establishment of a privately owned electrical plant by L. L. Hurd. In addition a carriage factory was launched in the city and the streets were improved. Bonds were issued for a water works, a sewer system. A publicity campaign was launched to attempt to expand the tax base through new construction for new arrivals and this effort proved mostly unsuccessful, however, and in 1892 normalcy returned, with the city saddled with about $150,000 in bonded debt. Corvallis is at an elevation of 235 feet above sea level, Oregon Route 99W, a secondary north–south route, also runs through Corvallis. U. S. Route 20 and Oregon Route 34 both secondary East-West routes run through Corvallis from the Oregon Coast, Corvallis is at river mile 131–32 of the Willamette River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 14.30 square miles
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
4.
Stanford University
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Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California, adjacent to Palo Alto and between San Jose and San Francisco. Its 8, 180-acre campus is one of the largest in the United States, Stanford also has land and facilities elsewhere. The university was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford in memory of their only child, Stanford was a former Governor of California and U. S. Senator, he made his fortune as a railroad tycoon. The school admitted its first students 125 years ago on October 1,1891, Stanford University struggled financially after Leland Stanfords death in 1893 and again after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would later be known as Silicon Valley. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the country. There are three schools that have both undergraduate and graduate students and another four professional schools. Students compete in 36 varsity sports, and the university is one of two institutions in the Division I FBS Pac-12 Conference. Stanford faculty and alumni have founded a number of companies that produce more than $2.7 trillion in annual revenue. It is the alma mater of 30 living billionaires,17 astronauts and it is also one of the leading producers of members of the United States Congress. Sixty Nobel laureates and seven Fields Medalists have been affiliated with Stanford as students, alumni, Stanford University was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford, dedicated to Leland Stanford Jr, their only child. The institution opened in 1891 on Stanfords previous Palo Alto farm, despite being impacted by earthquakes in both 1906 and 1989, the campus was rebuilt each time. In 1919, The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace was started by Herbert Hoover to preserve artifacts related to World War I, the Stanford Medical Center, completed in 1959, is a teaching hospital with over 800 beds. The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, which was established in 1962, in 2008, 60% of this land remained undeveloped. Besides the central campus described below, the university also operates at more remote locations, some elsewhere on the main campus. Stanfords main campus includes a place within unincorporated Santa Clara County. The campus also includes land in unincorporated San Mateo County, as well as in the city limits of Menlo Park, Woodside. The academic central campus is adjacent to Palo Alto, bounded by El Camino Real, Stanford Avenue, Junipero Serra Boulevard, the United States Postal Service has assigned it two ZIP codes,94305 for campus mail and 94309 for P. O. box mail
5.
Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award
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The Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award was established in 1959 in honor of a scientist who helped elevate American physics to the status of world leader in the field. E. O. Lawrence was the inventor of the cyclotron, an accelerator of particles. The first Lawrence Awards were given in 1960, the Lawrence Award is administered by the Department of Energys Office of Science. Each Lawrence Award recipient receives a signed by the Secretary of Energy, a gold medal bearing the likeness of Ernest Orlando Lawrence. Beginning in 2011, the awards are given annually, Department of Energy, and be assessed primarily on the scientific impact and technical significance of their work relative to its discipline and/or related mission. An individual’s nomination is limited to a single category, a concurrence request for any awardees is made to the Secretary of Energy, who holds final discretion over any selection. The reviewers are not empanelled as a Federal Advisory Committee, the identity of all nominators, all nominees, and all peer review panelists remain anonymous. DOE employees must comply with regulations governing conduct of employees codified in 10 CFR Part 1010, Latter Harvey M. Pratt Marshall N. Rosenbuth Theos J. Thompson 1965 George A. Cowan Floyd M. Culler Milton C. Arnold E. Richard Cohen Val L. Fitch Richard Latter John B. Storer 1969 Geoffrey F. Chew Don T. Cromer Ely M. Gelbard F. Newton Hayes John H. Nuckolls 1970 William J. Bair James W. Cobble Joseph M. Hendrie Michael M. May Andrew M. Sessler 1971 Thomas B. Cook Robert L. Fleischer Robert L. Hellens P. Buford Price Robert M. Walker 1972 Charles C, cremer Sidney D. Drell Marvin Goldman David A. Shirley Paul F. Zweifel 1973 Louis Baker Seymour Sack Thomas E. Wainwright James Robert Weir Sheldon Wolff 1974 Joseph Cerny Harold Paul Fourth Henry C. McDonald Chester R. Richmond 1975 Evan H. Appelman Charles E. Elderkin William A. Lokke Burton Richter Samuel C. C. Philip Bray James W. Cronin Kaye D. Lathrop Adolphus L. Lotts Edwin D. McClanahan 1977 James D. Bjorken John L. Emmett F. William Studier Gareth Thomas Dean A. Waters 1980 Donald W. Barr B. Grant Logan Nicholas P. Samios Benno P. Schoenborn Charles D. Scott 1981 Martin Blume Yuan Tseh Lee Fred R. Mynatt Paul B. Chang Robert K. Moyzis John W. Shaner Carl Wieman 1994 John D. Boice, Jr. E. Michael Campbell Gregory J. Kubas Edward William Larsen John D. Lindl Gerard M. Ludtka George F. Smoot John E. Canfield Mark B. Chadwick David E. Chavez Amit Goyal Thomas P. Guilderson Lois Curfman McInnes Bernard Matthew Poelker Barry F. Smith 2013 Adam P. Arkin Siegfried H. Glenzer Stephen C
6.
King Faisal International Prize
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King Faisal International Prize is an annual award sponsored by King Faisal Foundation presented to dedicated men and women whose contributions make a positive difference. The foundation awards prizes in five categories, Service to Islam, Islamic studies, Arabic Language and Literature, Science, the first King Faisal International Prize was awarded to Sayyid Abul Aala Maududi in the year 1979 for his service to Islam. In 1981, King Khalid received the same award, in 1984, King Fahd was the recipient of the award. In 1986, this prize was co-awarded to Ahmed Deedat and French Roger Garaudy, each year, the selection committees designate subjects in Islamic Studies, Arabic Literature, and Medicine. Selected topics in Islamic Studies category are aimed at highlighting areas of importance in Muslim societies, Arabic Literature topics relate to specialized areas within the discipline. Topics in Medicine are supposed to reflect current areas of international concern, the Science category covers a broad range of subcategories e. g. physics, mathematics, chemistry and biology. Islamic institutions, universities and previous winners of the King Faisal International Prize can nominate a person for the award, nominations from ordinary individuals or political parties are not accepted. The nominee or nominated institution must be known for their leading practical or intellectual role in the service of Islam, nominated works must be published, benefit mankind and enrich human knowledge. Winners of the Prize for category Service to Islam are chosen directly by the selection committee. For other Prize categories, pre-selection by peer reviewers is carried out, autonomous, international, specialist selection committees are then convened at the headquarters of King Faisal Foundation in Riyadh each January to make their final decisions. The prize in each of the five categories consists of, A hand written Diwani calligraphy certificate, a commemorative 24 carat,200 gram gold medal, uniquely cast for each prize. A cash endowment of SR750,000, co-winners in any category share the monetary grant. The Prizes are awarded during a ceremony in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the five countries with most award-winners as of 2012 were, Sydney Brenner was considered to be the first Jew to win the King Faisal Award, in 1992. Ronald Levy was reported to be a Jewish recipient in 2009
7.
The Franklin Institute Awards
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The Franklin Institute Awards is a science and engineering award presented since 1824 by the Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia, PA, USA. The first Benjamin Franklin Medals were presented in 1998, medalists are selected by Committee on Science and the Arts after thorough investigation. The Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science and the Bower Award for Business Leadership are the newest awards,1998 - Emmanuel Desurvire 1998 - Robert B. Laughlin 1998 - David N. Payne 1998 - Stanley B. Prusiner 1998 - Horst L. Stormer 1998 - Daniel C, tsui 1998 - Ahmed H. Zewail 1999 - Noam Chomsky 1999 - Douglas C. Engelbart 1999 - Walter Kaminsky 1999 - Barry J. Marshall 1999 - John C. Leopold 2006 - Donald Norman 2006 - Fernando Nottebohm 2006 - Giacinto Scoles 2006 - J. Peter Toennies 2006 - M. Gordon Wolman 2007 - Klaus Biemann 2007 - Robert H. Dennard 2007 - Merton C. Nowell 2010 - Gerhard M. Sessler 2010 - D. Brian Spalding 2010 - JoAnne Stubbe 2010 - James E
8.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
9.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
10.
University of British Columbia
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The University of British Columbia, commonly referred to as UBC, is a public research university with campuses and facilities in British Columbia, Canada. Founded in 1908 as the McGill University College of British Columbia and it is British Columbias oldest institution of higher learning and has over 60,000 students at its Vancouver and Okanagan Valley campuses. Most students are enrolled in five faculties, Arts, Science, Applied Science, UBC Faculty of Medicine. UBCs 4.02 km2 Vancouver campus is within the University Endowment Lands, the 2.09 km2 Okanagan campus, acquired in 2005, is in Kelowna. UBCs admission standards is the 2nd most rigorous in Canada with the average of 89. 95% high school GPA for all incoming domestic students in 2015 for the Vancouver Campus. According to the annual rankings compiled by Macleans and U. S. News, in 2015 U. S. News and World Report and Times Higher Education ranked UBC among the 20 best public universities worldwide. With an annual research budget valued at $600 million, UBC funds 8,442 projects as of 2014, the university has also educated three Canadian prime ministers, most recently Justin Trudeau, the current prime minister. One of the largest research libraries in Canada, the UBC Library system has over 9.9 million volumes among its 21 branches, since 1968, UBC is home to TRIUMF, Canadas national laboratory for particle and nuclear physics which houses the worlds largest cyclotron. In 1877, only six years after British Columbia joined Canada, the provincial legislature passed An Act Respecting the University of British Columbia in 1890, but disagreements arose over whether to build the university on Vancouver Island or the mainland. The British Columbia University Act of 1908 formally called a university into being. The president, appointed by the board, was to provide a link between the two bodies and to perform institutional leadership, the Act constituted a twenty-one member senate with Francis Carter-Cotton of Vancouver as Chancellor. Before the University Act, there had been attempts at creating a degree-granting university with help from the Universities of Toronto. Building on an affiliation between Vancouver and Victoria high schools with McGill University, Henry Marshall Tory helped establish the McGill University College of British Columbia. From 1906 to 1915, McGill BC operated as an institution providing the first few years toward a degree at McGill University or elsewhere. The Henry Marshall Tory Medal was established in 1941 by Tory, founding President of the University of Alberta and of the National Research Council of Canada, and a co-founder of Carleton University. In the meantime, appeals were made to the government to revive the legislation for a provincial institution, leading to the University Endowment Act in 1907. In 1910 the Point Grey site was chosen, and the government appointed Dr. Frank Fairchild Wesbrook as President in 1913, on the first day of lectures was September 30,1915, the new independent university absorbed McGill University College. The University of British Columbia awarded its first degrees in 1916, World War I dominated campus life, and the student body was decimated by enlistments for active service, with three hundred UBC students in Company D alone
11.
University of Colorado Boulder
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The University of Colorado Boulder is a public research university located in Boulder, Colorado, United States. It is the university of the University of Colorado system and was founded five months before Colorado was admitted to the Union in 1876. In 2015, the university consisted of nine colleges and schools and offered over 150 academic programs, twelve Nobel Laureates, nine MacArthur Fellows, and 20 astronauts have been affiliated with CU Boulder as students, researchers, or faculty members in its history. The university received nearly $454 million in sponsored research in 2010 to fund programs like the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, the Colorado Buffaloes compete in 17 varsity sports and are members of the NCAA Division I Pac-12 Conference. The Buffaloes have won 28 national championships,20 in skiing, seven total in mens and womens cross country, approximately 1,500 students participate in 34 intercollegiate club sports annually as well. Two cities competed for the site of the University of Colorado, Boulder, the consolation prize for the losing city was to be home of the new Colorado State Prison. Cañon City was at a disadvantage as it was already the home of the Colorado Territorial Prison, the cornerstone of the building that became Old Main was laid on September 20,1875. The doors of the university opened on September 5,1877, at the time, there were few high schools in the state that could adequately prepare students for university work, so in addition to the University, a preparatory school was formed on campus. In the fall of 1877, the student body consisted of 15 students in the proper and 50 students in the preparatory school. There were 38 men and 27 women, and their ages ranged from 12–23 years, during World War II, Colorado was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a navy commission. The main CU Boulder campus is located south of the Pearl Street Mall and it consists of academic and residential buildings as well as research facilities. The East Campus is about a mile from the main campus and is composed mainly of athletic fields. CU Boulders distinctive architecture style, known as Tuscan Vernacular Revival, was designed by architect Charles Klauder. A month or so after approval, however, Klauder updated his design by sketching in a new wrap of rough, textured sandstone walls with sloping, multi-leveled red-tiled roofs and Indiana limestone trim. This formed the basis of a style which was used in the design of fifteen other buildings between 1921 and 1939. The sandstone used in the construction of all the buildings on campus was selected from a variety of front range mountain quarries. In 2011, Travel+Leisure named the Boulder campus as one of the most beautiful campuses in the United States. Currently Freshmen and others attending the University of Colorado Boulder have an option of 24 on-, Residence halls have 17 varieties of room types from singles to four-person rooms and others with apartment style amenities
12.
University of Michigan
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The University of Michigan, frequently referred to simply as Michigan, is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state, in 1821, the university was officially renamed the University of Michigan. It moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 onto 40 acres of what is now known as Central Campus, the University was a founding member of the Association of American Universities. Considered one of the foremost research universities in the United States, Michigans body of living alumni comprises more than 540,000 people, one of the largest alumni bases of any university in the world. Besides academic life, Michigans athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Wolverines. They are members of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Michigan was established in Detroit on August 26,1817 as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory. Judge Augustus B. Woodward specifically invited The Rev. John Monteith and Father Gabriel Richard, Monteith became its first President and held seven of the professorships, and Richard was Vice President and held the other six professorships. Concurrently, Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres in the hopes of being selected as the state capital, but when Lansing was chosen as the state capital, the city offered the land for a university. What would become the university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 thanks to Governor Stevens T. Mason, the original 40 acres was the basis of the present Central Campus. The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen, eleven students graduated in the first commencement in 1845. By 1866, enrollment increased to 1,205 students, many of whom were Civil War veterans, Women were first admitted in 1870. U-M also became the first American university to use the method of study. Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa, who in 1880 graduated as valedictorian and he returned to Puerto Rico to practice medicine and also served in high-ranking posts in the government. In 1920 the university reorganized the College of Engineering and formed a committee of 100 industrialists to guide academic research initiatives. The university became a choice for bright Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Because of its standards, U-M gained the nickname Harvard of the West. During World War II, U-Ms research supported military efforts, such as U. S. Navy projects in proximity fuzes, PT boats, and radar jamming. After the war, enrollment expanded rapidly and by 1950, it reached 21,000, as the Cold War and the Space Race took hold, U-M received numerous government grants for strategic research and helped to develop peacetime uses for nuclear energy
13.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
14.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
15.
Eric Allin Cornell
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Eric Allin Cornell is an American physicist who, along with Carl E. Wieman, was able to synthesize the first Bose–Einstein condensate in 1995. For their efforts, Cornell, Wieman, and Wolfgang Ketterle shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2001, Cornell was born in Palo Alto, California, where his parents were completing graduate degrees at nearby Stanford University. Two years later he moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where his father was a professor of engineering at MIT. Here he grew up with his brother and sister, with yearlong intermezzos in Berkeley, California, and Lisbon, Portugal. In Cambridge he attended Cambridge Rindge and Latin School, the year before his graduation he moved back to California with his mother and finished high school at San Franciscos Lowell High School, a local magnet school for academically talented students. After high school he enrolled at Stanford University, where he was to meet his future wife, as an undergraduate he earned money as an assistant in the various low-temperature physics groups on campus. He was doing both in his courses and his jobs in the labs and seemed set for a career in physics. He however doubted whether he wished to pursue such a career, halfway through his undergraduate years he went to China and Taiwan for nine months to volunteer teaching conversational English and to study Chinese. He learned that this was not where his talents lay, and he graduated with honors and distinction in 1985. For graduate school he returned to MIT, there he joined David Pritchards group, which had a running experiment that tried to measure the mass of the electron neutrino from the beta decay of tritium. Although he was unable to determine the mass of the neutrino, after obtaining his doctorate he joined Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado Boulder as a postdoctoral researcher on a small laser cooling experiment. During his two years as a postdoc he came up with a plan to combine laser cooling and evaporative cooling in a trap to create a Bose–Einstein condensate. Based on his proposal he was offered a permanent position at JILA/NIST in Boulder, for synthesizing the first Bose–Einstein condensate in 1995, Cornell, Wieman, and Wolfgang Ketterle shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2001. He is currently a professor at the University of Colorado and a physicist at the United States Department of Commerce National Institute of Standards and his lab is located at JILA. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1998 and is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2005. Cornell married Celeste Landry in 1995 mere months before the BEC experiment succeeded and their first daughter, Eliza, was born in 1996, and their second daughter, Sophia, in 1998. In October 2004, his arm and shoulder were amputated in an attempt to stop the spread of necrotizing fasciitis. He was discharged from the hospital in mid-December, having recovered from the infection, timeline of low-temperature technology Frängsmyr, Tore
16.
Wolfgang Ketterle
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Wolfgang Ketterle is a German physicist and professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. For this achievement, as well as early studies of condensates, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2001, together with Eric Allin Cornell. Ketterle was born in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, and attended school in Eppelheim, in 1976 he entered the University of Heidelberg, before transferring to the Technical University of Munich two years later, where he gained the equivalent of his masters diploma in 1982. In 1990 he joined the group of David E. Pritchard in the Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT and he was appointed to the MIT physics faculty in 1993 and, since 1998, he has been John D. MacArthur Professor of Physics. In 2006, he was appointed Associate Director of RLE and began serving as director of MITs Center for Ultracold Atoms, Ketterle is also a runner featured in the December 2009 issue of Runners Worlds Im a Runner. Ketterle spoke of taking his shoes to Stockholm when he received the Nobel Prize. Ketterle completed the 2013 Boston Marathon with a time of 2,49,16. and in 2014, in Boston, since 2011, Ketterle is married to Michèle Plott. He has five children, three with Gabriele Ketterle, to whom he was married from 1985 to 2001, Mewes, M. R. Andrews, N. J. van Druten, D. S. Durfee, D. M. Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Gas of Sodium Atoms, M. R. Andrews, C. G. Townsend, H. -J. Miesner, D. S. Durfee, D. M. Kurn & W. Ketterle, observation of interference between two Bose condensates. M. O. Mewes, M. R. Andrews, D. M. Kurn, D. S. Durfee, output Coupler for Bose-Einstein Condensed Atoms. M. W. Zwierlein, C. A. Stan, C. H. Schunck, S. M. F. Raupach, S. Gupta, observation of Bose-Einstein Condensation of Molecules. Nobel Bio Ketterle at MIT Ketterle at RLE Video Interview Text interview Interview at American Scientist
17.
Corvallis High School (Oregon)
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Corvallis High School, known as CHS, is a four-year public secondary school in Corvallis, Oregon, United States. The original Corvallis High School was opened in February 1910 on 6th Street between Monroe Avenue and Madison Avenue, becoming the first dedicated high school in Corvallis. Prior to the construction, all grades were housed in Corvallis Central School which was built in 1889 and was located one block west on 7th Street and this new high school was built in an Arts and Crafts style. The structure was built of masonry and featured two stories on top of a daylight basement, in 1917, the structure was expanded and remodeled. The Arts and Crafts styling did not remain with the remodel and was changed to a Beaux-Arts style facade, a gymnasium was also added to the structure during this time. When the 1935 high school opened, the 1910 building was converted to use as the high school until it was destroyed by fire in 1946. In the 1930s, Corvallis High School had reached a population of 650 students in a structure that was intended for 400 and it was decided that a larger high school needed to be constructed. In 1933, the citizens of Corvallis passed a bond to pay for the construction. This allowed the district to apply for a Public Works Administration grant and loan. The Portland firm of Whitehouse, Stanton, and Church were selected to design the new school, the Corvallis School District selected the site for the new high school on 11th Street, which was on the far northwest edge of town. This new building was an Art Deco structure and was completed in 1935, the building was added onto multiple times in the 50s and 60s with the addition of the science and library wing as well as the cafeteria and large gym addition. In the spring of 2000, after the district finished an analysis of its 17 schools. A group was put together to decide whether a replacement school should be built on the site or at an alternative location. It was decided that the replacement should be built on the existing site and this decision also required the old building to be demolished which upset some citizens who believed the building to be a historic treasure to the town. In an effort to save the structure, the building was nominated and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003. However, in the spring of 2004, construction began on the new building and the building was later demolished. After the seismic analysis in 2000, it was decided that a new high school needed to be built. The citizens of Corvallis passed an $86.4 million bond measure in 2002 to replace the school as well as two middle schools and also update/renovate other schools in the district
18.
White Anglo-Saxon Protestant
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Scholars agree that the groups influence has waned since the end of World War II in 1945, with the growing influence of other ethnic groups. The term is used in Australia and Canada for similar elites. The term is used by sociologists to include all Americans of Northern European ancestry regardless of their class or power. People rarely call themselves WASPs, except humorously, the acronym is typically used by non-WASPs. Historically, Anglo-Saxon referred to the language of indigenous inhabitants of England before about 1150, since the 19th century it has been in common use in the English-speaking world, but not in Britain itself, to refer to Protestants of principally English descent. Anglo-Saxon carries Germanic connotations by its roots in the ancient territories of present-day Germany, Angeln, the former of which England and English is ultimately derived. The W and P were added in the 1950s to form a witty epithet with an undertone of waspishness and that is, they are wealthy, they are Anglo-Saxon in origin, and they are Protestants. To their Waspishness should be added the tendency to be located on the eastern seaboard or around San Francisco, to be school and Ivy League educated. The term was popularized by sociologist and University of Pennsylvania professor E. Digby Baltzell, himself a WASP, in his 1964 book The Protestant Establishment, Aristocracy and Caste in America. The concept of Anglo Saxon and especially Anglo Saxon Protestantism evolved in the late 19th century, historian Richard Kyle says, Protestantism had not yet split into two mutually hostile camps – the liberals and fundamentalists. Of great importance, evangelical Protestantism still dominated the cultural scene, American values bore the stamp of this Anglo-Saxon Protestant ascendancy. The political, cultural, religious, and intellectual leaders of the nation were largely of a Northern European Protestant stock, before WASP came into use in the 1960s the term Anglo Saxon filled some of the same purposes. Anglo-Saxons by 1900 was often used as a synonym for all people of English descent and sometimes more generally and it was often used in claims for the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race, much to the annoyance of outsiders. For example, Josiah Strong boasted in 1890, In 1700 this race numbered less than 6,000,000 souls. In 1800, Anglo-Saxons had increased to about 20,500,000, like the newer term WASP, the old term Anglo-Saxon was used derisively by writers hostile to an informal alliance between Britain and the U. S. The negative use was common among Irish Americans and writers in France. It also remains in use in Ireland as a term for the British or English, Irish-American humorist Finley Peter Dunne popularized the ridicule of Anglo Saxon, even calling President Theodore Roosevelt one. To be genuinely Irish is to challenge WASP dominance, argues California politician Tom Hayden, the depiction of the Irish in the films of John Ford was a counterpoint to WASP standards of rectitude
19.
Bachelor of Science
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A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
20.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
21.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
22.
Science education
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Science education is the field concerned with sharing science content and process with individuals not traditionally considered part of the scientific community. The standards for science education provide expectations for the development of understanding for students through the course of their K-12 education. The traditional subjects included in the standards are physical, life, earth, space, the first person credited with being employed as a Science teacher in a British public school was William Sharp who left the job at Rugby School in 1850 after establishing Science to the curriculum. Sharp is said to have established a model for Science to be throughout the British Public Schools. The next step came when the British Academy for the Advancement of Science published a report in 1867, BAAS promoted teaching of pure science and training of the scientific habit of mind. The progressive education movement of the supported the ideology of mental training through the sciences. BAAS emphasized separately pre-professional training in science education. In this way, future BAAS members could be prepared, the initial development of science teaching was slowed by the lack of qualified teachers. In both cases the influence of Thomas Henry Huxley was critical, john Tyndall was also influential in the teaching of physical science. In the US, science education was a scatter of subjects prior to its standardization in the 1890s, the development of a science curriculum in the US emerged gradually after extended debate between two ideologies, citizen science and pre-professional training. S. The committee was composed of ten educators and was chaired by Charles Eliot of Harvard University, the Committee of Ten met, and appointed nine conferences committees. The three conference committees appointed for science were, physics, astronomy, and chemistry, natural history, each committee, appointed by the Committee of Ten, was composed of ten leading specialists from colleges and normal schools, and secondary schools. Each committee met in a different location in the U. S, the three science committees met for three days in the Chicago area. Committee reports were submitted to the Committee of Ten, which met for four days in New York, in 1894, the NEA published the results of work of these conference committees. According to the Committee of Ten, the goal of high school was to all students to do well in life, contributing to their well-being. Another goal was to some students to succeed in college. This committee supported the citizen science approach focused on mental training, the BAAS encouraged their longer standing model in the UK. The US adopted a curriculum was characterized as follows, Elementary science should focus on natural phenomena by means of experiments carried out in-the-field
23.
National Academy of Sciences
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The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
24.
Eric Mazur
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Eric Mazur is a physicist and educator at Harvard University, and an entrepreneur in technology start-ups for the educational and technology markets. Mazurs research is in experimental ultrafast optics and condensed matter physics, born in Amsterdam, Netherlands, he received his undergraduate and graduate degrees from Leiden University. Mazur studied physics and astronomy at Leiden University and he passed his doctoraal examen in 1977 and continued his graduate studies at the same institution. In 1981 he obtained his Ph. D on a thesis entitled The structure of non-equilibrium angular momentum polarizations in polyatomic gases, after two years as a postdoc, Mazur was offered a position of assistant professor at Harvard University. In 1987 he was promoted to professor and obtained tenure three years later in 1990. Mazur currently holds a chair as Balkanski Professor of Physics and Applied Physics jointly in the Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and he is also the Dean of Applied Physics. Mazurs early work at Harvard focused on the use of lasers to carry out spectroscopy of highly vibrationally excited molecules. Mazur and his group have made many pioneering contributions to the field of laser pulses. In 1989 his group was one of the first in academia to build a colliding-pulse mode-locked laser, since then the group’s use of this technique and various nonlinear optical probes to study laser-induced structural phase transitions. In parallel to the work on semiconductors, Mazur began studying the interaction of intense femtosecond pulses with transparent materials and this femtosecond laser micromachining technique is now widely used for data storage, fabrication of integrated optical components, and microsurgery. In 1998 a serendipitous discovery in Mazurs laboratory led to the development of a new method to form a surface modification. After irradiation by a train of femtosecond pulses in the presence of a halogen containing gas. The resulting material has many properties, such as an enhanced absorption that extends to the infrared below the band gap of silicon. The material has found applications in a number of photodetectors. Mazurs research continues to focus on ultrashort laser pulse interactions and novel nonlinear optical devices, in collaboration with a group from Zhejiang University in Hangzhou, China, Mazurs group was the first to develop a technique for pulling subwavelength diameter silica optical fibers. These wires guide light in the form of an evanescent wave, in 1991, Mazur began designing an instructional strategy for teaching called peer instruction. In 1997, he published a book called Peer Instruction, A Users Manual which provides details on this strategy, Peer Instruction has been found to be more beneficial than class-wide discussion or lecture. In fact, according to an article in the March/April 2009 edition of Complexity, over 90% of instructors who have tried PI plan to continue to use it, the seating arrangement plays an important role in the outcome of this method
25.
PhET Interactive Simulations
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PhET Interactive Simulations, a project at the University of Colorado Boulder, is a non-profit open educational resource project founded in 2002 by Nobel Laureate Carl Wieman. PhET began with Wieman’s vision to improve the way science is taught and their stated mission is To advance science and math literacy and education worldwide through free interactive simulations. The project acronym PhET originally stood for Physics Education Technology, the project now designs, develops, and releases over 125 free interactive simulations for educational use in the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, earth science, and mathematics. The simulations have been translated into over 65 different languages, including Spanish, Chinese, German, and Arabic, and in 2011, in October 2011, PhET Interactive Simulations was chosen as the 2011 Microsoft Education Tech Award laureate. The Tech Awards, presented by The Tech Museum of Innovation, after winning the Nobel prize in 2001, Wieman became particularly involved with efforts at improving science education and has conducted educational research on science instruction. He helped write Physics 2000 to provide simulations to explain his work in creating the Bose-Einstein Condensate, as he gave public lectures, some incorporating simulations, he noticed that often the simulations would be the primary thing people would remember from my talk. Based on their questions and comments, it appeared that they learned the physics represented in the simulations. The PhET simulations differ from the Physics 2000 ones because users can interact with the simulation to change conditions whereas the Physics 2000 simulations are just videos, in 2007, Wieman moved to Vancouver, British Columbia while retaining 20% faculty position at the University of Colorado Boulder. The current director of PhET is Dr. Katherine Perkins, who has been with PhET since January 2003, Perkins hopes that the simulations’ accessibility and interactive nature will increase scientific literacy and promote student engagement in the classroom. PhET Interactive Simulations is part of the University of Colorado Boulder which is a member of the Association of American Universities. The team changes over time and has about 16 members consisting of professors, post-doctoral students, researchers, education specialists, software engineers, educators, the current director of PhET is Dr. Katherine Perkins. PhET Interactive Simulations incorporates research-based practices on effective teaching to enhance the learning of science, the simulations are designed to be flexible so that they can be used as lecture demonstrations, labs, or homework activities. A PhET simulation starts with three to five people including a content expert, a teacher, a researcher. The design begins with identifying specific learning goals that have proven to be conceptually difficult based on experiences in the classroom. The simulation design, look and feel is storyboarded, discussed, each simulation is user tested through interviews with students and in classrooms, re-worked as needed and re-tested, before released on the PhET website. Along with testing every simulation, the PhET team performs education research on their simulations and they have shown in their research that when students explore simulations in addition to traditional labs, student concept understanding improves. Contributors on the PhET site follow Open Education Practices, enabling teachers to use or adapt the activities freely, NSDL mines metadata of collections to find online resources that match the benchmarks. Teachers find PhET sims that are appropriate for specific topics by searching the maps, MERLOT Physics uses a tiered review process to evaluate digital learning content
26.
ArXiv
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In many fields of mathematics and physics, almost all scientific papers are self-archived on the arXiv repository. Begun on August 14,1991, arXiv. org passed the half-million article milestone on October 3,2008, by 2014 the submission rate had grown to more than 8,000 per month. The arXiv was made possible by the low-bandwidth TeX file format, around 1990, Joanne Cohn began emailing physics preprints to colleagues as TeX files, but the number of papers being sent soon filled mailboxes to capacity. Additional modes of access were added, FTP in 1991, Gopher in 1992. The term e-print was quickly adopted to describe the articles and its original domain name was xxx. lanl. gov. Due to LANLs lack of interest in the rapidly expanding technology, in 1999 Ginsparg changed institutions to Cornell University and it is now hosted principally by Cornell, with 8 mirrors around the world. Its existence was one of the factors that led to the current movement in scientific publishing known as open access. Mathematicians and scientists regularly upload their papers to arXiv. org for worldwide access, Ginsparg was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 2002 for his establishment of arXiv. The annual budget for arXiv is approximately $826,000 for 2013 to 2017, funded jointly by Cornell University Library, annual donations were envisaged to vary in size between $2,300 to $4,000, based on each institution’s usage. As of 14 January 2014,174 institutions have pledged support for the period 2013–2017 on this basis, in September 2011, Cornell University Library took overall administrative and financial responsibility for arXivs operation and development. Ginsparg was quoted in the Chronicle of Higher Education as saying it was supposed to be a three-hour tour, however, Ginsparg remains on the arXiv Scientific Advisory Board and on the arXiv Physics Advisory Committee. The lists of moderators for many sections of the arXiv are publicly available, additionally, an endorsement system was introduced in 2004 as part of an effort to ensure content that is relevant and of interest to current research in the specified disciplines. Under the system, for categories that use it, an author must be endorsed by an established arXiv author before being allowed to submit papers to those categories. Endorsers are not asked to review the paper for errors, new authors from recognized academic institutions generally receive automatic endorsement, which in practice means that they do not need to deal with the endorsement system at all. However, the endorsement system has attracted criticism for allegedly restricting scientific inquiry, perelman appears content to forgo the traditional peer-reviewed journal process, stating, If anybody is interested in my way of solving the problem, its all there – let them go and read about it. The arXiv generally re-classifies these works, e. g. in General mathematics, papers can be submitted in any of several formats, including LaTeX, and PDF printed from a word processor other than TeX or LaTeX. The submission is rejected by the software if generating the final PDF file fails, if any image file is too large. ArXiv now allows one to store and modify an incomplete submission, the time stamp on the article is set when the submission is finalized
27.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
28.
Nobel Foundation
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The Nobel Foundation is a private institution founded on 29 June 1900 to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. The Foundation is based on the last will of Alfred Nobel and it also holds Nobel Symposia on important breakthroughs in science and topics of cultural or social significance. Alfred Bernhard Nobel, born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm Sweden, was a chemist, engineer, innovator, armaments manufacturer and he owned Bofors, a major armaments manufacturer, which he had redirected from its original business as an iron and steel mill. Nobel held 355 different patents, dynamite being the most famous, Nobel amassed a sizeable personal fortune during his lifetime, thanks mostly to this invention. In 1896 Nobel died of a stroke in his villa in San Remo, Nobels will expressed a request, to the surprise of many, that his money be used for prizes in physics, chemistry, peace, physiology or medicine and literature. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, as of December 31,2015, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 4.065 billion Swedish kronor. The Nobel Foundation was founded as an organisation on 29 June 1900 specifically to manage the finances. It is based on Nobels last will and testament, at the time Nobels will led to much specticism and criticism and thus it was not until April 26,1897 that his will was approved by the Storting. Soon thereafter they appointed the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that was to award the Peace Prize, shortly after, the other prize-awarding organizations followed, Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9 and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on June 11. The next thing the Nobel Foundation did was to try to agree on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded, in 1900 the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. In 1905 the Union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved which meant the responsibility for awarding Nobel Prizes was split between the two countries, norways Nobel Committee became the awarder of the Peace Prize while Sweden became the awarder of the other prizes. In accordance with Nobels will, the task of the Nobel Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left after him in a fund. Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to represent the Nobel Prize to the outside world, the Nobel Foundation is not involved in any way in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company in that it invests money in ways to create a solid funding base for the prize. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden and from investment taxes in the United States, since the 1980s the Foundations investments began to earn more money than previously. At the beginning of the 1980s the award money was 1 million SEK, according to the statutes the Foundation should consist of a Board with its seat in Stockholm. It should consist of five men, the Chairman of the board should be appointed by the King in Council
29.
International Conference of Laser Applications
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The International Conference on Lasers and Applications, Lasers XX was an annual conference organized by the former Society for Optical and Quantum Electronics. The conference, known in short by Lasers XX, was held at locations in The United States from 1978 to 2000. The emphasis of these conferences was laser development and in particular the development of high-power lasers, the papers delivered at these conferences were published in a series of hard-bound volumes known as Proceedings of the International Conference on Lasers XX by STS Press. In total, more than 20 book proceedings were published, noted physicists, including Edward Teller and Arthur Kantrowitz, participated in these discussions. Towards the end of the Cold War this conference enjoyed the participation of numerous Soviet laser physicists, including prominent authors such as Alexander Prokhorov, group photograph at Lasers93 including Norman F. Ramsey, Marlan Scully, and F. J. Duarte. Group photograph at Lasers95 including Marlan Scully, Theodor W. Hänsch, Carl E. Wieman, and F. J. Duarte
30.
F. J. Duarte
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Francisco Javier Frank Duarte is a Chilean-born laser physicist and author/editor of several well-known books on tunable lasers and quantum optics. He introduced the generalized multiple-prism dispersion theory, has discovered various multiple-prism grating oscillator laser configurations, duartes research has mainly focused on physical and laser optics and has taken place at a number of institutions in the academic, industrial, and defense sectors. Duarte and Piper introduced the multiple-prism near-grazing-incidence grating cavities originally disclosed as copper-laser-pumped narrow-linewidth tunable laser oscillators and he then introduced multiple-prism grating configurations to high-power CO2 laser oscillators. Duarte also developed the theories for narrow-linewidth dispersive laser oscillators, and multiple-prism laser pulse compression, the tunable narrow-linewidth laser oscillator configurations, introduced by Duarte and Piper, were adopted by various research groups working on uranium atomic vapor laser isotope separation. This work was supported by the Australian Atomic Energy Commission, during the course of this research, Duarte writes that he did approach the then federal minister for energy, Sir John Carrick, to advocate for the introduction of an AVLIS facility in Australia. In 2002, he participated in research that led to the separation of lithium using narrow-linewidth tunable diode lasers. From the mid-1980s to early 1990s Duarte and scientists from the US Army Missile Command developed ruggedized narrow-linewidth laser oscillators tunable directly in the visible spectrum and this constituted the first disclosure, in the open literature, of a tunable narrow-linewidth laser tested on a rugged terrain. This research led to experimentation with polymer gain media and in 1994 Duarte reported on the first narrow-linewidth tunable solid state dye laser oscillators and these dispersive oscillator architectures were then refined to yield single-longitudinal-mode emission limited only by Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. In 2005, Duarte and colleagues were the first to demonstrate directional coherent emission from an electrically excited organic semiconductor and these experiments utilized a tandem OLED within an interferometric configuration. In the late 1980s, Duarte invented the N-slit laser interferometer and applied Dirac’s notation to describe quantum mechanically its interferometric, Duarte also derived the cavity linewidth equation, for dispersive laser oscillators, using quantum mechanical principles. More recently, Duarte and colleagues have developed very large N-slit laser interferometers to generate and propagate interferometric characters for secure free-space optical communications, interferometric characters is a term coined in 2002 to link interefometric signals to alphanumerical characters. Duarte provides a description of quantum optics, almost entirely via Diracs notation, in this book he derives the probability amplitude for quantum entanglement, | ψ ⟩ =12 which he calls the Pryce-Ward probability amplitude, from an N-slit interferometric perspective. Duarte also emphasizes a pragmatic approach to quantum mechanics. At Macquarie University, Duarte studied quantum physics under John Clive Ward and his PhD research was on laser physics and his supervisor was James A. Piper. In the area of university politics, he established and led the successful Macquarie science reform movement, macquaries science reform, was widely supported by local scientists including physicists R. E. Aitchison, R. E. B. Makinson, A. W. Pryor, and J. C. Ward, in 1980, Duarte was elected as one of the Macquarie representatives to the Australian Union of Students from where he was expelled, and then reinstated, for running over the tables. Following completion of his PhD work, Duarte did post doctoral research, with B. J. Orr at the University of New South Wales, in 1983, Duarte traveled to the United States to assume a physics professorship at the University of Alabama. In 1985 he joined the Imaging Research Laboratories, at the Eastman Kodak Company, while at Kodak he was chairman of Lasers 87 and subsequent conferences in this series
31.
Hendrik Lorentz
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Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pieter Zeeman for the discovery and theoretical explanation of the Zeeman effect. He also derived the equations which formed the basis of the special relativity theory of Albert Einstein. For this he received honours and distinctions during his life. Hendrik Lorentz was born in Arnhem, Gelderland, the son of Gerrit Frederik Lorentz, a well-off nurseryman, in 1862, after his mothers death, his father married Luberta Hupkes. Despite being raised as a Protestant, he was a freethinker in religious matters, from 1866 to 1869 he attended the Hogere Burger School in Arnhem, a new type of public high school recently established by Johan Rudolph Thorbecke. His results in school were exemplary, not only did he excel in the sciences and mathematics, but also in English, French. In 1870 he passed the exams in languages which were then required for admission to University. After earning a degree, he returned to Arnhem in 1871 to teach night school classes in mathematics. On 17 November 1877, only 24 years of age, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was appointed to the established chair in theoretical physics at the University of Leiden. The position had initially offered to Johan van der Waals. On 25 January 1878 Lorentz delivered his lecture on De moleculaire theoriën in de natuurkunde. In 1881 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts, during the first twenty years in Leiden, Lorentz was primarily interested in the theory of electromagnetism to explain the relationship of electricity, magnetism, and light. After that, he extended his research to a wider area while still focusing on theoretical physics. Lorentz made significant contributions to fields ranging from hydrodynamics to general relativity and his most important contributions were in the area of electromagnetism, the electron theory, and relativity. Lorentz theorized that atoms might consist of charged particles and suggested that the oscillations of charged particles were the source of light. When a colleague and former student of Lorentzs, Pieter Zeeman, discovered the Zeeman effect in 1896, the experimental and theoretical work was honored with the Nobel prize in physics in 1902. Lorentz name is now associated with the Lorentz-Lorenz formula, the Lorentz force, the Lorentzian distribution, in 1892 and 1895 Lorentz worked on describing electromagnetic phenomena in reference frames that move relative to the luminiferous aether. He discovered that the transition from one to another reference frame could be simplified by using a new variable which he called local time
32.
Pieter Zeeman
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Pieter Zeeman was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Hendrik Lorentz for his discovery of the Zeeman effect. Pieter Zeeman was born in Zonnemaire, a town on the island of Schouwen-Duiveland, Netherlands, to Catharinus Forandinus Zeeman, a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church. He became interested in physics at an early age, in 1883 the Aurora borealis happened to be visible in the Netherlands. Zeeman, then a student at the school in Zierikzee, made a drawing and description of the phenomenon and submitted it to Nature. The editor praised the careful observations of Professor Zeeman from his observatory in Zonnemaire, after finishing high school in 1883 he went to Delft for supplementary education in classical languages, then a requirement for admission to University. He stayed at the home of Dr J. W. Lely, co-principal of the gymnasium and brother of Cornelis Lely, while in Delft, he first met Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was to become his thesis adviser. After Zeeman passed the exams in 1885, he studied physics at the University of Leiden under Kamerlingh Onnes. In 1890, even finishing his thesis, he became Lorentzs assistant. This allowed him to participate in a programme on the Kerr effect. In 1893 he submitted his thesis on the Kerr effect. After obtaining his doctorate he went for half a year to Friedrich Kohlrauschs institute in Strasbourg, in 1895, after returning from Strasbourg, Zeeman became Privatdozent in mathematics and physics in Leiden. The same year he married Johanna Elisabeth Lebret, they had three daughters and one son and he was fired for his efforts, but he was later vindicated, he won the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of what has now become known as the Zeeman effect. As an extension of his thesis research, he began investigating the effect of magnetic fields on a light source and he discovered that a spectral line is split into several components in the presence of a magnetic field. The next Monday, Lorentz called Zeeman into his office and presented him with an explanation of his observations, the importance of Zeemans discovery soon became apparent. It confirmed Lorentzs prediction about the polarization of light emitted in the presence of a magnetic field and this conclusion was reached well before Thomsons discovery of the electron. The Zeeman effect thus became an important tool for elucidating the structure of the atom, because of his discovery, Zeeman was offered a position as lecturer in Amsterdam in 1897. In 1900 this was followed by his promotion to professor of physics at the University of Amsterdam, in 1902, together with his former mentor Lorentz, he received the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of the Zeeman effect. Five years later, in 1908, he succeeded Van der Waals as full professor and Director of the Physics Institute in Amsterdam, a new laboratory built in Amsterdam in 1923 was renamed the Zeeman Laboratory in 1940
33.
Henri Becquerel
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Antoine Henri Becquerel was a French physicist, Nobel laureate, and the first person to discover evidence of radioactivity. For work in this field he, along with Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie, the SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel, is named after him. Roentgen discovered X-rays on November 8,1895, the press reported this on January 5,1896, shortly before Becquerel did his famous experiment. Thus radioactivity was discovered the year but within a year of the discovery of X-rays. Becquerel was born in Paris into a family which produced four generations of scientists, Becquerels grandfather, father. He studied engineering at the École Polytechnique and the École des Ponts et Chaussées, in 1890 he married Louise Désirée Lorieux. In 1892, he became the third in his family to occupy the chair at the Muséum National dHistoire Naturelle. In 1894, he became chief engineer in the Department of Bridges, Becquerels earliest works centered on the subject of his doctoral thesis, the plane polarization of light, with the phenomenon of phosphorescence and absorption of light by crystals. Becquerels discovery of radioactivity is a famous example of serendipity. Becquerel had long interested in phosphorescence, the emission of light of one color following a bodys exposure to light of another color. His first experiments appeared to show this, one places on the sheet of paper, on the outside, a slab of the phosphorescent substance, and one exposes the whole to the sun for several hours. When one then develops the photographic plate, one recognizes that the silhouette of the phosphorescent substance appears in black on the negative. If one places between the phosphorescent substance and the paper a piece of money or a metal screen pierced with a cut-out design, one must conclude from these experiments that the phosphorescent substance in question emits rays which pass through the opaque paper and reduce silver salts. But further experiments led him to doubt and then abandon this hypothesis, since the sun did not come out in the following days, I developed the photographic plates on the 1st of March, expecting to find the images very weak. Instead the silhouettes appeared with great intensity, however, the present experiments, without being contrary to this hypothesis, do not warrant this conclusion. I hope that the experiments which I am pursuing at the moment will be able to bring some clarification to this new class of phenomena. In 1903, Becquerel shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre, by 1861, Niepce de Saint-Victor realized that uranium salts produce a radiation that is invisible to our eyes. Niepce de Saint-Victor knew Edmond Becquerel, Henri Becquerels father, in 1868, Edmond Becquerel published a book, La lumière, ses causes et ses effets
. Bibcode:2001Natur.412..295D. doi:10.1038/35085500. PMID 11460153.
