1.
President of Honduras
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The President of the Republic of Honduras, is the head of state and head of government of Honduras, as well as the Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. According to the 1982 Constitution of Honduras, the primary function is to Execute and enforce the Constitution, treaties and conventions, laws. The constitution also dictates that the president is elected directly by the people to a single four-year term, after the Central America Declaration of Independence publication in Honduras, the Constitution of Honduras in 1825 created three powers, Executive, Legislative and Judicial. The Government of Honduras consists of three branches, Executive, Legislative and Judicial, the President of the Republic is both the head of state and the head of the government. The president is elected by a vote for a four-year term. The National Congress of Honduras consists of 128 Deputies elected to four-year terms, Deputies are elected to office under the proportional representation of elections, each political party appoints office holders in proportion to the number of votes won in a general election. The judiciary includes a Supreme Court of Justice, the Supreme Court of Honduras, a Court of Appeal, the judges of the Supreme Court of Justice are chosen for a period of seven years by the National Congress. Section V, Chapter 6 of the Constitution of Honduras of 1982 establishes the President as the branch of government and sets forth the powers. Qualifications are extremely stringent, designed to prevent a dictatorship by political, military, to be eligible to run for president, the candidate is required to, Be a natural-born Honduran. Be more than 30 years old at the time of the election, be able to enjoy the full rights of Honduran citizenship. Not be an official of any church or religious denomination, not be in active military service during the six months prior to the election. Not be an officer of the forces or law enforcement. Not be the spouse or relative of the President or any military leader, the President of Honduras serves one four-year term and is not eligible for re-election. The Constitution ascribes 45 specific rights and powers to the office of the Presidency, To execute and enforce the Constitution, treaties and conventions, laws, to direct the general policy of the State and represent it. To maintain the independence, honor, integrity, and inviolability of Honduras, to maintain the peace and security of the Republic and repel any attack or foreign aggression. To freely appoint and remove the secretaries of his cabinet, to call the National Congress into special session, or propose an extension of the ordinary session. To restrict or suspend the exercise of rights of the Council of Ministers, to address the National Congress at any time, and to adjourn each ordinary legislative session. To participate in the introduction of legislation to Congress by the cabinet secretaries, to provide implement the resolutions of the legislature, judiciary, and National Electoral Court
2.
Carlos Roberto Reina
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Carlos Roberto Reina Idiáquez was a politician of the Liberal Party of Honduras, and President of Honduras from January 27,1994 to January 27,1998. He was born in the city of Comayagüela, Honduras and his wife, Bessie Watson, was an American citizen with whom he had two daughters. He completed university studies in the National Autonomous University of Honduras where he earned a degree in Juridical and Social Sciences. Later, Reina continued his studies in the cities of London. Reina was arrested several times for his activities in opposition to the military governments during his younger years. The first time was in 1944 for protesting against dictator Tiburcio Carías, later in the 1960s he was sent to prison twice by General Oswaldo López, who had taken over the Honduran government through the use of military force. This led Reina to become a defender of human rights throughout the rest of his life. In 1979 he was nominated president of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights of the Organization of American States. Carlos Reina became president in November 1993, with the Liberal Party of Honduras, after defeating Oswaldo Ramos and he was accompanied by his vice presidential candidate, retired General Walter López, the politician Juan de la Cruz Avelar and the lady Guadalupe Jerezano Mejía. On January 27,1994 Reina replaced president Rafael Leonardo Callejas, Reina inherited a relatively difficult economic situation from the existing nationalist administration. Foreign debt weighed heavily on the economy of the country, debt service represented 40% of Honduran exports, even though approximately 700 million dollars were condoned to Honduras, the debt was still higher than that it had been at the beginnings of 1990. We will defeat corruption, we will give currency to social liberalism and we will see the moral revolution to its end. The issue of whether his plan was a success or a failure is still highly controversial, one of Carlos Roberto Reinas main objectives during his government was the reform of the Armed Forces. His reforms were realized by the end of his first year in office. The first one was the transfer of all power in hands of military men to civilian authorities. These and other reforms to the military are also controversial to the elites, they believed it fomented gangs, by eliminating a source of employment. Carlos Roberto Reina finished his presidency on January 27,1998, later, in October 1998, Reina began his period as president of the Central American Parliament, where he remained until October 28,1999. Finally on August 19,2003, Carlos Roberto Reina committed suicide from a gunshot at the age of 77 and his brother revealed that Reina was suffering from health issues relating to the gallbladder and pancreas
3.
Ricardo Maduro
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Ricardo Rodolfo Maduro Joest is a former President of Honduras and Bank of Honduras chairman. Maduro graduated from The Lawrenceville School and later Stanford University and he was President between 27 January 2002, and 27 January 2006, representing the National Party of Honduras. Ricardo Maduro is a member of the Levy-Maduro family whose roots go through Portugal, the Netherlands, maduros first marriage to Miriam Andréu produced three daughters and a son, Ricardo Ernesto, who was kidnapped at age 25 on 23 April 1997. Ricardo Ernestos body was discovered two days later and this constitutional ban created great controversy before the 2001 elections. Having been chosen as the PNH candidate, he was allowed to stand. In his campaign he promised to tackle crime and the gang, the PNH held National Congress passed laws making illicit association a crime, which have seen hundreds of gang members put behind bars. In October 2002, he married the Spaniard Aguas Santas Ocaña Navarro, shortly after leaving office, Maduro and Ocaña filed for divorce. She consequently moved to Nicaragua with her children to direct a non-profit organization devoted to children. Maduros eldest son is a United States citizen and lives in the U. S, on 1 May 2005 the plane Maduro was traveling in crashed into the Caribbean Sea off the shore of Tela. Maduro, his daughter Lorena, and the pilot were not seriously injured and were rescued by local residents. Maduro was taken to a hospital in Comayagua to recover, zelaya succeeded Maduro on 27 January 2006. History of Honduras Biography by CIDOB Biography at the Permanent Mission of the United Nations website
4.
National Congress of Honduras
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The National Congress is the legislative branch of the government of Honduras. The Honduran Congress is a unicameral legislature, the nominal President of the National Congress of Honduras is currently Mauricio Oliva. Its members are 128 deputies, who are elected on a proportional basis, by department. Congress meets in a purpose-built legislative palace in the centre of Tegucigalpa, of a modernist design, it is painted in an array of bright colours and rests on a series of concrete pillars that separate it from the ground. Previous elections were held in 2009,2005 and 2001, some of the opposition parties, particularly the Liberal, LIBRE and PAC have faced internal division. This division had more impact on LIBRE, which led to the dismissal, during the first week of session in 2014, Congressman Eduardo Cotto was expelled from LIBRE for voting in favor of the National/DC/PUD directive integration, which was also supported by the Liberals. On the following months, Cotto joined the DC, on February 21,2015, Congresswoman Tatiana Canales announced her incorporation to the Liberal Party, after failed negotiations with PAC. Together, the three expelled congressmen and Canales formed an independent bloc headed by Congresswoman Jenny Murillo, since Molina is a substitute congresswoman, this change does not affect the number of members of the Liberal caucus, nonetheless Padillas resignation reduced the number of LIBRE congressmen to 32. But later, on March 18, the leaders of PAC finally decided to suspend the membership of the 4 of the deputies that participated in the election of a new Supreme Court of Justice. The 4 suspended congressmen are Ana Joselina Fortín, Marlene Alvarenga, Kritza Perez, also on the half of May 2016, the deputy of the independent group Omar Rodríguez has decided to return to the Liberal Party now with 29 deputies on the caucus. The previous election was held on 25 November 2001, following that election, party strengths in Congress stood as follows, Honduras also returns deputies to the supranational Central American Parliament. The President of the National Congress of Honduras is the officer of the National Congress of Honduras. Politics of Honduras Government of Honduras Supreme Court of Honduras Executive branch of the government of Honduras List of legislatures by country Official website
5.
Rafael Pineda Ponce
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Rafael Pineda Ponce was a Honduran professor and politician in the Liberal Party of Honduras and President of the National Congress of Honduras from 1998 to 2002. Rafael Pineda Ponce was born to Juan Rafael Pineda Lopez and María Ponce on August 18,1930, in a house built by his grandparents, Caridad López Morales. The house was located between Liber de Agua Zarca and Los Arrayanes next to Rio Tocó in the municipality of San Miguelito and he lived here for the first six years of his life. When Rafael was six, his father abandoned the family, soon after that his mother died and the children were left without parents. He completed his school education alternating between three schools Lempira in Cofradia, and Juan E Flores and Valero Meza, both in La Esperanza. In all three schools he was regarded by his teachers. Rafael began his education at the Instituto Departamental de Occidente. He transferred to the Escuela Normal de Varones in Tegucigalpa, where he received the certificate of Maestro de Educación Primaria and he went on to earn a Bachelor of Science and Letters at the Instituto José Trinidad Reyes in San Pedro Sula. When he graduated he was awarded the Father Trino Gold Medal as the most outstanding secondary-education student, in 1965, Pineda Ponce went to the Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira, in São Paulo, Brazil to specialize in education of teachers. This period exposed him to some of the most distinguished educators in Latin America, there, on April 14, he was selected as the principle orator at the Pan American Day, where he gave a lengthy speech. Rafael Pineda Ponce was married to María Lidia Espinoza, who bore their four children, Alicia, Rafael, Rafael Pineda Ponce was a member of the Liberal Party of Honduras or PLH. In 1980 he was appointed Secretary in the Ministry of Public Education, in the next primary election, Pineda Ponce was selected to be the Liberal candidate for the presidency. Pineda Ponce served as Minister of Education in the administration of Manuel Zelaya from 2006 to 2007. He was also Minister of the Presidency in the government of Roberto Micheletti. Pineda Ponce died on January 24,2014, Datos biográficos de Pablo Zelaya Sierra, by José V Vásquez and Rafael Pineda Ponce, Secretaría de Educación, Tegucigalpa, D. C. 2006, OCLC255920042 Datos para una monografía de Siguatepeque, by Rafael Pineda Ponce, Comayagüela, Honduras, Editora Cultural,1979, OCLC10982459 Doctor Vicente Mejia Colindres, Presidente Constitucional 1929-1933, by Rafael Pineda Ponce, Tegucigalpa, D. C. 1985, OCLC144707029 Ecos del bicentenario del nacimiento de Morazán, by Rafael Pineda Ponce, Consejo Ejecutivo del Partido Liberal de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, D. C. 1992, OCLC868015334 La excelencia académica y la responsabilidad histórica de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, by Rafael Pineda Ponce, Tegucigalpa, D. C
6.
Tegucigalpa
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Tegucigalpa, commonly referred to as Téguz, is the capital of Honduras and seat of government of the Republic, along with its twin sister Comayagüela. Claimed on September 29,1578 by the Spaniards, Tegucigalpa became the capital on October 30,1880 under President Marco Aurelio Soto. After a failed attempt to create a Central American republic in 1821, on January 30,1937, Article 179 of the 1936 Honduran Constitution was changed under Decree 53 to establish Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela as a Central District. Tegucigalpa is located in the highland region known as the department of Francisco Morazán of which it is also the departmental capital. It is situated in a valley, surrounded by mountains, Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela, being sister cities, are physically separated by the Choluteca River. The Central District is the largest of the 28 municipalities in the Francisco Morazán department, Tegucigalpa is Honduras largest and most populous city as well as the nations political and administrative center. Tegucigalpa is host to 25 foreign embassies and 16 consulates and it is the home base of several state-owned entities such as ENEE and Hondutel, the national energy and telecommunications companies, respectively. The city is home to the countrys most important public university. The capitals international airport, Toncontín, is known for its short runway. The Central District Mayors Office is the governing body, headed by a mayor and 10 aldermen forming the Municipal Corporation. Being the departments seat as well, the office of Francisco Morazán is also located in the capital. In 2008, the city operated on a budget of 1.555 billion lempiras. In 2009, the city government reported a revenue of 1.955 billion lempiras, Tegucigalpas infrastructure has not kept up with its population growth. Deficient urban planning, densely condensed urbanization, and poverty are ongoing problems, heavily congested roadways where current road infrastructure is unable to efficiently handle over 400,000 vehicles create havoc on a daily basis. Both current national and local governments have taken steps to improve, most sources indicate the origin and meaning of the word Tegucigalpa is derived from the Nahuatl language. Another source suggests that Tegucigalpa derives from another language in which it means painted rocks, other theories indicate it may derive from the term Togogalpa which refers to tototi and Toncontín, a small town near Tegucigalpa. In Mexico, it is believed the word Tegucigalpa is from the Nahuatl word Tecuztlicallipan, meaning place of residence of the noble or Tecuhtzincalpan, meaning place on the home of the beloved master. Tegucigalpa was founded by Spanish settlers as Real de Minas de San Miguel de Tegucigalpa on September 29,1578 on the site of a native settlement of the Pech, Tolupans
7.
Honduras
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Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a republic in Central America. It has at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras. Honduras was home to several important Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya, the Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism and the now predominant Spanish language, along with numerous customs that have blended with the indigenous culture. Honduras has the worlds highest murder rate, Honduras spans about 112,492 km2 and has a population exceeding 8 million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone, as reflected in the areas demographics and culture. Honduras is known for its natural resources, including minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, and sugar cane, as well as for its growing textiles industry. Honduras literally means depths in Spanish, the name could either refer to the bay of Trujillo as an anchorage, fondura in the Leonese dialect of Spanish, or to Columbuss alleged quote that Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province, prior to 1580, Honduras only referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica. In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area, in the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Hondurass borders was in Copán, Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic in the 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Chorti, remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. On 30 July 1502 Columbus sent his brother Bartholomew to explore the islands and Bartholomew encountered a Mayan trading vessel from Yucatán, carrying well-dressed Maya and a rich cargo. Bartholomews men stole whatever cargo they wanted and kidnapped the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter in what was the first recorded encounter between the Spanish and the Maya. In March 1524, Gil González Dávila became the first Spaniard to enter Honduras as a conquistador, followed by Hernán Cortés, bringing forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal of Francisco Montejo. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily on armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans, resistance to conquest was led in particular by Lempira, and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spains vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala, Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals
8.
Liberal Party of Honduras
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The Liberal Party of Honduras is a center-right liberal political party in Honduras that was founded in 1891. The party is a member of the Liberal International, the PLH is identified with the color red and white, as the flag Francisco Morazan used in most of his military campaigns during time of the Central American Federal Republic. At the legislative elections, held on 25 November 2001, the party won 40. 8% of the vote and 55 out of 128 seats in Congress. Its candidate at the elections, Rafael Pineda Ponce won 44. 3%. The PLH won the closely contested 2005 presidential race, but at the moment the PNH has a majority in the National Congress due to an alliance with the Christian Democrats and he was inaugurated on 27 January 2006. He was deposed by coup détat in 2009 and replaced by Roberto Micheletti, sectors opposed to the 2009 coup claim the participation was much less than reported by the authorities, but this claim has not been verified. Liberalism worldwide List of liberal parties Liberalism in Honduras Gremio Estudiantil Revolucionario Liberal Liberal Party of Honduras official site Partito_Liberale_dellHonduras
9.
Palestinians
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Despite various wars and exoduses, roughly one half of the worlds Palestinian population continues to reside in historic Palestine, the area encompassing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and Israel. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, known as the Palestinian diaspora, the history of a distinct Palestinian national identity is a disputed issue amongst scholars. Palestinian was used to refer to the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people by Palestinian Arabs in a limited way until World War I, Modern Palestinian identity now encompasses the heritage of all ages from biblical times up to the Ottoman period. Founded in 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization for groups that represent the Palestinian people before the international community. Since 1978, the United Nations has observed an annual International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People, herodotus also employs the term as an ethnonym, as when he speaks of the Syrians of Palestine or Palestinian-Syrians, an ethnically amorphous group he distinguishes from the Phoenicians. Herodotus makes no distinction between the Jews and other inhabitants of Palestine, the Greek word reflects an ancient Eastern Mediterranean-Near Eastern word which was used either as a toponym or ethnonym. In Ancient Egyptian Peleset/Purusati has been conjectured to refer to the Sea Peoples, among Semitic languages, Akkadian Palaštu is used of Philistia and its 4 city states. Biblical Hebrews cognate word Plištim, is usually translated Philistines, the Arabic word Filastin has been used to refer to the region since the time of the earliest medieval Arab geographers. It appears to have used as an Arabic adjectival noun in the region since as early as the 7th century CE. The Arabic newspaper Falasteen, published in Jaffa by Issa and Yusef al-Issa, the first Zionist bank, the Jewish Colonial Trust, was founded at the Second Zionist Congress and incorporated in London in 1899. The JCT was intended to be the instrument of the Zionist Organization. On 27 February 1902, a subsidiary of this Trust called the Anglo-Palestine Company was established in London with the assistance of Zalman David Levontin and this Company was to become the future Bank Leumi. Following the 1948 establishment of Israel, the use and application of the terms Palestine and Palestinian by, for example, the English-language newspaper The Palestine Post, founded by Jews in 1932, changed its name in 1950 to The Jerusalem Post. Jews in Israel and the West Bank today generally identify as Israelis, Arab citizens of Israel identify themselves as Israeli and/or Palestinian and/or Arab. Anyone born, after that date, of a Palestinian father – whether in Palestine or outside it – is also a Palestinian. Thus, the Jews of Palestine were/are also included, although limited only to the Jews who had resided in Palestine until the beginning of the Zionist invasion. The Charter also states that Palestine with the boundaries it had during the British Mandate, is a territorial unit. The although the timing and causes behind the emergence of a distinctively Palestinian national consciousness among the Arabs of Palestine are matters of scholarly disagreement
10.
Industrial engineering
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Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex processes, systems or organizations. Industrial engineers work to eliminate waste of time, money, materials, man-hours, machine time, energy, according to the Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers, they figure out how to do things better, they engineer processes and systems that improve quality and productivity. Some engineering universities and educational agencies around the world have changed the term industrial to broader terms such as production or systems, the various topics concerning industrial engineers include, Process engineering, design, operation, control, and optimization of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Systems engineering, a field of engineering that focuses on how to design. Safety engineering, a discipline which assures that engineered systems provide acceptable levels of safety. Value engineering, a method to improve the value of goods or products. Quality engineering, a way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured products, Project management, is the process and activity of planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling resources, procedures and protocols to achieve specific goals in scientific or daily problems. It includes the movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, ergonomics, the practice of designing products, systems or processes to take proper account of the interaction between them and the people that use them. Logistics, the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to some requirements. Many of the tools and principles of engineering can be applied to the configuration of work activities within a project. The application of engineering and operations management concepts and techniques to the execution of projects has been thus referred to as Project Production Management. Traditionally, an aspect of industrial engineering was planning the layouts of factories and designing assembly lines. And now, in manufacturing systems, industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of time, money, materials, energy. There is a consensus among a historian that the roots of the Industrial Engineering Profession date back to the Industrial Revolution. The concept of the system had its genesis in the factories created by these innovations. Eli Whitney and Simeon North proved the feasibility of the notion of Interchangeable parts in the manufacture of muskets, under this system, individual parts were mass-produced to tolerances to enable their use in any finished product. The result was a significant reduction in the need for skill from specialized workers, frederick Taylor is generally credited as being the father of the Industrial Engineering discipline. He earned a degree in engineering from Stevens University
11.
Louisiana State University
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Louisiana State University is a public coeducational university located in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The university was founded in 1853 in what is now known as Pineville, Louisiana, LSU is the flagship institution of the Louisiana State University System. In 2015, the university enrolled over 26,000 undergraduate and over 5,000 graduate students in 14 schools, several of LSUs graduate schools, such as the E. J. Ourso College of Business and the Paul M. Hebert Law Center, have received recognition in their respective fields of study. LSUs athletics department fields teams in 21 varsity sports, and is a member of the NCAA, the university is represented by its mascot, Mike the Tiger. Louisiana State University Agricultural & Mechanical College had its origin in land grants made by the United States government in 1806,1811. It was founded as an academy and is still today steeped in military tradition. In 1853, the Louisiana General Assembly established the Seminary of Learning of the State of Louisiana near Pineville in Rapides Parish in Central Louisiana. Modeled initially after Virginia Military Institute, the institution opened with five professors and nineteen cadets on January 2,1860, the original location of the Old LSU Site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. On January 26,1861, after only a year at the helm, the school closed on June 30,1861, with the start of the American Civil War. During the course of the war, the university reopened briefly in April 1863, the losses sustained by the institution during the Union occupation were heavy, and after 1863 the seminary remained closed for the remainder of the Civil War. Following the surrender of the Confederates at Appomattox Court House on April 9,1865 and these cannons had been captured from Confederate forces after the close of the war and had been used during the initial firing upon Fort Sumter in April 1861. The cannons are still displayed in front of LSUs Military Science/Aerospace Studies Building, the seminary officially reopened its doors on October 2,1865, only to be burned October 15,1869. On November 1,1869, the institution resumed its exercises in Baton Rouge, in 1870, the name of the institution was officially changed to Louisiana State University. It temporarily opened in New Orleans, June 1,1874 and this prompted the final name change for the university to the Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College. On June 7,1925, Oscar B, turner, a professor of agronomy, was murdered by an axe-wielding assailant on campus. On April 30,1926, the present LSU campus was formally dedicated, prior to this, LSU utilized the quarters of the Institute for the Deaf, Mute, and Blind. Land for the present campus was purchased in 1918, construction started in 1922, the campus was originally designed for 3000 students, but was cut back due to budget problems
12.
Phi Iota Alpha
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Phi Iota Alpha, established December 26,1931, is the oldest Latino Fraternity in existence, and works to motivate people, develop leaders, and create innovative ways to unite the Latino community. The organization has roots that stem back to the late 19th century to the first Latin American fraternity, and the first Latin American student organization in the United States. Membership in Phi Iota Alpha is open to all men regardless of race, creed, colour, Phi Iota Alphas membership includes prominent and accomplished educators, politicians, businessmen, and four former presidents of Latin American countries. Phi Iota Alpha utilizes motifs from the Pan-American revolutionary period and uses images and colours depicting the time of Latin American revolutionaries, the origins of Phi Iota Alpha began at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, in 1898. A group of Latin American students organized the Union Hispano Americana as a cultural and intellectual secret society based on the ideology of Pan-Americanism, the immediate goals of the UHA was to provide a cultural environment for students of Latin America and Spain. The UHA was the first association of Latin American students ever founded in the United States, the UHA expanded to several colleges and universities in the United States, however, due to the secrecy imposed upon its members, not many records were kept. The expansion and growth of the UHA was based on compromise, shortly after its foundation, Pi Delta Phi initiated a search to expand to other colleges and universities where they became aware of the existence of other similar organizations. After some communication, these two organizations realized the existence of a non-Greek letter secret society, the Union Hispano Americana, as a result of intensive correspondence and various interviews, the three organizations merged. In their merger agreement, the three organizations adopted the name of Phi Lambda Alpha fraternity, with the distinctive emblem & constitution of Pi Delta Phi, and this new union was formalized on June 11,1921, in the City of New York. Meanwhile, in the Southeastern Province of the United States, another organization was under development. In 1904, an organization with similar goals as Phi Lambda Alpha was founded under the name “Sociedad Hispano-Americana” at Louisiana State University, between 1912 and 1925, Sigma Iota expanded rapidly in the United States, Central America and Europe. As a result of this, Sigma Iota became the first international Latin American–based fraternity, Phi Lambda Alpha was seeking to expand throughout the United States and to promote the ideology of Pan Americanism. Sigma Iota Fraternity was in search of revitalizing some of its defunct chapters, thus both organizations complemented each other and began to work towards the creation of the fraternity now known as Phi Iota Alpha. On December 26,1931, the first day of a three-day convention and they resolved to unify under one name, one banner, one organization and one ideal. The next day of business was dedicated to preparing the details of revising the constitution, on December 28, by the end of the three-day convention, the majority of the merger was completed. The last step in the merger was the ratification of some of the chapters of Sigma Iota that were not represented at the convention. The fraternity was incorporated as an organization on October 28,1936, under the laws of the State of Louisiana, under the name. After the unification of Sigma Iota and Phi Lambda Alpha, Phi Iota Alpha goal was to expand on the level and develop a plan for it existing
13.
Rafael Leonardo Callejas
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Rafael Leonardo Callejas Romero was the President of Honduras from 27 January 1990 to 27 January 1994, representing the National Party of Honduras. Callejas was born on 14 November 1943 in Tegucigalpa in Honduras and he studied agricultural economics at Mississippi State University becoming an expert on financial and economic issues connected to agronomy. At Mississippi State University, Callejas earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1965, also in 1966, Mississippi State Universitys Department of Agricultural Economics published Callejas thesis titled Hog Production Opportunities in Mississippi. In 1990, Callejas was named Mississippi State Universitys Alumni of the Year and was invited with U. S, vice President Dan Quayle delivered the universitys commencement address. Between 1967 and 1971 Callejas worked at the Council for Economic Planning, when another general and President Policarpo Paz took over in a coup in 1978, Callejas remained in his post. He supported former President Ricardo Maduros Unidad y Cambio movement within the PNH that brought the party more towards the center, Callejas then created his own faction, the Movimiento Nacional Callejista, to advance his candidature in the 1985 presidential elections. Until 2015, Callejas was President of the Federación Nacional Autónoma de Fútbol de Honduras, under his tenure, Honduras qualified for the FIFA World Cups in 2010 and 2014, the first time Honduras qualified for two consecutive World Cups. During his tenure, Honduras qualified for all major football competitions in all age brackets. His election in 1989 marked the first time since 1932 that power was transferred peacefully between Honduras two major parties, Callejas was once again the PNH candidate in the 1989 elections where a reported 200,000 identifications from deceased Honduran citizens were used. Callejas won with 52. 3% of the votes, becoming the first PNH President since 1972. At the time of the devaluation of the Lempira, the Honduran Central Bank, presided at the time by Ricardo Maduro Joest, instead, people were given back devalued Lempiras causing a lot of suffering in what was already one of the poorest countries in the western hemisphere. Gasoline supplies were non-existent when he took office and long lines of cars were seen at the gas stations trying to obtain fuel. This led to strikes and a lot of social agitation, until his government successfully negotiated with the United States the write-off of a $US430 million debt. Poverty was reduced by 8% under his tenure, infrastructure was a priority and large investments in the rich Sula Valley area were made in more than 90 kilometers of four-lane highways. His government had some important accomplishments in the area, such as the creation of the Family Assistance Program. He was accused of 7 counts of corruption during his term and he was also accused by an aide in the Bush White House, resulting in a Bush executive order denying him of US visa status. In 2005, Honduran Congress revoked the law by which ex-Presidents, Mr. Callejas voluntarily presented himself to court. Mr. Callejas then faced trial, being acquitted by Judicial System of all counts presented against him, on December 3,2015, Mr. Callejas was indicted in U. S. Federal Court in connection with the ongoing 2015 FIFA Corruption Case
14.
National Party of Honduras
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The National Party of Honduras is a political party in Honduras founded on February 27,1902, by Manuel Bonilla Chirinos. Historically it has one of the two most influential parties in the country. The partys platform is based on Christian humanist doctrine, and its five principles are common wealth, dignity of the human person. Since the foundation of the National Party, Honduras has had 13 Nationalist presidents, Manuel Bonilla was the first, and the most recent is the current president, Juan Orlando Hernández. In the 2013 election the National Party obtained the largest number of seats in Congress, the National Party has been accused of embezzling millions of dollars. The ideology of the party can be traced back to national hero Jose Trinidad Cabañass principles, cabañas believed in a strong sense of patriotism, and that national interest was over any other interest. Moreover, in the late 1800s, actors such as Ponciano Leiva, the Progressive Party, led by Ponciano Leiva, joined forces by a movement led by General Manuel Bonilla. That event was the birth of the National Party of Honduras, the official flag of the National Party of Honduras is blue with a white star in the middle. Blue represents Honduran skies and seas, while the star represents pureness of ideals, Unity, fraternity. Fraternity, equality and justice are reflected in the official seal, holding arms represent fraternity among Honduran citizens. The weighting scale represents equality between men and women, the burning torch shines defending those in need. The seal also states the motto, Social Justice with Liberty. Ricardo Maduro Joest, During his presidency, Maduro was able to negotiate successfully the full condonance of the external debt. In addition, Maduro was able to implement successful policies in matters of fiscal order, Juan Manuel Gálvez, Galvez promoted modernizing the state. He structured effectively government dependencies through massive construction projects and he was able to conduct a massive road project throughout the country. Moreover, he is created the Honduras Central Bank, which made the Lempira Honduras´s official currency, tiburcio Carías Andino, General Carias has been one of the most polarized presidents in Honduran history. During his administration, he took strict measures in order to guarantee stability and he was also able to achieve economic stability and an efficient working relationship with private enterprise. Honduras National Stadium is named after him, National Convention, Made up from Municipal, State, Regional and national authorities
15.
Honduran general election, 1997
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General elections were held in Honduras to elect a president and parliament on 30 November 1997. They were also the first elections in which the left wing Democratic Unification Party was allowed to stand, five candidates stood in the election which was won by the Liberal Partys Carlos Roberto Flores defeating Nora Gúnera de Melgar who was the first woman to stand for the Presidency. Major campaign issues were crime and rising living standards, “The transition from armed opposition to electoral opposition in Central America. ”Latin American politics and society 48,4, 137-162. Elections in the Americas A Data Handbook Volume 1, north America, Central America, and the Caribbean. Sistemas de elecciones parliamentarias y su relación con la gobernabilidad democrática, san José, Instituto Interamericano de Derechos Humanos. “Los mitos del voto separado en las elecciones de 1997. ”Political handbook of the world 1997, “Violan la constitución y la ley electoral. ”Elecciones ‘97, perfiles biográficos y políticos. “Honduras, militarism and democratization in troubled waters. ”Repression, resistance, “La política hondureña y las elecciones de 2005. ”Revista de ciencia política 26,1, 114-124. Para la casa más que para el mundo, sufragismo y feminismo en la historia de Honduras
16.
Hurricane Mitch
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Hurricane Mitch was the most powerful and destructive hurricane of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season, with maximum sustained winds of 180 mph. The storm was the tropical storm, ninth hurricane. Along with Hurricane Georges, Mitch was the most notable hurricane in the season, at the time, Hurricane Mitch was the strongest Atlantic hurricane observed in the month of October, though it has since been surpassed by Hurricane Wilma of the 2005 season. The hurricane matched the fourth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record, after drifting southwestward and weakening, the hurricane hit Honduras as a minimal hurricane. It drifted through Central America, reformed in the Bay of Campeche, due to its slow motion from October 29 to November 3, Hurricane Mitch dropped historic amounts of rainfall in Honduras, Guatemala, and Nicaragua, with unofficial reports of up to 75 inches. Additionally, roughly 2.7 million were homeless as a result of the hurricane. The flooding caused damage, estimated at over $6 billion. Tropical Depression Thirteen formed on October 22 over the southwestern Caribbean Sea and it executed a small loop, and while doing so intensified into Tropical Storm Mitch. A weakness in a ridge allowed the storm to track slowly to the north, after becoming disorganized due to wind shear from an upper-level low, Mitch quickly intensified in response to favorable conditions, including warm waters and good outflow. It became a hurricane on October 24 and developed an eye, after turning to the west, Mitch rapidly intensified, first into a major hurricane on October 25 and then into a Category 5 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale the next day. At peak intensity, Mitch maintained maximum sustained winds of 180 mph while off the northern coast of Honduras. Hurricane Hunters reported a barometric pressure of 905 mbar, which at the time was the lowest in the month of October. Initially, the National Hurricane Center and various tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated a turn to the north, instead, Mitch turned to the south due to a ridge that was not observed while the storm was active. Land interaction imparted weakening, and the hurricane made landfall on Honduras on October 29 with winds of 80 mph, Mitch slowly weakened while turning to the west over land, maintaining deep convection over waters. After moving across mountainous terrain in Central America, the circulation of Mitch dissipated on November 1. The next day, the reached the Gulf of Mexico. Mitch accelerated to the northeast ahead of a front, moving across the Yucatán peninsula before striking southwestern Florida on November 5. Shortly thereafter, the became an extratropical cyclone, which was tracked by the NHC until November 9
17.
International Monetary Fund
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The International Monetary Fund is an international organization headquartered in Washington, D. C. It now plays a role in the management of balance of payments difficulties. Countries contribute funds to a pool through a system from which countries experiencing balance of payments problems can borrow money. As of 2016, the fund had SDR477 billion, the rationale for this is that private international capital markets function imperfectly and many countries have limited access to financial markets. The IMF provides alternate sources of financing and this assistance was meant to prevent the spread of international economic crises. The IMF was also intended to help mend the pieces of the economy after the Great Depression. As well, to provide investments for economic growth and projects such as infrastructure. The IMFs role was altered by the floating exchange rates post-1971. It shifted to examining the economic policies of countries with IMF loan agreements to determine if a shortage of capital was due to economic fluctuations or economic policy, the IMF also researched what types of government policy would ensure economic recovery. Rather than maintaining a position of oversight of only exchange rates and their role became a lot more active because the IMF now manages economic policy rather than just exchange rates. In addition, the IMF negotiates conditions on lending and loans under their policy of conditionality, nonconcessional loans, which include interest rates, are provided mainly through Stand-By Arrangements, the Flexible Credit Line, the Precautionary and Liquidity Line, and the Extended Fund Facility. The IMF provides emergency assistance via the Rapid Financing Instrument to members facing urgent balance-of-payments needs, the IMF is mandated to oversee the international monetary and financial system and monitor the economic and financial policies of its member countries. This activity is known as surveillance and facilitates international cooperation, the responsibilities changed from those of guardian to those of overseer of members’ policies. In 1995 the International Monetary Fund began work on data dissemination standards with the view of guiding IMF member countries to disseminate their economic and financial data to the public. The executive board approved the SDDS and GDDS in 1996 and 1997 respectively, the system is aimed primarily at statisticians and aims to improve many aspects of statistical systems in a country. It is also part of the World Bank Millennium Development Goals, some countries initially used the GDDS, but later upgraded to SDDS. The IMF does require collateral from countries for loans but also requires the government seeking assistance to correct its macroeconomic imbalances in the form of policy reform, if the conditions are not met, the funds are withheld. The concept of conditionality was introduced in a 1952 Executive Board decision, conditionality is associated with economic theory as well as an enforcement mechanism for repayment
18.
World Bank
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The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to countries of the world for capital programs. It comprises two institutions, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the International Development Association, the World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group, which is part of the United Nations system. The World Banks stated official goal is the reduction of poverty, the president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American. The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D. C. and work closely with each other, although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations. Before 1974 the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small, the Banks staff were aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria, the first country to receive a World Bank loan was France. The Banks president at the time, John McCloy, chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile, the loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested, and it came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the United States State Department told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed, the French government complied with this diktat and removed the Communist coalition government - the so-called tripartisme. Within hours, the loan to France was approved, when the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries, in 1960, the International Development Association was formed, providing soft loans to developing countries. From 1974 to 1980 the bank concentrated on meeting the needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and these changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson. McNamara implored bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the banks that had been the primary sources of funding. Rotberg used the bond market to increase the capital available to the bank. One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rise of third world debt. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an annual rate of 20%
19.
Hondutel
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Hondutel, is the Honduras governments telecommunications company. It has a monopoly on international calls, Hondutel was historically administered by Honduras armed forces as telecommunications were considered a matter of national security. Towards the end of the 20th century, the Honduran government is pressed by the IMF to privatize Hondutel in order to benefit from debt-restructuring solutions, a 1995 law authorized 51% of the company to be sold and privately held. However, a 1995 audit by Price Waterhouse revealed that the company was a high-risk investment thus jeopardizing its privatisation, by 1999, a mere 4.2 lines per 100 inhabitants is accounted. In 1998, the government is ready to proceed to the privatisation of the company, finally, by February 2000, seven companies have pre-qualified to capitalize Hondutel. On October 2000, the bid is launched, but only Telmex remained in the race, with a $106 million offer, in 2003, the government approved the sale of Hondutels B band network, acquired by Megatel. In 2004, it is back by América Móvil, owner of Telmex. In June 2007, Hondutel launched its first of a series of Personal Communications Services networks and it competes with companies such as Luxembourgs Millicom and Mexicos juggernaut América Móvil. In October, it extended to the Sula Valley, including the cities of San Pedro Sula, La Lima, Villanueva, in December it extended coverage to La Ceiba. Currently, it offers mobile phone coverage in the cities of Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, La Ceiba, Olancho, Progress and Copan, the administration of President Porfirio Lobo created a commission to study the available alternatives to solve Hondutels lack of funds. The operator needs to modernize and expand its infrastructure and complete its nationwide mobile footprint. Hondutels dire financial situation has forced the government to intervene in order to provide funds to cover employees salaries, according to an Hondutel executive, the operator needs an immediate cash injection of US$150 million to become more competitive. During August 2013, the government announced its intention to auction two AWS mobile licenses and directly grant a third one to Hondutel, the government expects that these new spectrum concessions will be used for the deployment of LTE services. In 2015, the company grew its internet capacity by 300% to cope with the ever-rising demand, at the end of 2016, the company lowered its prices on internet offers to grow its customers base. On the other hand, Hondutel started to depreciate its nationwide landline coverage, in 2015, Hondutel closed its fiscal year with a HNL80 million profit, largely benefitting from the internet and mobile boom, along with heavy job cuts. President Manuel Zelaya appointed his nephewMarcelo Chimirri as deputy president of the state-owned Hondutel, FBI Criminal Divisions Fraud Section revealed that Latin Node Inc. an American company, had illegal dealings with Hondutel executives The affair was later reported in the Honduran media. Marcelo Chimirri unsuccessfully sued journalists for libel that had published the corruption scandal, an unknown individual posted various recordings of high government officials on YouTube, possibly implicating them in a corruption scandal concerning Hondutel. After Zelaya made a complaint to the police, they launched an investigation to find who had made the recordings which are considered espionage and a violation of Honduras privacy laws
20.
MS-13
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Mara Salvatrucha is an international criminal gang that originated in Los Angeles, California. It has spread to parts of the United States, Canada, Mexico. The majority of the gang is composed of Central Americans. In the U. S. the MS-13 has a heavy presence in Los Angeles County and the San Francisco Bay Area in California. There is also a presence of MS-13 in Toronto, Ontario, members of MS distinguish themselves by tattoos covering the body and also often the face, as well as the use of their own sign language. They are notorious for their use of violence and a moral code that predominantly consists of merciless revenge. There is some dispute about the etymology of the name, some sources state the gang is named for La Mara, a street gang in San Salvador, and the Salvatrucha guerrillas who fought in the Salvadoran Civil War. Additionally, the word mara means gang in Caliche slang and is taken from marabunta, Salvatrucha may be a combination of the words Salvadoran and trucha, a Caliche word for being alert. The term, Salvatruchas has been explained as a reference to Salvadorian peasants trained to become guerrilla fighters, originally, the gangs main purpose was to protect Salvadoran immigrants from other, more established gangs of Los Angeles, who were predominantly composed of Mexicans and African-Americans. Many Mara Salvatrucha gang members from the Los Angeles area have been deported after being arrested, namely, Jose Abrego, a high-ranking member, was deported four times. As a result of deportations, members of MS-13 have recruited more members in their home countries. The Los Angeles Times contends that deportation policies have contributed to the size and influence of the gang both in the United States and in Central America. According to the 2009 National Gang Threat Assessment, The gang is estimated to have 30,000 to 50,000 members and associate members worldwide,8,000 to 10,000 of whom reside in the United States. In recent years the gang has expanded into the Washington, D. C. area, in particular the areas of Langley Park and Takoma Park, in 2004, the US FBI started the MS-13 National Gang Task Force. The FBI also began teaming with law enforcement in El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, in 2005, the office of U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement started Operation Community Shield. By 2011, this operation had made over 20,000 arrests, according to The Washington Times, MS-13 is thought to have established a major smuggling center in Mexico. There were reports by the Minuteman Project that MS members were ordered to Arizona to target U. S, border Patrol agents and Minuteman Project volunteers. FBI agents said that the U. S. Robert Morales, robin noted that Canadian authorities want to avoid ending up like the U. S. which is dealing with the problem of Central American gangsters on a much bigger scale
21.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
22.
Farmington Hills, Michigan
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Farmington Hills is the second largest city in Oakland County in the U. S. state of Michigan. Its population was 79,740 at the 2010 census and it is part of the upscale northwestern suburbs of Metropolitan Detroit and is also around 20 miles northeast of downtown Ann Arbor. Farmington Hills consistently ranks as one of the safest cities in the United States, in 2010, the area ranked as the 30th safest city in America. Farmington Hills also ranks as the 36th highest-income place in the United States with a population of 50,000 or more, although the two cities have separate services and addresses, Farmington and Farmington Hills are often thought of as the same community. Features of the community include a recently renovated downtown, boutiques, a cinema, numerous restaurants, exotic car dealerships, art galleries. There are several sites including the Longacre House and the Governor Warner Mansion. Both cities are served by Farmington Public Schools, Farmington Hills serves as a major business center for the greater Detroit area. Farmington Hills is the home of the Holocaust Memorial Center, the only Holocaust Memorial in the State of Michigan, the Centers mission is to educate the public about the tragedy and evils of the Holocaust. The Holocaust Memorial Center was originally located in neighboring West Bloomfield Township, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 33.31 square miles, of which 33.28 square miles is land and 0.03 square miles is water. The first white settler in what became Farmington Township was a Quaker from Farmington, New York and he purchased land in 1823 and returned in 1824 with a group of family and associates to clear the land. The settlement became known as Quakertown, a post office was established in January 1826 with the name of Farmington. The post office is still today as a historical site. The township of Farmington was organized in 1827, the settlement incorporated as the village of Farmington in the winter of 1866-67. A fire on October 9,1872, destroyed buildings in the center of the village. Farmington incorporated as a city in 1926, a small settlement also developed in Clarenceville, in the extreme southeast corner of the township on the boundary with Livonia in Wayne County. Stephen Jennings built a tavern and general store to accommodate travelers on the road between Detroit and Howell. The name remains in the Clarenceville School District, even though the school buildings for Clarenceville are in Livonia in Wayne County, the school district serves a portion of Farmington Hills. In 1847, a post office named North Farmington was established a mile south of the line as Wolcotts Corners
23.
Gale (publisher)
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Gale is an educational publishing company based in Farmington Hills, Michigan, the United States, in the western suburbs of Detroit. It was part of the Thomson Learning division of the Thomson Corporation, a Canadian company, the company, formerly known as Gale Research and the Gale Group, is active in research and educational publishing for public and academic libraries, schools and businesses. Founded in Detroit, Michigan in 1954 by Frederick Gale Ruffner, in 1999, Thomson Gale acquired Macmillan Reference USA from Pearson. In 2000 it acquired the Munich-based K. G. Saur Verlag, Thomson has said that it expected this sale to generate approximately $5 billion. Sommers was president of Gale from October 22,2007, until he retired in 2010, Gale produces hundreds of products, such as Academic OneFile, Biography and Genealogy Master Index, General OneFile, General Reference Center, Sabin Americana, and World History Collection. Gale print imprints include the reference brands Primary Source Media, Scholarly Resources Inc, schirmer Reference, St. James Press, The TAFT Group and Twayne Publishers, among others. Five Star Publishing is Gales fiction imprint, with hundreds of books in print in the Western, Romance, Mystery, Gale also sells into the K–12 market with several imprints, including U·X·L, Greenhaven Press, KidHaven Press, Lucent Books, and others. Gale also owns large print publishers Christian Large Print and Wheeler Publishing
24.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
25.
Dionisio de Herrera
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José Dionisio de la Trinidad de Herrera y Díaz del Valle was a Liberal Honduran politician, head of state of Honduras from 1824 to 1827 and head of state of Nicaragua from 1830 to 1833. During his terms, Honduras and Nicaragua were states within the Federal Republic of Central America, Herrera was an uncle of the Liberal Central American general Francisco Morazán. From a land-owning family, Herrera studied at the University of San Carlos of Guatemala and he was a tutor of his nephew, General Morazán. In 1820 he occupied his first public office, as secretary of the government of Tegucigalpa. On 16 September 1824 he became the first head of state of Honduras, after the independence of Central America from Spain, Colonel José Justo Milla was his vice-head of state. During his term he decreed the first territorial subdivisions of Honduras, creating the departments of Comayagua, Tegucigalpa, Santa Bárbara, Yoro, Olancho and he also promulgated the first constitution of the country, on 11 December 1825. The government of Herrera was overthrown on 10 May 1827 in a coup led by Colonel Milla. Herrera was sent as a prisoner to Guatemala, where he remained until 1829, thereafter he was elected head of state of Nicaragua, taking office on 12 May 1830. He exercised this office until November 1833, relying on the support of General Morazán and he tried to implement various Liberal reforms, but unsuccessfully, due to the opposition of the clergy. In 1835 he was elected head of state of El Salvador, in 1838 he retired from politics, working as a teacher in the city of San Vicente, El Salvador. He remained there until his death in 1850 and this is a free translation of the Spanish Wikipedia article Dionisio Herrera. Biography from the site Honduras Educacional Biography from the site Honduras Universal
26.
Francisco Ferrera
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Francisco Ferrera was a president of Honduras. He was born in San Juan de Flores, Honduras, Ferrera joined the guerrerista campaigns of General Francisco Morazán and participated brilliantly in the battles of The Trinidad and Gualcho. In addition, he saw action in the pacification of Olancho, in March 1832, Ferrera faced Vicente Domínguez in Yoro and later in Sonaguera and Trujillo, defeating him in both opportunities. Due to his bravery on the battlefield, he was promoted by General Morazán, in October 1838, Ferrera rebelled against the federalist government of General Morazán and fought to make Honduras a free state. On 5 April 1839, he was defeated by General Morazán in the battle of the Spirit Santo in El Salvador, after that humiliating defeat, Ferrera took refuge in Nicaragua. He was Provisional Chief of State of Honduras and Constitutional President, the Republic, after the dissolution of the Federation, was inaugurated under a Conservative régime. On 1840, the Congress was installed with more religious than political. Forty-four Te Deum masses were sung on that day, and President Ferrera was besmoked with incense in the cathedral and he was re-elected President in 1847, resigning that same year. Ferrera died in Chalatenango, El Salvador, on 10 April 1851
27.
Juan Lindo
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Juan Nepomuceno Fernández Lindo y Zelaya was a Conservative Central American politician, president of the Republic of El Salvador from 1841 to 1842 and of the Republic of Honduras from 1847 to 1852. Lindo was born into a landholding family, there is some question about his birth and death dates. Some sources give 1770 for his birth and some give 1853 for his death, in 1814 he became a lawyer at the Universidad de San Carlos in Guatemala. After graduation, he worked for the Spanish regime, after the independence of Central America from Spain, he was intendente of the Province of Comayagua. He was one of the promoters of annexation of Central America to the Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide and he was elected deputy to the Legislative Assembly of Honduras in 1826. The following year he aided Conservative José Justo Milla in his defeat of Honduran Chief of State Dionisio de Herrera and he was a deputy to the constituent assembly that was convoked in June 1838, where he represented the Conservative Party. From his position in the assembly, he promoted the separation of Honduras from the Federal Republic of Central America, in 1840 he traveled to El Salvador, where with the help of General Francisco Malespín he became secretary of state, from October 1840 to January 1841. Afterwards he was elected chief of state of the State of El Salvador, from 7 January to 22 February 1841. That day, the constituent assembly declared El Salvador independent of the Central American Federation, Lindo named General and Licienciado Norberto Ramírez minister. On 16 February 1841 the constituent assembly issued the decree establishing the University of El Salvador, Lindo ordered the establishment of schools in every village and valley of the country with at least 150 inhabitants. He ordered the local authorities fined if they did not establish the schools, in 1842 he returned to Honduras and established himself at Comayagua. After General Francisco Ferrera declined to serve as president, the Honduran assembly elected Lindo constitutional president, during his term he established the University of Honduras and promulgated a new constitution. In accordance with the new constitution, he was elected for a second term, felipe Bustillo, who had taken over government functions from Lindo, fled to Copán, and Lindo resumed the presidency. Ferrera and Chávez fled to El Salvador, guardiola later revolted against Lindo, but was defeated and went into voluntary exile. Lindo signed an alliance with Salvadoran president Doroteo Vasconcelos to declare war on the government of Guatemala, allied troops invaded Guatemalan territory, but were defeated by Carrera in the Battle of La Arada on 2 February 1851. At the end of Lindos second term General José Trinidad Cabañas entered the presidency, Lindo retired from politics and established himself in the city of Gracias, department of Lempira, where he died in 1857. Juan Lindo - President of El Salvador Biography and information on his term as President of Honduras Biography
