1.
Caroline Island
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Caroline Island or Caroline Atoll, is the easternmost of the uninhabited coral atolls which comprise the southern Line Islands in the central Pacific Ocean. It is home to one of the worlds largest populations of the crab and is an important breeding site for seabirds. The atoll is currently designated as a wildlife sanctuary, in 2014 the Kiribati government established a 12-nautical-mile fishing exclusion zone around each of the southern Line Islands. The atoll is best known for its role in the millennium celebrations, a 1995 realignment of the International Date Line made Caroline Island one of the first points of land on Earth to reach January 1,2000 on the calendar. Caroline Atoll lies near the end of the Line Islands. The slightly crescent-shaped atoll consists of 39 separate islets surrounding a lagoon,8.7 by 1.2 km2 in size. The total atoll area, including dry land, lagoon and reef flat, measures 13 by 2.5 km, the islets rise to a height of only 6 meters above sea level. The islets, like those of all atolls, share a common origin and consist of sand deposits. According to the path of the International Date Line, Caroline Island is the easternmost point of land on Earth, three large islets make up the bulk of Carolines land area, Nake Islet at the north, Long Islet at the northeast of the lagoon and South Islet. The central lagoon, roughly 6 by 0.5 km, is shallow – at most 5–7 m in depth – and is crossed repeatedly by narrow coral heads and patch reefs. Reef flats generally extend about 500 m from shore— although some report them to extend more than a kilometer from land—. Most landings are made at a small break in the reef at the northwest corner of the South Islet. Densities of giant clams reach up to four per square foot in parts of the lagoon, the most common species is the “small giant clam” Tridacna maxima and largest clam species, Tridacna gigas is also found in the lagoon. The lagoon is a habitat for many fish species including important and heavily exploited species such as the Blacktip reef shark. Soils on Caroline are similarly poor, dominated by gravel and sand, with significant organic content present only within stable. Guano deposits make island soil, where it does exist, nitrogen-rich, like the rest of Kiribati, Caroline Island enjoys a tropical maritime climate which is consistently hot and humid. Meteorological records are sparse, but temperatures generally range between 28 and 32 degrees Celsius year round, Caroline lies within a region of highly variable precipitation, but is estimated to receive an average of 1,500 mm of rain annually. Tides are on the order of 0.5 m and trade winds, generally from the northeast and its relatively undisturbed state has led to Caroline being considered for designation as a World Heritage Site and as a Biosphere Reserve
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Mau Piailug
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Pius Mau Piailug was a Micronesian navigator from the Carolinian island of Satawal, best known as a teacher of traditional, non-instrument wayfinding methods for open-ocean voyaging. He earned the title of master navigator by the age of eighteen, as he neared middle age, Mau grew concerned that the practice of navigation in Satawal would disappear as his people became acculturated to Western values. In the hope that the tradition would be preserved for future generations. With Maus help, PVS used experimental archaeology to recreate and test lost Hawaiian navigational techniques on the Hōkūle‘a, the successful, non-instrument sailing of Hōkūle‘a to Tahiti in 1976, proved the efficacy of Maus navigational system to the world. To academia, Maus achievement provided evidence for intentional two-way voyaging throughout Oceania, the success of the Micronesian-Polynesian cultural exchange, symbolized by Hōkūle‘a, had an impact throughout the Pacific. It contributed to the emergence of the second Hawaiian cultural renaissance and to a revival of Polynesian navigation and canoe building in Hawaii, New Zealand, Rarotonga and it also sparked interest in traditional wayfinding on Maus home island of Satawal. Later in life, Mau was respectfully known as a grandmaster navigator and he received an honorary degree from the University of Hawaii, and he was honored by the Smithsonian Institution and the Bishop Museum for his contributions to maritime history. Maus life and work was explored in books and documentary films. Mau was born Pius Piailug in 1932, in the village of Weiso, on the coral island of Satawal, in Yap State of the Caroline Islands. Satawal is an island with an area of 1.3 square kilometres. Maus personal connection to the sea early in his life. At the age of four or five, Mau was chosen by his grandfather Raangipi to study as an apprentice navigator, Mau initially protested his grandfathers teaching, preferring to spend his time playing on the beach with children his own age. Raangipi trained Mau as a navigator for many years. Their day would begin at sunrise, when they would eat breakfast together and afterwards, during the evening, Mau would join the men in the canoe house as they drank, listening to their stories about navigation and sailing. Raangipi told the boy that if he chose to become a navigator, Mau could gain respect from his community, eat well. Encouraged, Mau learned basic navigational clues regarding the stars, swells, and birds from Raangipi, after his grandfather died, Mau began training with his father, Orranipui. Mau learned more about navigating by stars from his father, and how to fish, when his father died before he turned fifteen, Mau was adopted by his aunt and uncle. Sometime around the age of eighteen, Maus aunt and uncle sent him to study with Angora, gis studies culminated in his initiation as a master navigator in the Weriyeng school of navigation during the revered pwo ceremony presided over by Angora
4.
Satawal
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Satawal is the easternmost island in the Yap island group and is located approximately 70 kilometres east of Lamotrek. The island, which measures 2 kilometres long northeast-southwest, is up to 0.8 kilometres wide, the total land area is 1.3 square kilometres, and is thickly wooded with coconut and breadfruit trees. As there are no anchorages for boats, Satawal is seldom visited by outsiders. Administratively Piagailoe Atoll, located 71 kilometers to the northwest, belongs to Satawal municipality, the native language is Satawalese, a Trukic language closely related to Woleaian, and the entire population of the island numbers approximately 500. Although located in Yap State, the people of Satawal are more closely related, culturally and linguistically, the Satawalese primarily subsist on fishing and some agriculture. They build small houses for sleeping and use the trunks of breadfruit trees for boat-building. Cultural forms primarily revolve around dance and story-telling, and a beverage known as tuba is brewed from fermented coconut milk. As with all of the Caroline Islands, sovereignty passed from Spain to the Empire of Germany in 1899, the island came under the control of the Empire of Japan after World War I, and was subsequently administered under the South Pacific Mandate. The island is best known for its preservation of traditional navigational techniques without the use of instruments, based on indigenous astronomical, despite its small population, Satawal has continued to produce ocean-going canoes and expert navigators versed in these traditions. The best-known of the Satawal master navigators, Mau Piailug, served as mentor, the daily life of Satawal is documented in the Steve Thomas book The Last Navigator, which also treats Mau Piailugs traditional navigation system in some depth. Sanford J. Low produced THE NAVIGATORS, Pathfinders of the Pacific, on March 18,2007, Piailug presided over the first Pwo ceremony for navigators on Satawal in 56 years. At the event five native Hawaiians and eleven others were inducted into Pwo as master navigators, the Polynesian Voyaging Society presented Piailug a canoe, the Alingano Maisu, as a gift for his key role in reviving traditional wayfinding navigation in Hawaii. The Atoll People, Life With The Star Navigators, archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Produced by Sanford J. Low and distributed by The New Film Company, Inc
5.
Yap
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Yap or Wa′ab traditionally refers to an island located in the Caroline Islands of the western Pacific Ocean, a part of the Federated States of Micronesia. The name Yap in recent years has come to refer to the state within the Federated States of Micronesia, inclusive of the Yap Main Islands. The Yap Main Islands is considered to be made up of four islands, Yap Island proper, Gagil-Tamil, Maap. The four are contiguous, though separated by water, and are surrounded by a coral reef. They are formed from an uplift of the Philippine Sea Plate, the land is mostly rolling hills, densely vegetated. Mangrove swamps line much of the shore, although there are beaches on the sides of the islands. Excluding the reef area, Yap is approximately 24 km long, 5–10 km wide, the highest elevation is 178 meters/584 feet at Mount Taabiywol in Fanif municipality on Yap island proper. The Yapese peoples indigenous cultures and traditions are strong compared to states in Micronesia. Historically, a system existed between the Neighboring Islands and the Yap Main Islands. This probably related to the need for goods from the islands, including food. In 2000 the population of Colonia and ten other municipalities totalled 11,241, the state has a total land area of 102 km2. The only region of which this is true is the Caroline Islands with their stone money, the first recorded sighting of Yap by Europeans came during the Spanish expedition of Álvaro de Saavedra in 1528. Its sighting was recorded by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos on 26 January 1543. Yap also appeared in Spanish charts as Los Garbanzos and Gran Carolina, from the 17th century until 1899, Yap was a Spanish colony within the Captaincy General of the Philippines of the Spanish East Indies. The Spanish used Yap Island as a prison for those captured during the Philippine Revolution, after the defeat against the United States in 1898 and subsequent loss of the Philippines, Spain sold these islands and its other minor Pacific possessions to Germany. It was occupied by Japanese troops in September 1914, and passed to the Japanese Empire under the Versailles Treaty in 1919 as a territory under League of Nations supervision. US commercial rights on the island were secured by a special US-Japanese treaty to that effect, the Japanese garrison comprised 4,423 IJA men under the command of Colonel Daihachi Itoh and 1,494 IJN men. At the end of World War II, Yap was occupied by the U. S. military victors, the U. S. held it and the rest of the Caroline Islands as a trusteeship under a United Nations mandate until 1986
6.
Archipelago
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An archipelago, sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster or collection of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi-, in Italian, possibly following a tradition of antiquity, the Archipelago was the proper name for the Aegean Sea and, later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands. It is now used to refer to any group or, sometimes. Archipelagos may be isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland which form an archipelago, archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but may also be the result of erosion, deposition, and land elevation. Depending on their origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands, continental fragments. Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin, continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Zealand, Maldives, the Bahamas, Greece, Hawaii, the largest archipelagic state in the world by area and population is Indonesia. Island arc List of landforms List of archipelagos by number of islands List of archipelagos List of islands Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Archipelago
7.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
8.
New Guinea
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New Guinea is a large Island in the South West Pacific region. It is the worlds second-largest island, after Greenland, covering an area of 785,753 km2. The island is divided between two countries, Papua New Guinea to the east, and Indonesia to the west, the island has been known by various names. The name Papua was used to refer to parts of the island before contact with the West and its etymology is unclear, one theory states that it is from Tidore, the language used by the Sultanate of Tidore, which controlled parts of the islands coastal region. The name came from papo and ua, which means not united or, ploeg reports that the word papua is often said to derive from the Malay word papua or pua-pua, meaning frizzly-haired, referring to the highly curly hair of the inhabitants of these areas. When the Portuguese and Spanish explorers arrived in the island via the Spice Islands, when the Dutch colonized it as part of Netherlands East Indies, they called it Nieuw Guinea. The name Irian was used in the Indonesian language to refer the island and Indonesian province, the name was promoted in 1945 by Marcus Kaisiepo, brother of the future governor Frans Kaisiepo. It is taken from the Biak language of Biak Island, and means to rise and this name of Irian is the name used in the Biak language and other languages such as Serui, Merauke and Waropen. The name was used until 2001, when the name Papua was again used for the island, the name Irian, which was originally favored by natives, is now considered to be a name imposed by the authority of Jakarta. New Guinea is an island to the north of Australia, and it is isolated by the Arafura Sea to the west and the Torres Strait and Coral Sea to the east. A spine of east–west mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, dominates the geography of New Guinea, stretching over 1,600 km from the head to the tail of the island. The western half of the island of New Guinea contains the highest mountains in Oceania, rising up to 4,884 m high, the tree line is around 4,000 m elevation and the tallest peaks contain permanent equatorial glaciers—which have been retreating since at least 1936. Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges, except in high elevations, most areas possess a warm humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season. At 4,884 metres, Puncak Jaya makes New Guinea the worlds fourth highest landmass, Puncak Mandala, located in Papua, is the second highest peak on the island at 4,760 metres. Puncak Trikora, also in Papua, is 4,750 metres, mount Wilhelm is the highest peak on the PNG side of the border at 4,509 metres. Its granite peak is the highest point of the Bismarck Range, mount Giluwe 4,368 metres is the second highest summit in PNG. It is also the highest volcanic peak in Oceania, another major habitat feature is the vast southern and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometres, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, the southern lowlands are the site of Lorentz National Park, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site
9.
Federated States of Micronesia
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Together, the states comprise around 607 islands that cover a longitudinal distance of almost 2,700 km just north of the equator. While the FSMs total land area is small, it occupies more than 2,600,000 km2 of the Pacific Ocean. The capital is Palikir, located on Pohnpei Island, while the largest city is Weno, each of its four states is centered on one or more main high islands, and all but Kosrae include numerous outlying atolls. The Federated States of Micronesia is spread across part of the Caroline Islands in the region of Micronesia. The term Micronesia may refer to the Federated States or to the region as a whole, the FSM was formerly a part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, a United Nations Trust Territory under U. S. Other neighboring island entities, and also members of the TTPI, formulated their own constitutional governments and became the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The FSM has a seat in the United Nations, the ancestors of the Micronesians settled over four thousand years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a centralized economic. Nan Madol, consisting of a series of artificial islands linked by a network of canals, is often called the Venice of the Pacific. European explorers—first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands and then the Spanish—reached the Carolines in the sixteenth century, the Spanish incorporated the archipelago to the Spanish East Indies and in the 19th century established a number of outposts and missions. In 1887, they founded the town of Santiago de la Ascension in what today is Kolonia on the island of Pohnpei, following defeat in the Spanish–American War, the Spanish sold the archipelago to Germany in 1899 under the German–Spanish Treaty of 1899. Germany incorporated it into German New Guinea, during World War I, it was captured by Japan. Following the war, the League of Nations awarded a mandate for Japan to administer the islands as part of the South Pacific Mandate, during World War II, a significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon. In February 1944, Operation Hailstone, one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese support vessels and aircraft were destroyed. On May 10,1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate. The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States, independence was formally concluded under international law in 1990, when the United Nations officially ended the Trusteeship status pursuant to Security Council Resolution 683. The Compact was renewed in 2004, the Federated States of Micronesia is governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The unicameral Congress has fourteen members elected by popular vote, four senators—one from each state—serve four-year terms, the remaining ten senators represent single-member districts based on population, and serve two-year terms
10.
Palau
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Palau, officially the Republic of Palau, is an island country located in the western Pacific Ocean. The country contains approximately 250 islands, forming the western chain of the Caroline Islands in Micronesia, the most populous island is Koror. The capital Ngerulmud is located on the island of Babeldaob. Palau shares maritime boundaries with Indonesia, the Philippines, and the Federated States of Micronesia, the country was originally settled approximately 3,000 years ago by migrants from the Philippines and sustained a Negrito population until around 900 years ago. The islands were first explored by Europeans in the 16th century, the Imperial Japanese Navy conquered Palau during World War I, and the islands were later made a part of the Japanese-ruled South Pacific Mandate by the League of Nations. During World War II, skirmishes, including the major Battle of Peleliu, were fought between American and Japanese troops as part of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign. Along with other Pacific Islands, Palau was made a part of the United States-governed Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in 1947. Having voted against joining the Federated States of Micronesia in 1979, politically, Palau is a presidential republic in free association with the United States, which provides defense, funding, and access to social services. Legislative power is concentrated in the bicameral Palau National Congress, Palaus economy is based mainly on tourism, subsistence agriculture and fishing, with a significant portion of gross national product derived from foreign aid. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency, the islands culture mixes Micronesian, Melanesian, Asian, and Western elements. Ethnic Palauans, the majority of the population, are of mixed Micronesian, Melanesian, a smaller proportion of the population is descended from Japanese and Filipino settlers. The countrys two official languages are Palauan and English, with Japanese, Sonsorolese, and Tobian recognised as regional languages. The name for the islands in the Palauan language, Belau, likely derives from either the Palauan word for village, beluu, or from aibebelau, the name Palau entered the English language from the Spanish Los Palaos, via the German Palau. An archaic name for the islands in English was the Pelew Islands and it should not be confused with Pulau, which is a Malay word meaning island. Palau was originally settled between the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, most likely from the Austronesia or Indonesia, the islands sustained a population of short-statured Negrito or Pygmy people until the 12th century, when they were replaced. The modern population, judging by its language, may have come from the Sunda Islands, however, the Spanish presence only began to express with evangelization, began at the end of 17th century, and its dominance began to take shape in the 18th century. The conscious discovery of Palau came a century later in 1697 and they were interviewed by the Czech missionary Paul Klein on 28 December 1696. Klein was able to draw the first map of Palau based on the Palauans representation of their home islands that made with an arrangement of 87 pebbles on the beach
11.
Spanish East Indies
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The Spanish East Indies were the Spanish territories in Asia-Pacific from 1565 until 1899. They comprised the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, the Caroline Islands, Cebu was the first seat of government, later transferred to Manila. From 1565 to 1821 these territories, together with the Spanish West Indies, were administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain based in Mexico City, the King of Spain traditionally styled himself King of the East and West Indies. After Mexican independence, they were ruled directly from Madrid, administrative affairs of the Spanish East Indies were handled by the Captaincy General of the Philippines and the Real Audiencia of Manila. The few remaining islands were ceded to the United States when the Treaty of Washington was ratified in 1901, Spanish contact began on 6 March 1521, when a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan reached the Mariana Islands. He named Guam and the other islands Islas de los Ladrones because the natives came aboard his galleon, the expedition later continued its journey west and reached the island of Homonhon in the eastern Philippines on 16 March, with only 150 crewmen. There they were able to communicate with the local peoples because the Malayan interpreter, Enrique of Malacca, Miguel López de Legazpi set out from Mexico, and established the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines in 1565, which became the town of San Miguel in present-day Cebu. In 1571, the city of Manila was founded and made seat of the Spanish Captaincy General of the Philippines and these and other Asian territories claimed by the Spanish crown were to be governed from the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Mexico City. The Manila-Acapulco galleons shipped products gathered from both Asia-Pacific and the Americas, such as silk, spices, silver, gold and other Asian-Pacific islander products to Mexico, in 1606, the Spaniards established some form of trade links with the Maluku Islands and remained until 1663. Contacts with Japan were also established and Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent as ambassador in 1611, on the north eastern coastal region of Taiwan, the Spaniards built Fort Santo Domingo near Keelung in 1626 and a mission in Tamsui in 1628, which they occupied until 1642. In 1668, Blessed Diego Luis de San Vitores established the first mission on Guam, in 1762 British troops briefly captured the city of Manila during the Seven Years War. The British promised support for an uprising led by Diego Silang and his wife Gabriela, under the peace settlement Manila was exchanged, along with British-occupied Havana, for Florida and Minorca. It was handed back to Spanish authorities in April 1764, the Seven Years War prompted Charles III to initiate extensive governmental reforms throughout the overseas possessions. An intendencia was established in Manila in 1784 to handle the government finances, in a similar vein, to promote innovation and education among the residents of the islands, Governor-General José Basco y Vargas established the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country. For over 256 years, the Spanish East Indies were governed by a general. All economic matters of the Philippines were managed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain, in 1821 the New Spanish Viceroyalty collapsed following the Mexican War of Independence, which resulted in the First Mexican Empire. In 1574 the Captaincy General of the Philippines was created as a dependency of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Islas Carolinas Islas Marianas Islas Palau The Spanish used several names that are not currently used. Gran Moluca for the island of Mindanao and Nueva Castilla for Luzon, because Spanish interest in the region was primarily focused on its use as a base for trade with East Asia, direct Spanish control over the area expanded slowly
12.
Manila
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Manila, officially City of Manila, is the capital of the Philippines. Founded on June 24,1571, by Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi and it is situated on the eastern shore of Manila Bay and is home to many landmarks, some of which date back to the 16th century. In 2012, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network listed Manila as a global city, the city proper is home to 1,780,148 people in 2015, forming the historic core of Metro Manila, the capital region of the Philippines. The metropolitan area, which includes the much larger Quezon City, Manila is also the most densely populated city proper in the world, with 41,515 people per square kilometer. The term Manila is commonly used to refer to either the whole area or the city proper. Manila is located on the shore of the Manila Bay on one of the finest harbors in the country. The city has six districts for the lower house of the Philippine Congress. Manila was once ruled by the Kingdom of Tondo before it became a province of the Majapahit Empire. During the Bruneian invasion of the Philippines, Sultan Bolkiah of Brunei captured Seludong and renamed it Maynilà, Maynilà became a vassal state of the Sultanate of Brunei, established to overpower Tondo. In 1571, conquistadors arrived from Mexico, across the Pacific Ocean, Spanish missionaries soon Christianized the city, incorporated Tondo and built some of the oldest churches in the country, including San Agustin Church. The conquistadors renamed the area Nuevo Reino de Castilla, Manila became the center of Spanish activity in the Far East and one end of the Manila–Acapulco galleon trade route linking Spanish America with Asia, one of the earliest examples of globalization. Because of its location on Pacific trade routes, Manila received the moniker Pearl of the Orient. Spanish rule of the Philippine archipelago lasted for more than three centuries, until 1898, order was usually quickly restored and the city returned to the business of trade. In the 19th century, Manila was one of the most modern cities in Asia, before the Spanish–American War, it saw the rise of the Philippine Revolution. After the war, the United States took control, switched the official language from Spanish to English, near the end of World War II, during the Battle of Manila, most of the city was flattened by intensive aerial bombardment by the United States Air Force. As a result, relatively little remains of Manilas prewar and colonial architecture, although there are ongoing projects, especially within the old walled city. Maynilà, the Filipino name for the city, originated from the word nilà, referring to a mangrove tree that grew on the delta of the Pasig River. The flowers were made into garlands that, according to folklore, were offered to statues on religious altars or in churches
13.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
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Tobi (island)
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Tobi is an island in the Palauan state of Hatohobei. With a population of about 30, it all of the states people. Most of the live on the islands west side and speak Tobian. Tobi, Helen Reef, Transit Reef, and the islands in the state of Sonsorol make up The Republic of Palaus Southwest Islands, tobi is 1.6 km long and 0.8 km wide, and has an area of about 0.85 square kilometres
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Kosrae
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Kosrae, formerly known as Kusaie, is an island in Federated States of Micronesia. Kosraes land area is 110 square kilometres, sustaining 6,600 people, mt. Finkol is the highest point at 634 metres. Kosrae, the easternmost of the Caroline Islands, has a population of 6,616 and it is located approximately 600 km north of the equator, between Guam and the Hawaiian Islands. It has an area of approximately 110 km2. Some parts of the island are experiencing coastal erosion, Kosrae is a high island that is largely unspoiled. It is becoming a destination for divers and hikers. The reefs are largely untouched, and contain miles of hard corals, dense vegetation and steep mountains keep the island largely undeveloped. Viewed from the ocean, the distinct shape resembles a female body. This has led to the island being called the island of the sleeping lady and it is served by United Air Lines Island Hopper 737–800 flights between Hawaii and Guam, stopping at other FSM and Marshallese destinations on the way. Nauru Airlines also connect weekly with their fleet of 737–300 jets to Brisbane in Australia and Nadi in Fiji. There is one significant nearshore island within the reef around Kosrae, which is Lelu Island, and it is only 2 square kilometres in area. It belongs to Lelu municipality, which includes the area around Tofol, other very small, uninhabited islands within the fringing reef are, Yen Yen and Yenasr, the airport island, Kiul, Mutunyal, Sroansak, and Srukames. The Kosrae Department of Education operates six elementary schools and one high school. There is also one private school, in July 2011, Kosrae DOE embraced the One Laptop per Child programme, distributing 720 XO computers to children in its public elementary schools, becoming the first State of Micronesia to do so. The official language of Kosrae is Kosraean, although the English language may also be used in government discourse, according to the Constitution of Kosrae, English is held to have equal authority to Kosraean. However, the language of the FSM is English. Archaeological evidence shows that the island was settled at least by the years of the first millennium AD. This includes the city of Leluh that existed from about 1250 AD and it featured burial pyramids for the nobility
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Atoll
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An atoll, sometimes called a coral atoll, is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely. There may be coral islands/cays on the rim, the coral of the atoll often sits atop the rim of an extinct seamount or volcano which has eroded or subsided partially beneath the water. The lagoon forms over the crater or caldera while the higher rim remains above water or at shallow depths that permit the coral to grow. For the atoll to persist, continued erosion or subsidence must be at a slow enough to permit reef growth upwards and outwards to replace the lost height. The word atoll comes from the Dhivehi word atholhu, meaning an administrative subdivision, the distribution of atolls around the globe is instructive, most of the worlds atolls are in the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean has no large groups of atolls, other than eight atolls east of Nicaragua that belong to the Colombian department of San Andres and Providencia in the Caribbean. Reef-building corals will thrive only in tropical and subtropical waters of oceans and seas. The northernmost atoll of the world is Kure Atoll at 28°24 N, the southernmost atolls of the world are Elizabeth Reef at 29°58 S, and nearby Middleton Reef at 29°29 S, in the Tasman Sea, both of which are part of the Coral Sea Islands Territory. The next southerly atoll is Ducie Island in the Pitcairn Islands Group, at this latitude coral reefs would not develop without the warming waters of the Gulf Stream. However, Bermuda is termed a pseudo-atoll because its general form, while there is no atoll directly on the equator, the closest atoll to the Equator is Aranuka of Kiribati, with its southern tip just 12 km north of the equator. In most cases, the area of an atoll is very small in comparison to the total area. Atoll islands are low lying, with their elevations less than 5 meters, measured by total area, Lifou is the largest raised coral atoll of the world, followed by Rennell Island. More sources however list as the largest atoll in the world in terms of land area Kiritimati, the remains of an ancient atoll as a hill in a limestone area is called a reef knoll. The second largest atoll by dry land area is Aldabra with 155 km², the largest atoll in terms of island numbers is Huvadhu Atoll in the south of the Maldives with 255 islands. In 1842, Charles Darwin explained the creation of coral atolls in the southern Pacific Ocean based upon observations made during a voyage aboard the HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836. In time, subsidence carries the old volcano below the ocean surface, at this point, the island has become an atoll. Atolls are the product of the growth of marine organisms. Volcanic islands located beyond the water temperature requirements of hermatypic organisms become seamounts as they subside and are eroded away at the surface
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Chuuk State
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Chuuk State is one of the four states of the Federated States of Micronesia. The other states are Kosrae State, Pohnpei State, and Yap State, Chuuk Lagoon is where most people live. Weno island in the Lagoon functions as capital and is FSMs biggest city. The termination of U. S. administration of the Chuuk, Yap, Kosrae, Pohnpei, the Federated States of Micronesia, including Chuuk, Yap, Kosrae, and Pohnpei, was established in 1979 and signed a Compact of Free Association with the U. S. On July 2,2002, heavy rains from Tropical Storm Chataan caused more than thirty landslides that killed people and injured dozens others. The landslides occurred throughout the day, some within just minutes of each other, to the west is Yap State. To the east are Pohnpei State and Kosrae State is further east, the main population center of Chuuk State is the Chuuk Lagoon, a large archipelago with mountainous islands surrounded by a string of islets on a barrier reef. The two major geographical and dialectic divisions of the Chuuk Lagoon are Faichuuk, the islands, and Namoneas. The Pattiw Region is of particular interest in that it has some of the most traditional islands in the Pacific and is related to outer islands of Yap. This group includes the islands of Pollap, Tamatam, Poluwat, today you can still find traditional master navigators—Poluwat and Pollap are considered to have some of the best navigators and ocean-going outrigger canoes in the Pacific. In the islands of the Pattiw Region, and some of the Islands of Yap, visiting the Pattiw Region in the west, however, is difficult due to the lack of reliable transportation. Houk probably has the most accessible airstrip in the Pattiw Region, Chuuk is the most populous of the FSMs states. The New York Province of the Society of Jesus maintains a school on the island of Weno in Chuuk. Xavier High School is housed at the former Japanese communications center and it is a coeducational institution, drawing students from all the island groups of the Federated States of Micronesia, as well as Palau and the Marshall Islands. Teachers are both Jesuit and lay and come from Micronesia, the U. S. Indonesia, Japan, although Chuuk is an overwhelmingly Christian society, traditional beliefs in spirit possession by the dead still exist. Allegedly, these spirits overwhelmingly possess women, and spirit possession is usually brought on by family conflicts, the spirits, speaking through the women, typically admonish family members to treat each other better. Of the 40 municipalities of the state,16 fall within the Chuuk Lagoon and 24 in the Outer Islands, in the table below, each is followed by its population at the Census held on 1 April 2000
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Pohnpeian language
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Pohnpeian or Ponapean is a Micronesian language spoken as the indigenous language of the island of Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands. Pohnpeian has about 29,000 speakers, the vast majority of live in Pohnpei and its outlying atolls. It is the second most widely spoken language of the Federated States of Micronesia. Pohnpeian features a high language including some specialized vocabulary, used in speaking about people of high rank, Pohnpeian is most closely related to the Trukic languages of Chuuk. Often, Ngatikese, Pingelapese and Mokilese of the Ponapeic dialect continuum are counted as dialects of Pohnpeian or as closely related languages, Pohnpeian shares 81% lexical similarity with Pingelapese, 75% with Mokilese, and 36% with Trukic Chuukese. Ngatik Mens Creole is a creole of Ngatikese and it developed as a result of the 1837 Ngatik massacre, during which the islands male population was wiped out by the crew of Australian captain C. H. Hart and Pohnpeian warriors. Some of the Europeans and Pohnpeians settled and repopulated the island, taking the local women as wives, the island formed a new culture and language, a mixture of English and Ngatikese. The language has also been relexified by Ngatikese, Pohnpeian employs a great deal of loanwords from colonial European and Asian languages such as English, Japanese, Spanish and minimally German. The IPA equivalents of written Pohnpeian are as follows, Pohnpeian phonotactics generally allow syllables of consisting of consonants and vowels accordingly, V, VC, CV and this basic system is complicated by Pohnpeian orthographical conventions and phonological processes. Orthographically, i is used to represent /j/, though it is often unwritten, -u is realized as /w/, and h indicates a long vowel. Consecutive vowels are glided with or, depending on the height and order of the vowels, diar is said, toai is, sued is. While the glide is never written other than as i the glide may be written between u and a vowel, suwed. Words beginning in nasal consonant clusters may be pronounced as written, the roundedness of the prothetic vowel depends on that of the adjacent consonant cluster and the first written syllable. For example, nta can be said, and ngkapwan may be, but mpwer is optionally, Pohnpeian orthography renders the consonant clusters and as mpw and mmw, respectively. Further phonological constraints frequently impact the pronunciation and spelling of consonant clusters, sound changes, especially in reduplication, are often reflected by a change in spelling. However, processes triggered by affixes as well as adjacent words are not indicated in spelling, first, liquid assimilation is seen most often in reduplication alongside spelling changes. By this process, liquids /l/ and /r/ are assimilated into the alveolar consonant. The second process, nasal assimilation, presents two varieties, partial and complete, in partial nasal assimilation, /n/ assimilates with a following stop consonant to produce, or
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Chamorro language
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Chamorro is an Austronesian language spoken by about 47,000 people. It is the native and spoken language of the Chamorro people who are the people of Guam. The Chamorro language is threatened, with a drop in language fluency over the past century. It is estimated that 75% of the population of Guam was literate in the Chamorro language around the time the United States captured the island during the Spanish–American War. A century later, the 2000 U. S. Census showed that fewer than 20% of Chamorros living in Guam speak their language fluently. A number of forces have contributed to the steep, post-World War II decline of Chamorro language fluency, a colonial legacy, beginning with the Spanish colonization of Guam in 1668, imposed power structures privileging the language of the regions colonizers. In Guam, the language suffered additional suppression when the U. S. government banned the Chamorro language in schools in 1922 and they collected and burned all Chamorro dictionaries. Similar policies were undertaken by the Japanese government when they controlled the region during World War II, even though these oppressive language policies were progressively lifted, the damage had been done. Subsequent generations were often raised in households where only the oldest family members were fluent, lack of exposure made it increasingly difficult to pick up Chamorro as a second language. Within a few generations, English replaced Chamorro as the language of daily life, there is a difference in the rate of Chamorro language fluency between Guam and the other Mariana Islands. On Guam the number of native Chamorro speakers has dwindled in the last decade or so, in the Northern Mariana Islands, young Chamorros speak the language fluently. Today, the NMI Chamorros and Guamanian Chamorros disagree strongly on each others linguistic fluency, an NMI Chamorro would say that Guamanian Chamorros do not speak the language correctly, whereas the Guamanian Chamorros believe that the NMI Chamorros are using an archaic form of the language. Representatives from Guam have unsuccessfully lobbied the United States to take action to promote, in 2013, Guam will be instituting Public Law 31-45, which increases the teaching of the Chamorro language and culture in Guam schools, extending instruction to include grades 7–10. Other efforts have made in recent times, most notably Chamorro immersion schools. One example is the Huråo Guåhan Academy, at the Chamorro Village in Hagåtña and this program is led by Ann Marie Arceo and her husband, Ray Arceo. According to Huråos official YouTube page, Huråo Academy is one if not the first Chamoru Immersion Schools that focus on the teaching of Chamoru language, Huråo was founded as a non-profit in June 2005. The academy has been praised by many for the continuity of the Chamoru language, other creative ways to incorporate and promote the Chamorro language have been found in the use of applications for smartphones, internet videos and television. From Chamorro dictionaries, to the most recent Speak Chamorro app, efforts are growing and expanding in ways to preserve and protect the Chamorro language, unlike most of its neighbors, Chamorro is not classified as a Micronesian or Polynesian language
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Yapese language
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Yapese is a language spoken by the people on the island of Yap. It belongs to the Austronesian languages, more specifically to the Oceanic branch of that family and it has been difficult to classify it further, but Yapese may prove to be one of the Admiralty Islands languages. The glottal stop is a feature of Yapese. Words beginning with a vowel letter begin with a glottal stop, adjacent vowels have the glottal stop between them. There are many word-final glottal stops, in Yapese spelling as practised until the 1970s, the glottal stop was not written with an explicit character. A word-final glottal stop was represented by doubling the vowel letter. Glottalization of consonants was represented with an apostrophe, apart from a couple grammatical forms which are V, syllables are CV or CVC. Yapese is one of the few languages in the world with ejective fricatives. The Yapese ejective consonants are /pʼ tʼ kʼ θʼ/, there are also glottalised nasals /mˀ nˀ ŋˀ/ and approximants /jˀ wˀ lˀ/. In the table below, each phoneme is listed to the left of the grapheme that represents it in Yapese orthography, /h/ <h> and /j/ <j> only occur in English and Japanese loans. In the table below, each phoneme is listed to the left of the grapheme that represents it in Yapese orthography, Yapese Wordlist at the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database Jensen Yapese Dictionary On-Line at www. trussel2. com Chepin yuu Waqab. Yapese-language vernacular reader Yaat nu Waqab
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Admiralty Islands languages
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The Admiralty Islands languages are a group of some thirty Oceanic languages. They may include Yapese, which has proven difficult to classify, in Language description, history, and development, Linguistic indulgence in memory of Terry Crowley, ed. by Jeff Siegel, John Lynch, and Diana Eades, pp. 297–311. Sivisa Titan, Sketch grammar, texts, vocabulary based on material collected by P. Josef Meier, Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication No.38. A grammar and lexicon of Loniu, Papua New Guinea, serial verbs in Loniu and an evolving preposition. Ross, M. D. Proto Oceanic and the Austronesian languages of Western Melanesia
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Filipinos
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Filipinos are the people who are identified with the country of the Philippines, either through descent or citizenship. Filipinos come from different ethnolinguistic nations, currently, there are more than 175 ethnolinguistic nations, each with its own language, identity, culture and history. The modern Filipino identity, with its Austronesian roots, was developed in conjunction with Spanish, Chinese, the Philippines was a Spanish colony for 333 years, setting a foundation for contemporary Filipino culture. Under Spanish rule, most of the Filipino populace embraced Roman Catholicism, almost all Filipinos adopted Spanish surnames from the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos published in 1849 by the Spanish colonial government. As neither past governments nor the modern Philippine Statistics Authority account for the background of an individual. The lack of the letter F in the pre-1987 Philippine alphabet, upon official adoption of the modern, 28-letter Filipino alphabet in 1987, the name Filipino was preferred over Pilipino. However the ABAKADA is only the Alphabet of the Tagalogs as other Ethnic Nations also have their own alphabet and/or writing script, use of the term Filipino in the Philippines started during the Spanish colonial period. The original meaning was a person of Spanish descent born in the Philippines and this original usage is now archaic and obsolete. Historian Ambeth Ocampo has suggested that the first documented use of the word to refer to Indios was the Spanish language poem A la juventud filipina, published in 1879 by José Rizal. A number of Filipinos refer to themselves colloquially as Pinoy, which is a word formed by taking the last four letters of Filipino. The term, although in popular usage, is considered by some Filipinos as a racial slur. Other collective endonyms for the Filipino people include, Patria Adorada as popularized by Jose Rizal through his poem Mi último adiós, in 2010, a metatarsal from Callao Man, discovered in 2007, was dated through uranium-series dating as being 67,000 years old. Prior to that, the earliest human remains found in the Philippines were thought to be the fragments of a skull and jawbone. Fox, an anthropologist from the National Museum, anthropologists who examined these remains agreed that they belonged to modern human beings. These include the Homo sapiens, as distinguished from the mid-Pleistocene Homo erectus species, the Tabon Man fossils are considered to have come from a third group of inhabitants, who worked the cave between 22,000 and 20,000 BCE. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates like 45 or 50 thousand years ago, researchers say this indicates that the human remains were pre-Mongoloid, from about 40,000 years ago. Fluctuations in ancient shorelines between 150,000 BP and 17,000 BP connected the Malay Archipelago region with Maritime Southeast Asia and this may have enabled ancient migrations into the Philippines from Maritime Southeast Asia approximately 50,000 BP to 13,000 BP. A January 2009 study of language phylogenies by R. D and this was a two-pronged expansion, which moved north through the Philippines and into Taiwan, while a second expansion prong spread east along the New Guinea coast and into Oceania and Polynesia
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Japanese people
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Japanese people are an ethnic group native to Japan. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of the population of their country. Worldwide, approximately 129 million people are of Japanese descent, of these, people of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries are referred to as the Japanese diaspora. The term ethnic Japanese may also be used in some contexts to refer to ethnic groups, including the Yamato, Ainu. The Japanese language is a Japonic language that in the past was treated as a language isolate, the Japanese language has a tripartite writing system using Hiragana, Katakana, and Kanji. Domestic Japanese people use primarily Japanese for daily interaction, the adult literacy rate in Japan exceeds 99%. Japanese religion has traditionally been syncretic in nature, combining elements of Buddhism, Shinto, a polytheistic religion with no book of religious canon, is Japans native religion. Mahayana Buddhism came to Japan in the century and evolved into many different sects. Today, the largest form of Buddhism among Japanese people is the Jōdo Shinshū sect founded by Shinran, most Japanese people profess to believe in both Shinto and Buddhism. Japanese peoples religion functions mostly as a foundation for mythology, traditions, Christianity in Japan is among the nations minority religions. Just under 2%, or about 2.5 million, of Japans population are Christians, many Japanese practice Christianity in the diaspora in Brazil, which is home to the largest Japanese population outside Japan. About 60% of Japanese Brazilians are Roman Catholics, while 90% of Japanese Mexicans are Roman Catholic, certain genres of writing originated in and are often associated with Japanese society. These include the haiku, tanka, and I Novel, although modern writers generally avoid these writing styles, historically, many works have sought to capture or codify traditional Japanese cultural values and aesthetics. Twentieth-century Japanese writers recorded changes in Japanese society through their works, some of the most notable authors included Natsume Sōseki, Junichirō Tanizaki, Osamu Dazai, Yasunari Kawabata, Fumiko Enchi, Yukio Mishima, and Ryōtarō Shiba. In contemporary Japan, popular authors such as Ryū Murakami, Haruki Murakami, decorative arts in Japan date back to prehistoric times. Jōmon pottery includes examples with elaborate ornamentation, in the Yayoi period, artisans produced mirrors, spears, and ceremonial bells known as dōtaku. Later burial mounds, or kofun, preserve characteristic clay haniwa, beginning in the Nara period, painting, calligraphy, and sculpture flourished under strong Confucian and Buddhist influences from China. Among the architectural achievements of this period are the Hōryū-ji and the Yakushi-ji, after the cessation of official relations with the Tang dynasty in the ninth century, Japanese art and architecture gradually became less influenced by China
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Taro
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Taro commonly refers to the plant Colocasia esculenta, the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the Araceae family which are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Thus, this describes the dasheen form of taro, another variety of taro is known as eddoe or Colocasia antiquorum. Other species of taro include giant taro, swamp taro, Colocasia esculenta is thought to be native to Southern India and Southeast Asia, but is widely naturalised. It is a perennial, tropical plant primarily grown as a vegetable for its edible starchy corm. It is a staple in African, Oceanic and South Indian cultures and is believed to have been one of the earliest cultivated plants. It is known by local names and often referred to as elephant ears when grown as an ornamental plant. Taro can be grown in fields where water is abundant or in upland situations where water is supplied by rainfall or supplemental irrigation. Taro is one of the few crops that can be grown under flooded conditions and this is due to air spaces in the petiole, which permit underwater gaseous exchange with the atmosphere. For a maximum dissolved oxygen supply, the water should be cool, warm, stagnant water causes basal rotting. For maximum yields, the water level should be controlled so that the base of the plant is always under water, flooded cultivation has some advantages over dry-land cultivation, higher yields, out-of-season production, and weed control. On the other hand, in flooded production systems requires a longer maturation period, investment in infrastructure, and higher operational costs. Like most root crops, taro and eddoes do well in deep, moist or even swampy soils where the rainfall exceeds 2,500 mm. Eddoes are more resistant to drought. The crop attains maturity within six to twelve months after planting in dry-land cultivation, the crop is harvested when the plant height decreases and the leaves turn yellow. These signals are less distinct in flooded taro cultivation. Harvesting is usually done by hand tools, even in mechanized production systems, first, the soil around the corm is loosened, and then, the corm is pulled up by grabbing the base of the petioles. The global average yield is 6.2 tones/hectare but varies according to the region, in Asia, average yields reach 12.6 tones/hectare. Taro contains oxalic acid which forms raphides and it is reduced to safe levels by steeping cubed taro roots in cold water overnight and disposing of the water. Calcium oxalate is highly insoluble and contributes to kidney stones and it has been recommended to consume calcium-rich foods like milk together with taro
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Missionary
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A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes
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Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
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Micronesia
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Micronesia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It has a cultural history with two other island regions, Polynesia to the east and Melanesia to the south. The region has a marine climate, and is part of the Oceania ecozone. There are four main archipelagos along with numerous outlying islands, Micronesia is divided politically among several sovereign countries. One of these is the Federated States of Micronesia, which is often called Micronesia for short and is not to be confused with the overall region, Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. The earliest known contact with Europeans occurred in 1521, when Ferdinand Magellan reached the Marianas, the coinage of the term Micronesia is usually attributed to Jules Dumont dUrvilles usage in 1832, however Domeny de Rienzi had used the term a year previously. Micronesia is a region that includes approximately 2100 islands, with a land area of 2,700 km2, the largest of which is Guam. The total ocean area within the perimeter of the islands is 7,400,000 km2, there are four main island groups in Micronesia, the Caroline Islands the Gilbert Islands the Mariana Islands the Marshall Islands Plus the island country of Nauru. The Caroline Islands are a widely scattered archipelago consisting of about 500 small coral islands, north of New Guinea, the Gilbert Islands are a chain of sixteen atolls and coral islands, arranged in an approximate north-to-south line. In a geographical sense, the equator serves as the line between the northern Gilbert Islands and the southern Gilbert Islands. The Republic of Kiribati contains all of the Gilberts, as well as the island of Tarawa, the Mariana Islands are an arc-shaped archipelago made up by the summits of fifteen volcanic mountains. Guam and the Northern Marianas are two of the five remaining U. S, the Marshall Islands is an island country, located north of Nauru and Kiribati, east of the Federated States of Micronesia, and south of the U. S. territory of Wake Island. The country consists of 29 low-lying atolls and 5 isolated islands, comprising 1,156 individual islands, the atolls and islands form two groups, the Ratak Chain and the Ralik Chain. All the islands in the chain are part of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, having few natural resources, the islands wealth is based on a service economy, as well as some fishing and agriculture. Of the 29 atolls,24 of them are inhabited, Bikini Atoll is an atoll in the Marshall Islands. There are 23 islands in the Bikini Atoll, the islands of Bokonijien, Aerokojlol, and Nam were vaporized during nuclear tests that occurred there. The islands are composed of low coral limestone аnd sand, the average elevation is only about 2.1 metres above low tide level. Nauru is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean,42 km south of the Equator, listed as the worlds smallest republic
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Polynesian Voyaging Society
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The Polynesian Voyaging Society is a non-profit research and educational corporation based in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. PVS was established to research and perpetuate traditional Polynesian voyaging methods, using replicas of traditional double-hulled canoes, PVS undertakes voyages throughout Polynesia navigating without modern instruments. The society was founded in 1973 by nautical anthropologist Ben Finney, Hawaiian artist Herb Kawainui Kane, the three wanted to show that ancient Polynesians could have purposely settled the Polynesian Triangle using non-instrument navigation. The first PVS project was to build a replica of a voyaging canoe. On March 8,1975, the first voyaging canoe to be built in the Hawaiian Islands in over 600 years was launched with captain Kawika Kapahulehua, named the Hōkūleʻa, it left Hawaiʻi on May 1,1976 for Tahiti in an attempt to retrace the ancient voyaging route. Micronesian navigator Mau Piailug, using no instruments, successfully navigated the canoe to Tahiti, two years later in 1980, Thompson replicated the successful 1976 voyage to Tahiti, becoming the first modern Hawaiian to master the art of Micronesian navigation. Since that voyage, the Hokuleʻa and her sister canoe the Hawaiʻiloa have undertaken voyages to other islands in Polynesia, including Samoa, Tonga, on January 23,2007 the Hokuleʻa and the Alingano Maisu set sail on a voyage to Micronesia and Japan. In March 2007, the arrived at Piailugs home island of Satawal where five native Hawaiians. The event was the first Pwo ceremony on Satawal in 50 years, the Times Online reports that the US Congress has earmarked $238,000 for the Polynesian Voyaging Society. The funding was targeted by John McCain as pork-barrel-funding, Ben R. Finney, Sailing in the Wake of the Ancestors, Reviving Polynesian Voyaging Ben R
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Polynesian navigation
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Traditional Polynesian navigation was used for thousands of years to make long voyages across thousands of miles of the open Pacific Ocean. Navigators travelled to small inhabited islands using wayfinding techniques and knowledge passed by oral tradition from master to apprentice, generally each island maintained a guild of navigators who had very high status, in times of famine or difficulty they could trade for aid or evacuate people to neighboring islands. As of 2014, these traditional methods are still taught in the Polynesian outlier of Taumako Island in the Solomons. Polynesian navigation used some instruments, which predate and are distinct from the machined metal tools used by European navigators. However, they relied heavily on close observation of sea sign. Both wayfinding techniques and outrigger canoe construction methods have been kept as guild secrets, in the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with a degree of certainty. This culture, known as Lapita, stands out in the Melanesian archeological record, particularly characteristic of the Lapita culture is the making of pottery, including a great many vessels of varied shapes, some distinguished by fine patterns and motifs pressed into the clay. Within a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita culture spread 6000 km further to the east from the Bismarck Archipelago, until it reached as far as Tonga, in this region, the distinctive Polynesian culture developed. The Polynesians are then believed to have spread eastward from the Samoan Islands into the Marquesas, the Society Islands, the Hawaiian Islands and Easter Island, there are numerous traditional Polynesian devices used for navigating and/or teaching navigation. These include charts, spatial representations of islands and the conditions around them and they also include non-physical devices such as songs and stories for memorizing the properties of stars, islands, and navigational routes. Harold Gatty suggested that long-distance Polynesian voyaging followed the paths of bird migrations. There are some references in their traditions to the flight of birds. It is also believed that Polynesians employed shore-sighting birds as did many seafaring peoples, one theory is that they would have taken a frigatebird with them. These birds refuse to land on the water as their feathers will become waterlogged making it impossible to fly, when the voyagers thought they were close to land they may have released the bird, which would either fly towards land or else return to the canoe. For navigators near the celestial navigation is simplified since the whole celestial sphere is exposed. Any star that passes the zenith is on the celestial equator, each star has a specific declination, and when they rise or set, they give a bearing for navigation. Stars are learned by compass point, making a star compass, for example, in the Caroline Islands Mau Piailug taught natural navigation using a star compass. The development of sidereal compasses has been studied and theorized to have developed from an ancient pelorus, the Polynesians also took measurements of stellar elevation to determine their latitude
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Compass rose
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It is also the term for the graduated markings found on the traditional magnetic compass. The modern compass rose has eight principal winds, 8-point compass roses us the eight principal winds—that is, the four cardinal directions plus the four intercardinal or ordinal directions, at angles of difference of 45°. 16-point compass roses are constructed by bisecting the angles of the winds to come up with intermediate compass points, known as half-winds. The names of the half-winds are simply combinations of the winds to either side. 32-point compass roses are constructed by bisecting these angles, and coming up with quarter-winds at 11 1⁄4° angles of difference, north-by-east is one quarter wind from North towards East, Northeast-by-north is one quarter wind from Northeast toward North. Naming all 32 points on the rose is called boxing the compass, the 32-point rose has the uncomfortable number of 11 1⁄4° between points, but is easily found by halving divisions and may have been easier for those not using a 360° circle. Using gradians, of which there are 400 in a circle, linguistic anthropological studies have shown that most human communities have four points of cardinal direction. The names given to these directions are usually derived from either locally-specific geographic features or from celestial bodies or from atmospheric features, most mobile populations tend to adopt sunrise and sunset for East and West and the direction from where different winds blow to denote North and South. The ancient Greeks originally maintained distinct and separate systems of points, the four Greek cardinal points were based on celestial bodies and used for orientation. The four Greek winds were confined to meteorology, nonetheless, both systems were gradually conflated, and wind names came to eventually denote cardinal directions as well. To restore balance, Timosthenes of Rhodes added two more winds to produce the classical 12-wind rose, and began using the winds to denote geographical direction in navigation, eratosthenes deducted two winds from Aristotles system, to produce the classical 8-wind rose. The Romans adopted the Greek 12-wind system, and replaced its names with Latin equivalents, e. g. Septentrio, Subsolanus, Auster, Favonius, uniquely, Vitruvius came up with a 24-wind rose. According to the chronicler Einhard, the Frankish king Charlemagne himself came up with his own names for the classical 12 winds and he named the four cardinal winds on the roots Nord, Ost, Sund and Vuest. Intermediate winds were constructed as simple compound names of these four and these Carolingian names are the source of the modern compass point names found in nearly all modern west European languages. The following table gives an equivalence of the classical 12-wind rose with the modern compass directions. The sidereal compass rose demarcates the compass points by the position of stars in the night sky, arab navigators in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, who depended on celestial navigation, were using a 32-point sidereal compass rose before the end of the 10th century. The other thirty points on the rose were determined by the rising and setting positions of fifteen bright stars. Reading from North to South, in their rising and setting positions, the true position of these stars is only approximate to their theoretical equidistant rhumbs on the sidereal compass
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History of the Federated States of Micronesia
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The Federated States of Micronesia are located on the Caroline Islands in the western Pacific Ocean. The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago, a decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centered on Yap and Pohnpei. On Pohnpei, pre-colonial history is divided into three eras, Mwehin Kawa or Mwehin Aramas, Mwehin Sau Deleur, and Mwehin Nahnmwarki, Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers, the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin. The Saudeleur centralized form of rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, the Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized nahnmwarki system in existence today. Isokelekel is regarded as the creator of the modern Pohnpeian nahnmwarki social system, nan Madol offshore of Temwen Island near Pohnpei, consists of a series of small artificial islands linked by a network of canals, and is often called the Venice of the Pacific. Isokelekel and his descendants occupied the stone city, but later abandoned it. European explorers - first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands and then the Spanish - reached the Carolines in the 16th century, spain sold the islands to Germany in 1899 under the terms of the German–Spanish Treaty of that year. Yap was a major German naval communications center before the First World War and it was occupied by Japanese troops in September,1914, and passed to the Japanese Empire under the Versailles Treaty in 1919 as a mandated territory under League of Nations supervision. US commercial rights on the island were secured by a special US-Japanese treaty to that effect, the Empire of Japan administrated the islands from 1920 under the South Pacific Mandate granted by the League of Nations. During this period, the Japanese population grew to over 100,000 throughout Micronesia, sugar cane, mining, fishing and tropical agriculture became the major industries. The Japanese garrison comprised 4,423 Imperial Japanese Army men under the command of Colonel Daihachi Itoh and 1,494 Imperial Japanese Navy men, a significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon. In February 1944, Operation Hailstone, one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese support vessels, World War II brought an abrupt end to the relative prosperity experienced during Japanese civil administration. By the Wars conclusion most infrastructure had been laid waste by bombing, the United Nations created the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in 1947. Pohnpei, Truk, Yap, Palau, the Marshall Islands, as Trustee the US was to promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants. On May 10,1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified the Constitution of the Federated States of Micronesia, the neighboring trust districts of Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate. The Honorable Tosiwo Nakayama, the former President of the Congress of Micronesia, became the first President of the FSM and formed his Cabinet. The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the U. S. which entered force on November 3,1986
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History of Palau
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Palau was initially settled over 3,000 years ago. This map and a letter sent to Europe by Klein in June 1697 had a vast impact on the surge of interest in Palau and it resulted in the first and failed the Jesuit attempts to travel to the islands from the Philippines in 1700,1708 and 1709. Subsequent attempts to save Du Beron and Cortyl learned that they were killed, after further attempts, Palau islands were made part of the Spanish East Indies in 1885. British traders became prominent visitors in the 18th century, followed by expanding Spanish influence in the 19th century, following its defeat in the Spanish–American War, Spain sold Palau and most of the rest of the Caroline Islands to Germany in 1899. The islands passed formally to the United States under United Nations auspices in 1947 as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Four of the Trust Territory districts formed a single federated Micronesian state in 1979, but the districts of Palau and the Marshall Islands declined to participate. After eight referendums and an amendment to the Palauan constitution, the Compact was ratified in 1993 and went into effect on October 1,1994, legislation making Palau an offshore financial center was passed by the Senate in 1998. In 2001, Palau passed its first bank regulation and anti-money laundering laws. Carbon dating of cave burials show a population, presumably the result of insular dwarfism, from at least 3,000. The Palauan language is an outlier among the Austronesian languages, however, there are some indications that it may derive from the Sunda Islands. For thousands of years, Palauans have had a well established matrilineal society, traditionally land, money, and titles passed through the female line. Only High Ranking Women hand picked the High Chiefs, clan lands continue to be passed through titled women and first daughters but there is also a modern patrilineal sentiment introduced by imperial Japan. The Japanese government attempted to confiscate and redistribute tribal land into personal ownership during World War II, legal entanglements continue amongst the various clans. There still is a debate whether the islands were or were not seen by some of the early European discoverers in the 16th century, historians take note of the early navigational routes of European explorers in the Pacific. There is disagreement as to whether Spaniard Ruy López de Villalobos, no conclusive evidence exists, but some believe he could have seen the tip of a southernmost island in the group. Nevertheless, the true and conscious discovery of Palau came a century later in December 1696 and they were intervied by the Czech missionary Paul Klein on 28 December 1696. Klein was not only able to draw the first map of Palau based on a drawing and a set of pebbles on the beach but also to send an important letter in June 1697 to Europe. This map and the letter caused a vast interest in the new islands and resulted in the first, Spain later started to dominate the islands
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Pohnpei
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Pohnpei upon a stone altar is an island of the Senyavin Islands which are part of the larger Caroline Islands group. It belongs to Pohnpei State, one of the four states in the Federated States of Micronesia, major population centers on Pohnpei include Palikir, the FSMs capital, and Kolonia, the capital of Pohnpei State. Pohnpei Island is the largest, highest, most populous, the islanders of Pohnpei have a reputation as being the most welcoming of outsiders among residents of the island group. Pohnpei also contains a wealth of biodiversity and it is also one of the wettest places on Earth with annual recorded rainfall exceeding 7,600 millimetres each year in certain mountainous locations. It is home to the ka tree found only in Pohnpei, the highest point of the island is Mount Nanlaud at 772 or 782 metres. Pohnpei is home to several bird species including four endemic species, the Pohnpei lorikeet, the Pohnpei fantail, the Pohnpei flycatcher. A fifth endemic, the Pohnpei starling, is thought to have gone extinct. The only land reptiles are a few species of lizard, originally, only three mammals existed, rats, bats and dogs. Pigs were introduced, some are now feral, as are the deer brought during German times, the lagoons are rich in fish, mollusks, turtles and other marine fauna. Pohnpei belongs to the Tropical rainforest climate zone and it is also one of the wettest places on earth with annual recorded rainfall exceeding 7,600 millimetres each year in certain mountainous locations. Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers, the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin, the Saudeleur centralized form of absolute rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, the Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized nahnmwarki system in existence today. Pohnpeian historic society was structured into five tribes, various clans and sub-clans. The tribes were organized on a feudal basis, in theory, all land belonged to the chiefs, who received regular tribute and whose rule was absolute. Punishments administered by chiefs included death and banishment, tribal wars included looting, destruction of houses and canoes and killing of prisoners. Pre-Spanish population estimates are deemed unreliable, pohnpeis first European visitor was Álvaro de Saavedra on 14 September 1529 shortly before his death, when trying to find the way back to New Spain. He charted it as San Bartolomé and called this one and the islands as Los Pintados because the natives were frequently tattooed. It was later visited by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, on 23 December 1595, his description is brief, he made no attempt to land
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Saudeleur Dynasty
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The Saudeleur Dynasty was the first organized government uniting the people of Pohnpei island, ruling from around 1100 to around 1628. The era was preceded by the Mwehin Kawa or Mwehin Aramas, the name Deleur was an ancient name for Pohnpei, today a state containing the capital of the Federated States of Micronesia. Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers were of foreign origin, the Saudeleur centralized form of absolute rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, the Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized nahnmwarki system in existence today. The earliest settlers on the island were probably Lapita culture people from the Southeast Solomon islands or the Vanuatu archipelago. According to Pohnpeian legend, the island was created by a party of 17 men and women from a distant land to the south who piled rocks on the surrounding coral reef. The island was inhabited by natives who mixed with the newcomers and their numbers grew, but their society was in a state of perpetual anarchy. The Saudeleur Dynasty began with the arrival of twin sorcerers Olisihpa and Olosohpa from the mythical Western Katau, Olisihpa and Olosohpa were said to be much taller than native Pohnpeians. The brothers arrived in a large canoe seeking a place to build an altar so that they could worship Nahnisohn Sahpw, after several false starts, the two brothers successfully built an altar at megalithic Nan Madol, where they performed their rituals. In legend, these brothers levitated the huge stones with the aid of a flying dragon, when Olisihpa died of old age, Olosohpa became the first Saudeleur. Olosohpa married a woman and sired twelve generations, producing sixteen other Saudeleur rulers of the Dipwilap clan. The founders of the dynasty ruled kindly, though their successors placed ever increasing demands on their subjects, rule was maintained by one man, the Saudeleur, at Nan Madol. The land, its contents, and its inhabitants were owned by the Saudeleur ruler, the commoners were required to present the ruler with frequent tributes of fruit and fish. Tribute consisted mostly of breadfruit during rak, the season of plenty, while it shifted to yams, taro, and fermented breadfruit during isol, seafood was also presented to the Saudeleur at designated times. Public dissatisfaction led to at least two assassinations, but another Saudeleur simply rose in place of the last, some common methods of recourse against oppression were defiance of orders and theft of property offered to the Saudeleur. A few Saudeleur were benign rulers, Inenen Mwehi established an aristocracy, others, however were renowned for their cruelty. Sakon Mwehi taxed Pohnpeians ruthlessly, and Raipwenlake used magic to locate the fattest Pohnpeians, another, Ketiparelong, is remembered for his gluttonous wife who was fed her own fathers liver by suffering commoners at a banquet, she committed suicide, followed by Ketiparelong. Saraiden Sapw established the customary First Fruits practice on Pohnpei, Pohnpei was divided into three wei, or states, during the reign of the Saudeleur Mwohnmwei
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Tribal chief
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A tribal chief is the leader of a tribal society or chiefdom. In the case of tribal societies existing within larger colonial and post-colonial states. The most common types are the chairman of a council and/or a broader popular assembly in parliamentary cultures, the war chief, the hereditary chief and this term has largely fallen out of use, however, and such personages are now often called kings. Historically, tribal societies represent a stage between the band society of the Paleolithic stage and civilization with centralized, super-regional government based in cities. Stratified tribal societies led by tribal kings thus flourished from the Neolithic stage into the Iron Age, albeit in competition with civilisations, after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, tribal kingdoms were again established over much of Europe in the wake of the Migration period. By the High Middle Ages, these had coalesced into super-regional monarchies. Tribal societies also remained prevalent in much of the New World, excepting Paleolithic or Mesolithic band societies in Oceania, europeans forced centralized governments onto these societies during colonialism, but in some instances they have retained or regained partial self-government. Tribal chiefs are known as Sheikhs, though this term is sometimes applied as an honorific title to spiritual leaders of Sufism. In Botswana, the chiefs of the various tribes are constitutionally empowered to serve as advisers to the government as members of the Ntlo ya Dikgosi. In addition to this, they serve as the ex officio chairs of the tribal kgotlas, meetings of all of the members of the tribes. The band is the unit of governance among the First Nations in Canada. As well, there may be hereditary or charismatic chiefs. There were 614 bands in Canada in 2012, there is also a national organization, the Assembly of First Nations, which elects a national chief to act as spokesperson of all First Nations bands in Canada. The offices and traditional realms of the chiefs of Ghana are constitutionally protected by the constitution of the country. The chiefs serve as custodian of all lands and the culture of the traditional area. The Solomon Islands have a Local Court Act which empowers chiefs to deal with crimes in their communities, apo Rodolfo Aguilar serves as the chieftain of the Tagbanwa tribes people living in Banuang Daan and Cabugao settlements in Coron Island, Palawan, Philippines. His position is recognized by the Filipino government, the pre-colonial states that existed in what is today Uganda were summarily abolished following independence from Great Britain. However, following constitutional reforms in 1993, a number of them were restored as politically neutral constituencies of the state by the government of Yoweri Museveni, generally, a tribe or nation is considered to be part of an ethnic group, usually sharing cultural values
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Isokelekel
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Some Kosraean variants name this hero Nanparatak, with features closer to Ulithian tales of the same archetype. He is considered the father of modern Pohnpei, there is great variation among sources for the exact events before and during the invasion on Pohnpei, there at least 13 differing accounts of the war published. Pohnpeian culture is heavily autonomous and decentralized, and quibbling directly and publicly over variations is considered bad form, the differences among the many accounts are further attributed to a wide range of cultural phenomena, from kava social groups to clan affiliation. Accordingly, any preferred version is generally the product of a measure of self-interest, modern chiefs of Pohnpei trace their lineage to Isokelekel, and according to this legend, modern Pohnpeians are descendants of Isokelekels invasion party. According to most versions of Isokelekels legendary birth, his father is the Thunder God Nan Sapwe, Nan Sapwe had committed adultery with the wife of the Saudeleur lord. In anger, the Saudeleur lord set out to capture Nan Sapwe, some versions include that the ruler had also incensed other gods of the Pohnpeian pantheon and insulted a high priest who prophesied the Saudeleur downfall. These offenses, as well as the land ownership and tribute system of the Saudeleur, drew the ire of gods, humans. Nan Sapwe, offended by the Saudeleur lord, left Pohnpei for Kosrae, certain versions indicate the Thunder God fled to the sky world of East Katau. Having fled, he impregnated a barren human of his own Dipwenpahnmei clan named Lipahnmei by feeding her a lime and this incestuous union produced the semi-divine Isokelekel, who in the womb knew his destiny of vengeance. In these versions, he is sometimes even accorded native Pohnpeian origins, in other versions, Isokelekel is the product of a youth deified by the Thunder God and a Dipwenpahnmei human, or a pair of brothers avenging the murder of their father by the Saudeleur. Despite that Isokelekels father was regarded as a Pohnpeian deity. He is described in legend as dark-skinned, and savage, brown posits that Isokelekel was in perhaps of Papuasian descent. His origins are described as southern, or downwind. In certain variations, Isokelekel first happens upon Pohnpei while fishing, as an adult, Isokelekel set sail with 333 men, women, and children with the secret intention of conquering Pohnpei. The embarkment was consecrated by human sacrifice, a widespread in Polynesian culture. According to tradition, Isokelekel stopped in places throughout the eastern Caroline Islands en route to Pohnpei, including Ant Atoll near Kitti, Losap in the Mortlocks. According to some versions, it is on Ant Atoll that Isokelekel learns from his mother, a bird, the canoe of invaders first entered Pohnpeian territory through a channel near Kehpara, a reef island near Kitti. From Kitti, Isokelekel circumnavigated Pohnpei in a direction, a theme of Pohnpeian mythology
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Maluku Islands
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The Maluku Islands or the Moluccas are an archipelago within Indonesia. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone, geographically they are located east of Sulawesi, west of New Guinea, and north and east of Timor. The islands were also the core of the Spice Islands known to the Chinese and Europeans. The name was due to the nutmeg, mace and cloves that were originally found there. The Maluku Islands formed a province from Indonesian independence until 1999. A new province, North Maluku, incorporates the area between Morotai and Sula, with the arc of islands from Buru and Seram to Wetar remaining within the existing Maluku Province, North Maluku is predominantly Muslim, and its capital is Sofifi on Halmahera island. Maluku province has a larger Christian population, and its capital is Ambon, though originally Melanesian, many island populations, especially in the Banda Islands, were exterminated in the 17th century during the spice wars. A second influx of Austronesian immigrants began in the twentieth century under the Dutch. Between 1999 and 2002, conflict between Muslims and Christians killed thousands and displaced half a million people, the name Maluku is thought to have been derived from the term used by Arab traders for the region, Jazirat al-Muluk. The Maluku Islands were a single province from Indonesian independence until 1999 when they were split into North Maluku and Maluku, North Maluku province includes Ternate, Tidore, Bacan, Halmahera Morotai, the Obi Islands, and the Sula Islands. Evidence of increasingly long-distance trading relationships and of more frequent occupation of many islands, onyx beads and segments of silver plate used as currency on the Indian subcontinent around 200BC have been unearthed on some of the islands. Arab merchants began to arrive in the 14th century, bringing Islam, peaceful conversion to Islam occurred in many islands, especially in the centres of trade, while aboriginal animism persisted in the hinterlands and more isolated islands. Archaeological evidence here relies largely on the occurrence of pigs teeth, the Portuguese had conquered the city state of Malacca in the early 16th century and their influence was most strongly felt in Maluku and other parts of eastern Indonesia. On the return trip, Francisco Serrão was shipwrecked at Hitu island in 1512, there he established ties with the local ruler who was impressed with his martial skills. The spice trade soon revived but the Portuguese would not be able to fully monopolize nor disrupt this trade, both Serrão and Ferdinand Magellan, however, perished before they could meet one another. The Portuguese first landed in Ambon in 1513, but it became the new centre for their activities in Maluku following the expulsion from Ternate. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic and anti-European state under the rule of Sultan Baab Ullah and his son Sultan Said. By the 1560s there were 10,000 Catholics in the area, mostly on Ambon, the Pela Gandong community relationship system is between various Christian and Muslim villages throughout the regions
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Sulawesi
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Sulawesi, formerly known as Celebes, is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the worlds eleventh-largest island, within Indonesia, only Sumatra, Borneo and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra have larger populations. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas, the northern Minahasa Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the South Peninsula, the Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island and separates the island from Borneo. The name Sulawesi possibly comes from the words sula and besi, the term sula also means tines, horn or spikes, derived from Sanskrit, as trishula refer to trident. Thus sulawesi means iron spikes, which suggested that the island was also a producer of iron edged weapons, the name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence. The name Celebes was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers and it is widely considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name Sulawesi. Sulawesi is the worlds eleventh-largest island, covering an area of 174,600 km2, the central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the islands peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesis peninsulas are, from north to south, the Tomini, the Tolo and these separate the Minahassa or Northern Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula. The Strait of Makassar runs along the side of the island. The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, the Selayar Islands make up a peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part of Sulawesi. All the above-mentioned islands, and many smaller ones, are part of Sulawesis six provinces. The island slopes up from the shores of the seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern Minahassa Peninsula, stretching north to the Sangihe Islands, the northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon, Mount Awu, Soputan and Karangetang. Because of its several tectonic origin, faults scar the land, as a result, Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the biogeographical region of Wallacea, is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia collision zone. Parts of the island were attached to either the Asian or Australian continental margin. In the west, the opening of the Makassar Strait separated West Sulawesi from Sundaland in the Eocene c.45 Mya. Before October 2014, the settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c.30,000 BC on the basis of dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sadan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested
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Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Caroline Islands". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "article name needed". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
