1.
Carleton University
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Carleton University is a comprehensive university located in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The enabling legislation is The Carleton University Act,1952, S. O and it was founded on rented premises in 1942, and grew to meet the needs of returning World War II veterans and later became Ontarios first private, non-denominational college. It would expand further in the 1960s, consistent with government policy that saw increased access to education as a social good. Carleton is a university that offers more than 65 academic programs across a wide range of disciplines. It is named after the former Carleton County, Ontario, which included the city of Ottawa at the time Carleton was founded, Carleton County, in turn, was named in honour of Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester, an early Governor-General of British North America. As of 2016, Carleton has enrollment of more than 22,000 undergraduate, the university is represented in U Sports by the Carleton Ravens. I learned very early the lesson that it is people, not buildings. And if we put our hearts to it we can do something worthwhile, – Henry Marshall Tory Carleton College, a non-denominational institution, was founded in 1942 at the height of the Second World War by the Ottawa Association for the Advancement of Learning. It began in a building and only offered night courses in public administration. When the war ended in 1945, the college began expanding to meet the needs of veterans coming home, the Faculty of Arts and Science was established, which included courses in journalism and first-year engineering. In 1946, the moved to First Avenue in The Glebe neighbourhood. Its first degrees were conferred in 1946 to graduates of its programs in Journalism, for nearly a decade the college operated on a shoestring budget, with funds raised mainly through community initiatives and modest student fees. During the war, student fees were low and Carleton gave special grants to veterans returning home who wished to continue their studies. The faculty was composed largely of part-time professors who worked full-time in the Public Service, however, full-time teaching staff were still mostly young scholars at the beginning of their careers. In 1952 the Carleton College Act was passed by the Ontario Legislature, changing its name to Carleton College. Carleton thus became the provinces first private, non-sectarian college, in the same year, the 62-hectare property nestled between the Rideau Canal and the Rideau River on which the current campus is located was acquired. Some of the land was donated by a prominent Ottawa businessman Harry Stevenson Southam, construction began on the new campus in 1953. In 1957 the Carleton University Act,1952 was amended, granting Carleton status as a public university, Carletons motto, Ours the Task Eternal, is taken from Walt Whitmans poem, Pioneers
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Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
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Liberal arts colleges in the United States
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Liberal arts colleges in the United States are certain undergraduate institutions of higher education in the United States. These schools are American institutions of education which have traditionally emphasized interactive instruction at the undergraduate level. These colleges also encourage a high level of interaction at the center of which are classes taught by full-time faculty rather than graduate student TAs. In addition, some colleges offer experimental curricula, Liberal arts colleges are also often associated with larger bodies or consortia. The largest association of liberal arts colleges in the United States is the Council of Independent Colleges, with more than 630 small. The Council of Public Liberal Arts Colleges is a consortium of liberal arts colleges. Many liberal arts colleges belong to the Annapolis Group, Oberlin Group, Womens College Coalition, a number of liberal arts colleges are involved in Project Pericles or the Eco League. Other well-known consortia in the Eastern United States include the Little Three, Colby-Bates Bowdoin Consortium, the Seven Sisters Colleges, similar consortia include the Claremont College Consortium in Southern California and the Associated Colleges of the Midwest in the Midwestern United States. Additional midwestern groups include the Five Colleges of Ohio, Associated Colleges of the Twin Cities, the Associated Colleges of the Midwest, groups in the Southern United States include the Associated Colleges of the South, and the Seven Sisters of the South. There are no passive ears, students and faculty work so closely together, teaching is an act of love. There is not only a relationship in class but professors become hiking companions, intramural teammates, dinner companions. Learning is collaborative rather than competitive, values are central, there is a sense of community. They are places of great synergy, where the whole becomes greater than the sum of the parts, aspirations are raised, young people are empowered. College and university rankings guides offer annual issues that rank liberal arts colleges separately from research universities, the Washington Monthly and U. S. News & World Report provide rankings specifically of liberal arts colleges. As a result, a majority of the approximately 80 presidents at the said that they did not intend to participate in the U. S. News reputational rankings in the future. Plus, the reputation of a school can help get that all-important first job, the peer survey is by nature subjective, but the technique of asking industry leaders to rate their competitors is a commonly accepted practice. The results from the survey also can act to level the playing field between private and public colleges. S. News has been supplying this exact college information for years already
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Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
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Northfield, Minnesota
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Northfield is a city in Dakota and Rice counties in the State of Minnesota. The city is mostly in Rice County, with a portion in Dakota County. The population was 20,007 during the 2010 census, Northfield was platted in 1855 by John W. North. Northfield was founded by immigrants from New England known as Yankees as part of a New England colonization of what was then the far west, Northfield was an early agricultural center with many wheat and corn farms. The town also supported lumber and flour mills powered by the Cannon River, as the wheat frontier moved west, dairy operations and diversified farms replaced the wheat-based agriculture. The region has since moved away from dairy and beef operations, today it produces substantial crops of corn, and soybeans, as well as producing hogs. The local cereal producer Malt-O-Meal is one of the few remnants of Northfields historic wheat boom, the citys motto, Cows, Colleges, and Contentment, reflects the influence of the dairy farms. Since early in its history, Northfield has been a center of higher education and these were people descended from the English Puritans who settled New England in the 1600s. These two institutions, which today enroll a total of more than 5,000 students, make Northfield a college town, in the 1970s, completion of Interstate Highway 35 six miles west of Northfield enabled the expansion of the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metro area south of the Minnesota River. The downtown grain elevator accepted its last load of corn in 2000 and was torn down in 2002, residential growth has been rapid since the mid-1990s A new area hospital, which opened in 2003 in the northwest corner of town, is in Dakota County. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 8.61 square miles,8.56 square miles is land and 0.05 square miles is water. The peak elevation is about 912 feet, roughly speaking, the town is centered around the Cannon River and rises both to the east and the west away from this bisecting river body. Interstate 35 is six miles west of Northfield, Minnesota State Highways 3,19, and 246 are three of the main routes in Northfield. As of the census of 2010, there were 20,007 people,6,272 households, the population density was 2,337.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 6,832 housing units at a density of 798.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 88. 8% White,1. 3% African American,0. 2% Native American,3. 5% Asian,4. 0% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 8. 4% of the population. 30. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.04. The median age in the city was 26.4 years
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Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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Carleton Knights
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The Carleton Knights are the sports teams of Carleton College, located in Northfield, Minnesota. They participate in the NCAAs Division III and in the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, Carleton was a founding member of the MIAC in 1920, but left in 1925. In 1958 Carole Pushing won the individual intercollegiate golf championship. The official mascot of the Carleton Athletic teams is the Knights, CUT has qualified annually for nationals since 1989, and won the National Championship in 2001,2009, and 2011. Syzygy has qualified for womens nationals all but one year since 1987, in the fall of 2011, the womens rugby team was undefeated in their league and region. This led them on to win Division 3 national playoffs, after winning their league, the team continues to regularly dominate their region, as well as compete at state and national levels every year. The spring intramural softball league is known as Rotblatt, in honor of baseball player Marvin Rotblatt, once a year a day-long game, also known as Rotblatt, lasts the same number of innings as the number of years since Carletons founding. In 1997, Sports Illustrated honored Rotblatt in its Best of Everything section with the award, laird Stadium is the home of the Carleton Knights football and track and field teams. Its capacity is 7,500 and is one of the largest in Division III, laird Stadium has been the site for the NCAA Division III Outdoor Track and Field Championships three times. West Gymnasium is the home for Knights basketball and volleyball teams, bell Field is home of the softball and soccer teams, as well as a variety of intramural and club sports. The MIAC Tennis Championships are held at the courts and the 1994 NCAA Division III Tennis Championships was also hosted at Carleton. The softball complex has hosted the MIAC Playoffs in 2004 and 2006, Northfield Golf Club is the home course for the Knights mens and womens golf teams. Mel Taube Field is the home of the Carleton baseball team. Situated between rolling meadows and the Scenic Cowling Arboretum, it offers stunning vistas of Southern Minnesotas picturesque prairie, the field is noted for its rowdy home crowds and its formidable home team
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NCAA Division III
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Sports Division III is a division of the National Collegiate Athletic Association of the United States. The division consists of colleges and universities that choose not to offer athletically related financial aid to their student-athletes, as explained in more detail in the article about NCAA Division II, the NCAAs first split was into two divisions. The former College Division formed because many NCAA member schools wanted an alternative to the nature of what is now Division I. Division III formed in 1973, in a split of the College Division, the former College Division members that chose to offer athletic scholarships or to remain in a division with those who did became Division II, while members that did not became Division III. Division III is the NCAA’s largest division with 438 active member institutions, of the member institutions, 81% are private, while only 19% are public. Division III schools range in size from an undergraduate enrollment of 348 to a maximum of 21,247. Division III institutions have to sponsor at least five sports for men and five for women, there are minimum contest and participant minimums for each sport. Division III athletic programs are non-revenue-generating, extracurricular programs that are staffed and funded like any other university department, hence, they feature student-athletes who receive no financial aid related to their athletic ability. Student athletes also cannot redshirt as freshmen, and schools may not use endowments or funds whose primary purpose is to benefit athletic programs, Division III schools shall not award financial aid to any student on the basis of athletics leadership, ability, participation or performance. The ban on scholarships is strictly enforced. S, an all-sports conference is defined here as one that sponsors both mens and womens basketball. A conference name followed by * denotes a conference also sponsors football. Six of them are grandfathered schools that have competed at the highest level of a particular mens sport prior to the institution of the Division classifications in 1971. Presumably due to Title IX considerations, grandfathered schools are allowed to field one womens sport in Division I. These schools are allowed to offer scholarships in their Division I mens and womens sports to remain competitive with their opponents. The State University of New York at Oneonta, which had been grandfathered in mens soccer, rutgers University–Newark, which had been grandfathered in mens volleyball, did the same in 2014. Academic-based and need-based financial aid is available, as is the case for Division III. Franklin and Marshall College Hobart College Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT also fields mens rowing, lawrence continues to field a fencing team, but that team is now considered Division III. Football and basketball may not be grandfathered Division I programs because their potential would give them an unfair advantage over other Division III schools
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Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference
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The Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference is a college athletic conference which competes in the NCAAs Division III. As the name implies, member schools are located in the state of Minnesota, all of the member schools are private, with all but one having a religious affiliation, and only two being non-sectarian. Olaf College, and the University of St. Thomas, concordia College joined the MIAC in 1921, Augsburg College in 1924, and Saint Marys University in 1926. Carleton dropped membership in 1925, rejoining in 1983, St. Olaf left in 1950, returning in 1975. The University of Minnesota Duluth was a member of the MIAC from 1950 to 1975, the MIAC initiated womens competition in the 1981–82 season. Two all-womens schools subsequently joined the conference, St. Catherine University in 1983, Augsburg did not participate in intercollegiate football from 1935 through 1938. The conference did not play sports from the fall 1943 to the spring of 1945 due to World War II, Saint Marys discontinued its football program in 1955. Macalester became an independent in football in 2002, but still retains its MIAC membership in other sports, wrestling was dropped as a conference sponsored sport after the 2002–03 season. St. Catherine and St. Benedict, being both womens colleges, also do not sponsor football, together with Saint Johns, one of only a handful of mens colleges, St. Benedict forms a joint academic institution, known commonly by the initialism CSB/SJU. From 1947 to 2003 the MIAC had a mens wrestling program. The strongest teams over the history of the conference were Augsburg with 31 team championships, – St. Olaf left the MIAC after the 1949–50 season, and re-joined back in the 1975–76 season. – Macalester became a member of the Midwest Conference for football starting with the 2014 season after being an independent in football since 2002. Member teams compete in football, soccer, cross country, golf, volleyball, basketball, ice hockey, indoor track and field, swimming and diving, baseball, tennis, track and field, the conference no longer sponsors mens wrestling or mens and womens Nordic skiing. In 2014 joined the Midwest Conference for football, the executive director, a position was created in 1994, serves as the conference commissioner. Carlyle Carter Daniel McKane Official website
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Carleton College Cowling Arboretum
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The Carleton College Cowling Arboretum consists of approximately 880 acres of land adjacent to Carleton College, in Northfield, Minnesota. It was created under President Donald J. Cowling and Professor Harvey E. Stork in the 1920s. Professor Stork and Superintendent of Grounds D. Blake Stewart were responsible for much of the development of the Arboretum. Stork and Stewsie were remarkable land managers, and it can be argued that they were among the nations first restoration ecologists, in particular, their planting of upland forest trees and wildflowers in the Upper Arboretum decades ago is now coming to impressive maturity. The original Arboretum has been augmented both by absorbing the Carleton Farm as it was closed down in the 1960s, and by purchases of adjoining farmland. Cultivated land, which made up much of the property within the Arboretum, has slowly been phased out since 1970. The Arboretum is divided by Highway 19 into the Upper Arboretum, the two portions of the Arboretum differ in character and in the pattern of visitor use. Since the Upper Arboretum is closer to both the campus and most Northfield residents, it receives more traffic and is being developed for heavier use, the Upper Arboretum has greater trail density, some trails designated for bike use, and generally smaller areas of natural communities. In contrast, the Lower Arboretum has populations of rare plants, therefore, the Lower Arboretum has fewer trails, no bike use, and large contiguous areas of natural habitat. The three purposes of the Arboretum will all be served by maximizing its biological diversity, and this is a goal of current management practices. Diversity will be enhanced both by increasing the number and size of different community types and by increasing diversity within particular communities. The Arb is used extensively as a classroom by a number of Carleton courses. Students are able to carry out observations and experiments in a setting within walking distance of the campus. It is also used by educational institutions at levels from pre-school to graduate school. The Arb has been a State Game Refuge for decades, as ecological restoration proceeds in the coming decades, the conservation value of the Arb will be substantially increased. Small populations of two turtles are found in the Arb, wood turtles and Blanding’s turtles. Two threatened plant species were discovered in the Arb in the 1990s, ovate-leaved skullcap, other rare species may remain undiscovered. The most common use of the Arb is by casual visitors who come to walk, run, ski, fish
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Collegiate Gothic
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A form of historicist architecture, it took its inspiration from English Tudor and Gothic buildings. It is for us, as part of our duty as our highest privilege to act, Gothic Revival architecture was used for American college buildings as early as 1829, when Old Kenyon was completed on the campus of Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio. Alexander Jackson Daviss University Hall, on New York Universitys Washington Square campus, was another early example, richard Bonds church-like library for Harvard College, Gore Hall, became the model for other library buildings. James Renwick, Jr. s Free Academy Building, for what is today City College of New York, inspired by Londons Hampton Court Palace, Swedish-born Charles Ulricson designed Old Main at Knox College in Galesburg, Illinois. Richards, architect, Harvard College – Memorial Hall, William Robert Ware and Henry Van Brunt, architects, and Cornell University – Sage Hall, Charles Babcock, architect. In 1871, English architect William Burges designed a row of vigorous French Gothic-inspired buildings for Trinity College – Seabury Hall, Northam Tower, Jarvis Hall – in Hartford, Connecticut. Tastes became more conservative in the 1880s, and collegiate architecture soon after came to prefer a more scholarly, inspired by the architecture of Oxford and Cambridge universities, and historicists but not literal copyists, Cope & Stewardson were highly influential in establishing the Collegiate Gothic style. In 1901, the firm of Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge created a plan for a Collegiate Gothic campus for the fledgling University of Chicago. Some of their works, such as the Mitchell Tower, were copies of historic buildings. George Browne Post designed the City College of New Yorks new campus at Hamilton Heights, Manhattan, the style was experienced up-close by a wide audience at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, Missouri. The Worlds Fair and 1904 Olympic Games were held on the completed campus of Washington University. The movement gained momentum when Charles Donagh Maginnis designed Gasson Hall at Boston College in 1908. Ralph Adams Cram designed one of the most poetic collections of Collegiate Gothic buildings for the Princeton University Graduate College, james Gamble Rogerss extensive work at Yale University, beginning in 1917, took historicist fantasy to an extreme. He was criticized by the growing Modernist movement, following McMaster Universitys decision to relocate to Hamilton, Ontario, Canadian architect William Lyon Somerville designed its new campus in the style. These buildings are among the most remarkable yet built in America and they are picturesque also, even dramatic, they are altogether wonderful in mass and in composition. If they are not a constant inspiration to those who dwell within their walls or pass through their quads or their vaulted archways, it is not their fault, the tower has been severely criticized as an archaeological abstraction reared to commemorate contemporary American heroism. The criticism seems just to me, though only in a measure, American heroism harks back to English heroism, the blood shed before Manila and on San Juan Hill was the same blood that flowed at Bosworth Field, Flodden, and the Boyne. Therefore the British base of the design is indispensable, for such were the racial foundations, Collegiate Gothic complexes were most often horizontal compositions, save for a single tower or towers serving as an exclamation
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Contemporary architecture
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Contemporary architecture is the architecture of the 21st century. Contemporary buildings are designed to be noticed and to astonish, Some feature concrete structures wrapped in glass or aluminum screens, very asymmetric facades, and cantilevered sections which hang over the street. Skyscrapers twist, or break into crystal-like facets, facades are designed to shimmer or change color at different times of day. Most of the landmarks of contemporary architecture are the works of a group of architects who work on an international scale. Some of the most striking and innovative works of architecture are art museums, which are often examples of sculptural architecture. The Quadracci Pavilion of the Milwaukee Art Museum in Milwaukee, Wisconsin was designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava. Its structure includes a movable, wing-like brise soleil that opens up for a wingspan of 217 feet during the day, folding over the tall and it also harmonizes with two stone churches opposite. Inside, the walls of the galleries are all different, sloping, Libeskind completed another striking museum, the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, also known as The Crystal, a building whose form, resembles a shattered crystal. Libeskinds museums have been admired and attacked by critics. The De Young Museum in San Francisco was designed by the Swiss architects Herzog & de Meuron and it opened in 2005, replacing an older structure that was badly damaged in an earthquake in 1989. The new museum was designed to blend with the landscape of the park. The building can move up to three feet on ball-bearing sliding plates and viscous fluid dampers that absorb kinetic energy, the Zentrum Paul Klee by Renzo Piano is an art museum near Berne Switzerland located next to an autoroute in the Swiss countryside. The museum blends into the landscape by taking the form of three rolling hills, made of steel and glass, one building houses the gallery while the other two hills contain an education center and administrative offices. The roofs geometry is irregular, featuring curves and counter-curves over the entire building, the entire wooden structure is covered with a white fibreglass membrane and a coating of teflon, which protects from direct sunlight, but allows light to pass through. The Louis Vuitton Foundation by Frank Gehry is gallery of art located adjacent to the Bois de Boulogne in Paris was opened in October 2014. Gehry had to work within strict height and volume restrictions, which required any part of the building two stories to be made of glass. Because of the limits, the building is low, sited in an artificial lake with water cascading beneath the building. The interior gallery structures are covered in a white fiber-reinforced concrete called Ductal, similar in concept to Gehrys Walt Disney Concert Hall, the building is wrapped in curving glass panels resembling sails inflated by the wind
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Fulbright Program
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The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills. It is one of the most prestigious scholarships in the world, the Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education and it operates in over 160 countries around the world. The U. S. Department of States Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an appropriation from the U. S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from governments, foundations, corporations. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers, in countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the U. S. Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began, fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes, eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes. In 1945, Senator J. William Fulbright proposed a bill to use the proceeds from selling surplus U. S. government war property to international exchange between the U. S. and other countries. The bill devised a plan to forgo the debts foreign countries amassed during the war and it was through the belief that this program would be an essential vehicle to promote peace and mutual understanding between individuals, institutions and future leaders wherever they may be. If we do not want to die together in war, we must learn to live together in peace. On August 1,1946, President Harry S. Truman signed the bill into law, since it began, the program has operated on a bi-national basis, each country active in the Fulbright Program has entered into an agreement with the U. S. government. The first countries to sign agreements were Cuba in 1947 and Burma, the Philippines, Educational exchange can turn nations into people, contributing as no other form of communication can to the humanizing of international relations. The Fulbright Program works two ways, U. S. citizens may receive funding to go to a foreign country, citizens may come to the U. S. Fulbright grants are offered in almost all academic disciplines except clinical medical research involving patient contact. Fulbright grantees fields of study span the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, natural and physical sciences. Student Program offers fellowships for U. S. graduating seniors, graduate students, young professionals and artists to research, study, the Fulbright Foreign Student Program enables graduate students, young professionals and artists from abroad to conduct research and study in the United States. Some scholarships are renewed after the year of study. This program is currently on hiatus, the Fulbright-mtvU Fellowships award up to four U. S. students the opportunity to study the power of music as a cultural force abroad. Fellows conduct research for one year on projects of their own design about a chosen musical aspect
15.
Barry M. Goldwater Scholarship
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Its goal is to provide a continuing source of highly qualified scientists, mathematicians, and engineers by awarding scholarships to college students who intend to pursue careers in these fields. The Scholarship—the most prestigious award given in the sciences—is awarded to about 300 college sophomores. A maximum of $7500 per academic year is granted, the scholarship is awarded based on merit, and the actual amount given is based on financial need. In addition, since at least 2006, about 150 exceptional applicants not awarded the Scholarship have been recognized with official Honorable Mentions, competition for the Scholarship is exceptionally intense. Universities are allowed to only four undergraduate students per year to receive the final Scholarship. As a result, the Scholarship is the award in the U. S. conferred upon undergraduates studying the sciences. Through March 2006, Princeton University has had the most Goldwater Scholars with 64, followed by Harvard University with, Duke University, Kansas State University, and the University of Chicago. From 2007 to 2015, the University of Alabama has had the most Goldwater Scholars with 25 and this is judged by letter of references, essays written by the student, and prior research experience. The number of scholarships awarded per region depends on the number, Goldwater Scholarship Homepage 2016 Scholars 2015 Scholars 2014 Scholars 2013 Scholars 2012 Scholars 2011 Scholars 2010 Scholars 2009 Scholars
16.
Rhodes Scholarship
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The Rhodes Scholarship, named for the British mining magnate and South African politician Cecil John Rhodes, is an international postgraduate award for students to study at the University of Oxford. It is widely considered to be one of the worlds most prestigious scholarships, established in 1902, it was the first large-scale programme of international scholarships, inspiring the creation of a great many other awards in other countries. With the scholarships, he aimed at making Oxford University the educational centre of the English-speaking race, since its creation, controversy has surrounded both its former exclusion of women, and Rhodes Anglo-supremacist beliefs and legacy of colonialism. As of 2016, there have been 7,776 scholars since the programmes inception, more than 4,700 are still living. The Rhodes Scholarships are administered and awarded by the Rhodes Trust, which was established in 1902 under the terms and conditions of the will of Cecil John Rhodes, Rhodes motivation in establishing the scholarship is reflected in his will. Stead noted that it him to the world as the first distinguished British statesman whose Imperialism was that of Race, with the scholarships, he aimed at making Oxford University the educational centre of the English-speaking race. With this motivation in mind, the legacy originally provided for scholarships for the British colonies and these three were chosen because it was thought that a good understanding between England, Germany and the United States of America will secure the peace of the world. In 1925, the Commonwealth Fund Fellowships were established to reciprocate the Rhodes Scholarships by enabling British graduates to study in the United States and it also cooperates with universities in China, BLCC for example. BLCC offers high-level scholarships for students who aim to study Chinese in Beijing. In 1953, the Parliament of the United Kingdom created the Marshall Scholarship as an alternative to the Rhodes Scholarship that would serve as a living gift to the United States. For at least its first 75 years, Rhodes Scholars usually studied for a second Bachelor of Arts degree, while that remains an option, more recent scholars usually study for an advanced degree. In recognition of the centenary of the foundation of the Rhodes Trust in 2003 and these were John Brademas, Bob Hawke, Rex Nettleford and David R. Woods. During the centenary celebrations, the foundation of the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was also marked, Cecil Rhodes wished current scholars and Rhodes alumni to have opportunities of meeting and discussing their experiences and prospects. Each countrys scholarship varies in its selectivity, in the United States, in 2014, there were 857 university-endorsed applicants for the Americans Rhodes scholarship, of whom 3. 7% were ultimately elected. In Canada between 1997-2002, there were an average of 234 university-endorsed applicants annually for 11 scholarships, for a rate of 4. 7%. An early change was the elimination of the scholarships for Germany during the First, no German scholars were chosen from 1914 to 1929, nor from 1940 to 1969. Rhodess bequest was whittled down considerably in the first decades after his death, a change occurred in 1929, when an Act of Parliament established a fund separate from the original proceeds of Rhodess will and made it possible to expand the number of scholarships. Between 1993 and 1995, scholarships were extended to countries in the European Community
17.
U.S. News & World Report
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U. S. News & World Report is an American media company that publishes news, opinion, consumer advice, rankings, and analysis. Founded as a magazine in 1933, U. S. News transitioned to primarily web-based publishing in 2010. The rankings are popular in North America but have drawn criticism from colleges, administrations, and students for their dubious, disparate. The ranking system by U. S. News is usually contrasted with the Washington Monthly, United States News was founded in 1933 by David Lawrence, who also started World Report in 1946. The two magazines covered national and international news separately, but Lawrence merged them into U. S. News & World Report in 1948 and subsequently sold the magazine to his employees. Historically, the magazine tended to be more conservative than its two primary competitors, Time and Newsweek, and focused more on economic, health. It also eschewed sports, entertainment, and celebrity news, important milestones in the early history of the magazine include the introduction of the Washington Whispers column in 1934 and the News You Can Use column in 1952. In 1958, the magazines circulation passed one million and reached two million by 1973. Since 1983, it has become known primarily for its influential ranking and annual reports of colleges and graduate schools, spanning across most fields and its print edition was consistently included in national bestseller lists, augmented by online subscriptions. Additional rankings published by U. S. News & World Report include hospitals, in October 1984, publisher and real estate developer Mortimer B. Zuckerman purchased U. S. News & World Report. Zuckerman is also the owner of the New York Daily News, in 1993, U. S. News & World Report entered the digital world by providing content to CompuServe and in 1995, the website usnews. com was launched. In 2001, the won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence Online. In 2007, U. S. News & World Report published its first list of the nations best high schools and its ranking methodology includes state test scores and the success of poor and minority students on these exams, and schools performance in Advanced Placement exams. Starting in June 2008, the magazine reduced its frequency in three steps. It switched in June 2008 from weekly to biweekly, in November 2008 it decreased to monthly. In November 2010, it was reported that U. S, moving forward, the publication expressed its plans to focus mainly on research and the provision of relevant information to students pursuing higher education. Its rankings and university guide books are available in print at the majority of bookstores and magazine vendors in the United States, selling millions of copies on an annual basis. In June 2008, citing the overall magazine circulation and advertising, U. S. News & World Report announced that it would become a biweekly publication
18.
Congregational church
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Congregational or Congregationalist churches are Protestant churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. Congregationalism is often considered to be a part of the wider Reformed tradition, ideas of nonconforming Protestants during the Puritan Reformation of the Church of England laid foundation for these churches. Congregationalists also differed with the Reformed churches using episcopalian church governance, within the United States, the model of Congregational churches was carried by migrating settlers from New England into New York, then into the Old North West, and further. With their insistence on independent local bodies, they became important in social reform movements, including abolitionism, temperance. Congregationalist tradition has a presence in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and it has been introduced either by immigrant dissenter Protestants or by missionary organization such as the London Missionary Society. Congregationalists believe their model of church governance fulfils the description of the early church, Congregationalism is more easily identified as a movement than a single denomination, given its distinguishing commitment to the complete autonomy of the local congregation. The early Congregationalists shared with Anabaptist theology the ideal of a pure church and they believed the adult conversion experience was necessary for an individual to become a full member in the church, unlike other Reformed churches. As such, the Congregationalists were an influence on the Baptists. They differed in counting the children of believers in some members of the church. On the other hand, the Baptists required each member to experience conversion, in England, the Anglican system of church government was taken over by King Henry VIII. It declared the sovereign of England to be the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England. In the reign of Elizabeth I, this title was changed to Supreme Governor of the Church of England, an act still in effect. Robert Browne, Henry Barrow, John Greenwood, John Penry, William Brewster, Thomas Jollie, the underground churches in England and exiles from Holland provided about 35 out of the 102 passengers on the Mayflower, which sailed from London in July 1620. They became known in history as the Pilgrim Fathers, the early Congregationalists sought to separate themselves from the Anglican church in every possible way and even eschewed having church buildings. They met in homes for many years, in 1639 William Wroth, then Rector of the parish church at Llanvaches in Monmouthshire, established the first Independent Church in Wales according to the New England pattern, i. e. Congregational. The Tabernacle United Reformed Church at Llanvaches survives to this day, during the English Civil War, those who supported the Parliamentary cause were invited by Parliament to discuss religious matters. This government would last until 1660 when the monarch was restored, in 1658 the Congregationalists created their own version of the Westminster Confession, called the Savoy Declaration, which remains the principal subordinate standard of Congregationalism. The work in South America began in 1921 when four Argentine churches urgently requested that denominational recognition be given to George Geier, the Illinois Conference licensed Geier, who worked among Germans from Russia who were very similar to their kin in the United States and in Canada
19.
Charlestown, Boston
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Charlestown is the oldest neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Originally called Mishawum by the Massachusett, it is located on a north of the Charles River, across from downtown Boston. Charlestown was laid out in 1629 by engineer Thomas Graves, one of its early settlers and it was originally a separate town and the first capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Charlestown became a city in 1848 and was annexed by Boston on January 5,1874, with that, it also switched from Middlesex County, to which it had belonged since 1643, to Suffolk County. It has had a substantial Irish American population since the migration of Irish people during the Great Irish Famine of the 1840s, since the late 1980s the neighborhood has changed dramatically because of its proximity to downtown and its colonial architecture. In the 21st century, Charlestowns diversity has expanded dramatically, along with growing rates of the very poor, today Charlestown is a largely residential neighborhood, with much housing near the waterfront, overlooking the Boston skyline. Charlestown is home to historic sites, hospitals and organizations. Thomas and Jane Walford were the original English settlers of the peninsula between the Charles and the Mystic and they were given a grant by Sir Robert Gorges, with whom they had settled at Wessagusset in September 1623 and arrived at what they called Mishawaum in 1624. John Endicott, first governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, sent William, Richard, Thomas Walford, acting as an interpreter with the Massachusetts Indians, negotiated with the local sachem Wonohaquaham for Endicott and his people to settle there. John Winthrops company stopped here for time in 1630, before deciding to settle across the Charles River at Boston. The territory of Charlestown was initially quite large, from it, Woburn was separated in 1642, Melrose and Malden in 1649, Stoneham in 1725, and Somerville in 1842. Everett, Burlington, Medford, Arlington and Cambridge also acquired areas originally allocated to Charlestown, on June 17,1775, the Charlestown Peninsula was the site of the Battle of Bunker Hill, named for a hill at the northwest end of the peninsula near Charlestown Neck. British troops unloaded at Moulton’s Point and much of the battle took place on Breeds Hill, the town, including its wharves and dockyards, was almost completely destroyed during the battle by the British. The town was not appreciably rebuilt until the end of hostilities but, in 1786, an 87-acre Navy Yard was established in 1800, Charlestown State Prison opened in 1805. The Bunker Hill Monument was erected between 1827 and 1843 using Quincy granite brought to the site by a combination of purpose-built railway, notable businesses included the Bunker Hill Breweries and Schraffts candy company. Around the 1860s an influx of Irish immigrants arrived in Charlestown, following the war, the city commissioned Martin Milmore to construct its civil war memorial, dedicated in 1872 and still standing in the communitys Training Field. Out of its 32,040 residents,2240 voted in support of the merger and 1947 opposed, Boston residents also approved the question,5, 960–1,868. Charlestowns separate city government was dissolved the next year, during the early 1960s, the city initiated plans to demolish and redevelop sixty percent of the housing in Charlestown
20.
Jesse James
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Jesse Woodson James was an American outlaw, guerrilla, gang leader, bank robber, train robber, and murderer from the Little Dixie area of western Missouri. He was the most famous member of the James-Younger Gang, Jesse and his brother Frank James were Confederate guerrillas or bushwhackers during the Civil War. They were accused of participating in atrocities committed against Union soldiers, after the war, as members of various gangs of outlaws, they robbed banks, stagecoaches, and trains. They continued in crime for several years, recruiting new members, on April 3,1882, Jesse James was killed by Robert Ford, a young member of his gang who hoped to collect a reward on James head. Already a celebrity in life, James became a figure of the Wild West after his death. Despite popular portrayals of James as an embodiment of Robin Hood, robbing from the rich and giving to the poor, there is no evidence that he and his gang shared any loot from their robberies. Jesse Woodson James was born in Clay County, Missouri, near the site of present-day Kearney and this area of Missouri was settled by many people from the Upper South, especially Kentucky and Tennessee. It became known as Little Dixie for this reason, Jesse James had two full siblings, his elder brother, Alexander Franklin Frank James, and a younger sister, Susan Lavenia James. His father, Robert S. James, farmed commercial hemp in Kentucky and was a Baptist minister before coming to Missouri, after he married, he migrated to Bradford, Missouri, where he helped found William Jewell College in Liberty. He was prosperous, acquiring six slaves and more than 100 acres of farmland, Robert James traveled to California during the Gold Rush to minister to those searching for gold, he died there when Jesse was three years old. After Robert Jamess death, his widow Zerelda remarried twice, first to Benjamin Simms in 1852 and then in 1855 to Dr. Reuben Samuel, Jesses mother and Reuben Samuel had four children together, Sarah Louisa, John Thomas, Fannie Quantrell, and Archie Peyton Samuel. Zerelda and Reuben Samuel acquired a total of seven slaves, who served mainly as farmhands in tobacco cultivation, the approach of the American Civil War loomed large in the James-Samuel household. Missouri was a state, sharing characteristics of both North and South, but 75% of the population was from the South or other border states. Clay County was in a region of Missouri later dubbed Little Dixie, farmers raised the same crops and livestock as in the areas they migrated from. They brought slaves with them and purchased more according to their needs, the county counted more slaveholders, who held more slaves, than other regions of the state. Aside from slavery, the culture of Little Dixie was Southern in other ways as well and this influenced how the population acted during and for a period of time after the American Civil War. In Missouri as a whole, slaves accounted for only 10 percent of the population, numerous people from Missouri migrated to Kansas to try to influence its future. Much of the tension that led up to the Civil War centered on the violence erupted in Kansas between pro- and anti-slavery militias
21.
Joseph Lee Heywood
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Joseph Lee Heywood was the acting cashier at the First National Bank of Northfield, Minnesota, when the James-Younger Gang attempted to rob the bank. At the time, Heywood also held positions as Treasurer for the City of Northfield, Joseph Lee Heywood was born August 12,1837, the sixth of seven children born to Benjamin Heywood and Sarah Cutler. Joseph’s grandfather and great grandfather were both soldiers in the American Revolutionary War, one brother, John, was a farmer, two brothers, Silas and Charles, enlisted in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Joseph left home at about 20 years of age, living a year each in Concord and Fitchburg and he worked as a clerk in a drug store in New Baltimore, Michigan for another year and then according to his military records, he moved to Davenport, Iowa. Joseph enlisted in the army on August 21,1862 in Chicago and he had just turned 25 years old, about the age of the average Union recruit. They became restive and burned their quarters three or four times, before his regiment was sent to the front, 40% of Heywoods company had deserted and 14% had been discharged. Joseph remained with his unit, traveling first to Cairo, Illinois by train and then by steamer to Memphis, the troop transport steamer that picked him up after the withdrawal from Chickasaw Bayou took Joseph directly to the very middle of the battle at Arkansas Post. After making multiple assaults on the fort over open ground, The earth was literally blue from one end of their line to the other. The 127th Illinois was one of the first to plant their flag on the enemy fortifications, Colonel Thomas Kilby Smith remarked about his men, “The whistling of bullets is as familiar to their ears as household words. Danger they scorn, and the cheerfulness with which they encounter hardships is beyond all praise. ”Heywood endured the long and arduous march down the west side of the Mississippi, across to Jackson and back to the east side of Vicksburg. He helped to destroy the enemy war-making capabilities in Jackson, and then moved on to the battle of Champion Hill. Although his unit was not in the most intense fighting, it did participate in the initial skirmishes along the Raymond Road and was involved in skirmishes with the retreating rebels. Heywood and his comrades traversed some very treacherous terrain to advance to a position one of the defender’s parapets at Stockade Redan in the first of two bloody assaults on Vicksburg. They were receiving enfilading fire and taking heavy casualties while the Confederates were rushing reinforcements to that area as T. K. Smith’s soldiers fixed bayonets, Smith ordered them to withdraw when he realized it was impossible to scale the steep, high walls without special equipment. Later that night the rebels dropped grenades on the positions that had been occupied by the 127th Illinois Voluntary Infantry. The next day, Colonel T. K. Smith’s men moved along a ravine, encountering similar obstructions to those of the previous day, however, their ranks were thinned by withering enfilading enemy fire and their advance was halted. Colonel Giles A. Smith, in his action report. The day before Vicksburg capitulated, Joseph was transported by hospital steamer to Adams Army Hospital in Memphis and his initial diagnosis was diarrhea, one of the intestinal disorders that accounted for 50% of the disease deaths during the Civil War
22.
Yale Divinity School
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The Divinity School at Yale University, in New Haven, Connecticut is one of twelve graduate or professional schools within Yale University. Congregationalist theological education was the motivation at the founding of Yale, the school had maintained its own campus, faculty, and degree program since 1869, and it has become more ecumenical beginning in the mid-19th century. Since the 1970s it has been affiliated with the Episcopal Berkeley Divinity School and has housed the Institute of Sacred Music, Theological education was the earliest academic purpose of Yale University. A professorship of divinity was established in 1746, in the same motion, Second Great Awakening theologian Nathaniel William Taylor was appointed to become the first Dwight Professor of Didactic Theology. Taylor was considered the figure in the schools founding, and he was joined in 1826 by Josiah Willard Gibbs, Sr. a scholar of sacred languages. After a significant period of enrollment decline, the school began fundraising from alumni for new faculty, Divinity Hall was constructed on the present-day site of Calhoun College between 1869 and 1871, featuring two classroom wings, a chapel. Around the time of the new campus construction came the arrival of new faculty, including James M. Hoppin, George Edward Day, George Park Fisher, the first Bachelor of Divinity was conferred in 1867, and the department became a separate School of Divinity in 1869. The school remained across from Old Campus until 1929, when a new campus was constructed on the edge of the university campus. Berkeley Divinity School affiliated with Yale Divinity School in 1971, while Berkeley retains its Episcopal Church connection, its students are admitted by and fully enrolled as members of Yale Divinity School. The Jonathan Edwards Center at Yale University, a division of the Divinity School, maintains a collection of primary source materials about Jonathan Edwards. The Yale Institute of Sacred Music is jointly-affiliated with the Divinity School and School of Music and it offers programs in choral conducting, organ performance, voice, and church music studies, and in liturgical studies and religion and the arts. The buildings, designed by Richard Morris Hunt, were demolished under the college plan. In 1929, the trustees of the estate of lawyer John William Sterling agreed that a portion of his bequest to Yale would be used to build a new campus for the Divinity School. The Sterling Divinity Quadrangle, completed in 1932, is a Georgian-style complex built at the top of Prospect Hill and it was designed by Delano & Aldrich and modeled in part on the University of Virginia. A $49-million renovation of Sterling Divinity Quadrangle was completed in 2003, poling Peter L. Pond, human rights activist and philanthropist who adopted 16 Cambodian orphans. Adam Clayton Powell, Sr. George Rupp Father V. C
23.
Baptists
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Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency, salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, elders and deacons, Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, in accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christs atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious persecution of English dissenters under King James I. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies, in the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening contributed to Baptist growth in both New England and the South. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent, the largest Baptist denomination is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations and this view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted. Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal and it was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil. Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical truth had been discovered, during the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church. There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, there also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses. Of those most critical of the Churchs direction, some chose to stay and they became known as Puritans and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists. Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction, historians trace the earliest Baptist church back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its pastor. Three years earlier, while a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, reared in the Church of England, he became Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist Separatist, and ended his days working with the Mennonites. He began meeting in England with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of great danger, Smyth and his lay supporter, Thomas Helwys, together with those they led, broke with the other English exiles because Smyth and Helwys were convinced they should be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first baptized himself and then baptized the others, in 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled The Character of the Beast, or The False Constitution of the Church. In it he expressed two propositions, first, infants are not to be baptized, and second, Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism. Hence, his conviction was that a church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith
24.
Evolution
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Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all living on Earth. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction. More than 99 percent of all species that lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates of Earths current species range from 10 to 14 million, more recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection. This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are fitted for the functional roles they perform. The processes by which the changes occur, from one generation to another, are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms, the four most widely recognized evolutionary processes are natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene migration. Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation, mutation and gene migration create variation, consequences of selection can include meiotic drive, nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking. In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics, the importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, evolutionary computation, a sub-field of artificial intelligence, involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science. The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander, such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura, in contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This was part of a teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. In the 17th century, the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach, however, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognized the nature of species relationships. Other naturalists of this time speculated on the change of species over time according to natural laws
25.
The Cave (pub)
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The Cave is a student-led music and entertainment venue, located at Carleton College. It is a gathering place for students at Carleton College and is one of a limited number of music venues in Northfield. Founded in 1927, it is the oldest student-run pub in America and is housed on the lowest level of the Margaret Evans residence hall. The Cave has undergone many transformations over the decades, from lounge, to theater, to game room and finally. The Cave is open Tuesday-Saturday for Carleton students during the academic term, there are typically several shows each week, most often on Friday and Saturday nights. A Carleton College ID card is required for entry. The Cave has hosted a number of distinguished musicians, guests, and performers over the years
26.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
27.
Bertolt Brecht
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Eugen Bertolt Friedrich Brecht was a German poet, playwright, and theatre director of the 20th century. Eugen Berthold Friedrich Brecht was born in February 1898 in Augsburg, Bavaria, Brechts mother was a devout Protestant and his father a Catholic. The modest house where he was born is preserved as a Brecht Museum. His father worked for a mill, becoming its managing director in 1914. Thanks to his mothers influence, Brecht knew the Bible, a familiarity that would have an effect on his writing. From her, too, came the image of the self-denying woman that recurs in his drama. Brechts home life was comfortably middle class, despite what his occasional attempt to claim peasant origins implied, at school in Augsburg he met Caspar Neher, with whom he formed a lifelong creative partnership. Neher designed many of the sets for Brechts dramas and helped to forge the distinctive visual iconography of their epic theatre, when Brecht was 16, the First World War broke out. Initially enthusiastic, Brecht soon changed his mind on seeing his classmates swallowed by the army and his expulsion was only prevented through the intervention of his religion teacher. On his fathers recommendation, Brecht sought a loophole by registering for a course at Munich University. There he studied drama with Arthur Kutscher, who inspired in the young Brecht an admiration for the iconoclastic dramatist, from July 1916, Brechts newspaper articles began appearing under the new name Bert Brecht. Brecht was drafted into service in the autumn of 1918, only to be posted back to Augsburg as a medical orderly in a military VD clinic. In July 1919, Brecht and Paula Banholzer had a son, some time in either 1920 or 1921, Brecht took a small part in the political cabaret of the Munich comedian Karl Valentin. Brechts diaries for the few years record numerous visits to see Valentin perform. Brecht compared Valentin to Charlie Chaplin, for his virtually complete rejection of mimicry and he did short sketches in which he played refractory employees, orchestral musicians or photographers, who hated their employers and made them look ridiculous. The employer was played by his partner, Liesl Karlstadt, a popular woman comedian who used to pad herself out, anyone can be creative, he quipped, its rewriting other people thats a challenge. Brecht completed his second play, Drums in the Night. Between November 1921 and April 1922 Brecht made acquaintance with many people in the Berlin cultural scene
