1.
Newline
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In computing, a newline, also known as a line ending, end of line, or line break, is a special character or sequence of characters signifying the end of a line of text and the start of a new line. The actual codes representing a newline vary across operating systems, which can be a problem when exchanging text files between systems with different newline representations, the concepts of line feed and carriage return are closely associated, and can be considered either separately or together. In the physical media of typewriters and printers, two axes of motion, down and across, are needed to create a new line on the page. Although the design of a machine must consider them separately, the logic of software can combine them together as one event. This is why a newline in character encoding can be defined as LF, some character sets provide a separate newline character code. EBCDIC, for example, provides an NL character code in addition to the CR, Unicode, in addition to providing the ASCII CR and LF control codes, also provides a next line control code, as well as control codes for line separator and paragraph separator markers. Two ways to view newlines, both of which are self-consistent, are that newlines either separate lines or that they terminate lines, if a newline is considered a separator, there will be no newline after the last line of a file. Some programs have problems processing the last line of a file if it is not terminated by a newline, on the other hand, programs that expect newline to be used as a separator will interpret a final newline as starting a new line. Conversely, if a newline is considered a terminator, all lines including the last are expected to be terminated by a newline. In many applications a separate character called manual line break exists for forcing line breaks inside a single paragraph. The glyph for the character for a hard return is usually a pilcrow. Some rare systems, such as QNX before version 4, used the ASCII RS character as the newline character, EBCDIC systems—mainly IBM mainframe systems, including z/OS and i5/OS —use NL as the character combining the functions of line-feed and carriage-return. The equivalent UNICODE character is called NEL, note that EBCDIC also has control characters called CR and LF, but the numerical value of LF differs from the one used by ASCII. Additionally, some EBCDIC variants also use NL but assign a different numeric code to the character, operating systems for the CDC6000 series defined a newline as two or more zero-valued six-bit characters at the end of a 60-bit word. Some configurations also defined a character as a colon character. ZX80 and ZX81, home computers from Sinclair Research Ltd, used a specific character set with code NEWLINE as the newline character. OpenVMS uses a file system, which stores text files as one record per line. In most file formats, no line terminators are actually stored, the records themselves could contain the same line terminator characters, which could either be considered a feature or a nuisance depending on the application
2.
Typewriter
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A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for writing characters similar to those produced by printers movable type. A typewriter operates by means of keys that strike a ribbon to transmit ink or carbon impressions onto paper, typically, a single character is printed on each key press. The machine prints characters by making ink impressions of type elements similar to the used in movable type letterpress printing. At the end of the century, the term typewriter was also applied to a person who used a typing machine. After its invention in the 1860s, the quickly became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by writers, in offices. As with the automobile, telephone, and telegraph, a number of people contributed insights, historians have estimated that some form of typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers tried to come up with a workable design. Some of the early typing instruments, In 1575 an Italian printmaker, Francesco Rampazzetto, invented the scrittura tattile, in 1714, Henry Mill obtained a patent in Britain for a machine that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter. In 1802 Italian Agostino Fantoni developed a particular typewriter to enable his blind sister to write, in 1808 Italian Pellegrino Turri invented a typewriter. He also invented carbon paper to provide the ink for his machine, in 1823 Italian Pietro Conti di Cilavegna invented a new model of typewriter, the tachigrafo, also known as tachitipo. In 1829, William Austin Burt patented a machine called the Typographer which, the Science Museum describes it merely as the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented, but even that claim may be excessive, since Turris invention pre-dates it. Even in the hands of its inventor, this machine was slower than handwriting, Burt and his promoter John D. Sheldon never found a buyer for the patent, so the invention was never commercially produced, because the typographer used a dial, rather than keys, to select each character, it was called an index typewriter rather than a keyboard typewriter. Index typewriters of that era resemble the squeeze-style embosser from the 1960s more than they resemble the modern keyboard typewriter, by the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need for mechanization of the writing process. Stenographers and telegraphers could take down information at rates up to 130 words per minute, from 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America, but none went into commercial production. Charles Thurber developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was developed as an aid to the blind, in 1855, the Italian Giuseppe Ravizza created a prototype typewriter called Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti. It was a machine that let the user see the writing as it was typed. In 1861, Father Francisco João de Azevedo, a Brazilian priest, made his own typewriter with basic materials and tools, such as wood, in that same year the Brazilian emperor D
3.
IBM Electric typewriter
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The IBM Electric typewriters were a series of electric typewriters that IBM manufactured, starting in the mid-1930s. They used the moving carriage and typebar mechanism, as opposed to the fixed carriage and type ball used in the IBM Selectric. After 1944, each came in both Standard and Executive versions, the latter featuring proportional spacing. IBM typewriters had one feature lacking in many mechanical typewriters, the top row bore the digits 1234567890, the IBM design obviated substitutions taught by many typing instructors, o or O for 0, l for 1. These substitutions were easily identified when compared to an adjacent line typed with the keys and encouraged typists to confuse letters and numbers. The IBM Electromatic typewriter was the first electric typewriter to enjoy commercial success. Unlike the later IBM Selectric typewriter, this model used a conventional moving carriage. The history of the Electromatic goes back to 1924, when the North East Electric Company received patent rights for the roller from James Smathers. At that time, the company was selling electric motors, and they reached an arrangement with Remington, securing a contract for 2,500 machines in 1925. Electric manufactured the motor and power-roller base, the typewriter portion was made by Remington, based on its model Number 12. Remington had to do more than attach its typewriter to the base. All the units manufactured sold quickly and Remington wanted to continue the relationship, according to Darryl Rehr, in his 1997 book, Antique Typewriters & Office Collectibles, Remington claimed. They could sell as many as N. E, Electric on a contract, however, came at a time when Remington was unable to make such a commitment, so the Remington Electric went out of production. Electric Company then developed and produced the Electromatic, placing it on the market in 1929, after passing through the hands of General Motors, it became The Electromatic Typewriter Co. IBM acquired the assets of Electromatic Typewriters, Inc. of Rochester, N. Y. in 1933 and invested $1 million in redesigning their product and setting up service centers. The new IBMs Model 01 was introduced in 1935 and became the first successful electric typewriter in the U. S. according to IBM. Major model introductions included, In the 1950s, modified versions of the A, B. The IBM Selectric typewriter, introduced in 1961, was easier to interface to a computer and was favored in new designs, such as the IBM1130 computer and the IBM1050 terminal
4.
Underwood Typewriter Company
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The Underwood Typewriter Company was a manufacturer of typewriters headquartered in New York City, New York. Underwood produced what is considered the first widely successful, modern typewriter, by 1939, Underwood had produced five million machines. From 1874, the Underwood family made typewriter ribbon and carbon paper, when Remington decided to start producing ribbons themselves, the Underwoods opted to manufacture typewriters. The original Underwood typewriter was invented by German-American Franz Xaver Wagner, Underwood supported Wagner and bought the company, recognising the importance of the machine. 2s, made between 1896 and 1900, had Wagner Typewriter Co. printed on the back, the Underwood No.5 launched in 1900 has been described as the first truly modern typewriter. Two million had sold by the early 1920s, and its sales “were equal in quantity to all of the other firms in the typewriter industry combined”. When the company was in its heyday as the worlds largest typewriter manufacturer, its factory at Hartford, Underwood started adding addition and subtraction devices to their typewriters in about 1910. Philip Dakin Wagoner was appointed president of the Elliott-Fisher Company after World War I, Elliott-Fisher became the parent of the Underwood Typewriter Company and the Sundstrand Corporation. In 1927 Wagoner reorganized the company into Underwood-Elliott-Fisher, which became the Underwood Corporation. The reorganization was completed in December 1927, John Thomas Underwood was elected chairman and Wagoner president of Underwood Elliott-Fisher. In the years before World War II, Underwood built the worlds largest type writer in an attempt to promote itself, the typewriter was on display at Garden Pier in Atlantic City, New Jersey for several years and attracted large crowds. Often, Underwood would have a woman sitting on each of the large keys. The enormous typewriter was scrapped for metal when the war started, during World War II Underwood produced M1 carbines. In 1945 Wagoner was elected chairman of the board of Underwood, the Underwood name last appeared on Olivetti portable typewriters produced in Spain in the 80s. The Between the Lions episode Clickety Clack, Clickety Clack used an Underwood typewriter, in the 1991 Coen brothers film Barton Fink, John Turturros character Barton uses an Underwood typewriter in response to Jack Warners comment that screenwriters are Schmucks with Underwoods. Warner In the 2000 film He Died with a Felafel in His Hand directed by Richard Lowenstein, in the 2002 Steven Spielberg film Catch Me If You Can, Carl Hanratty shows Frank Abagnale a forged check, which he says was made with a stencil machine and an Underwood. An Underwood typewriter is featured on Fionn Regans 2006 album The End of History, an Underwood typewriter is used by the main character in the 2001 musical film Moulin Rouge. William Faulkner, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, Jack Kerouac used an Underwood Portable Typewriter when he wrote On the Road
5.
IBM Selectric typewriter
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The IBM Selectric typewriter was a highly successful model line of electric typewriters introduced by IBM on 31 July 1961. The Selectric also replaced the traditional typewriters moving carriage with a roller that stayed in position while the typeball. The Selectric mechanism was notable for using internal mechanical binary coding, Selectrics and their descendants eventually captured 75 percent of the United States market for electric typewriters used in business. IBM replaced the Selectric line with the IBM Wheelwriter in 1984, the Selectric typewriter was introduced on 23 July 1961. Its industrial design is credited to influential American designer Eliot Noyes, Noyes had worked on a number of design projects for IBM, prior to his work on the Selectric, he had been commissioned in 1956 by Thomas J. Watson, Jr. The Selectric remained unchanged until 1971 when the Selectric II was introduced, the original design was thereafter referred to as the Selectric I. These machines used the same 88-character typing elements, separate typeballs were available for each pitch. The Selectric II had a lever that allowed characters to be shifted up to a space to the left. This option was only on dual pitch models. Stylistically, the Selectric II was squarer at the corners, whereas the Selectric I was rounder, in 1973 the Correcting Selectric II was announced. It added an internal correction feature to the Selectric II, intended to eliminate the need for typists to use cover-up tape, white-out correction fluid, the carriage on this machine held both the main typing ribbon cartridge and two small spools for a correction ribbon. A new ribbon type, the Correctable Film ribbon, was introduced at the same time and this produced typing quality equal to the carbon film ribbon, but with a pigment designed to be easily removable from paper. There were two types of correction tapes, The transparent and slightly adhesive Lift-Off tape, or the white Cover-Up tape, the correction tape was changed independently from the typing ribbon. The typist would press the key and then re-type the erroneous character, either lifting it off of the page or covering it with white-out powder. Any number of mistakes could be corrected this way, but the process was entirely manual, in 1964 IBM introduced the Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter and in 1969, a Magnetic Card Selectric Typewriter. These were sometimes referred to as the MT/ST and MC/ST, respectively, the MC/ST was also available in a communicating version that could emulate an IBM2741 terminal or run its native Correspondence Code. These featured electronically interfaced typing mechanisms and keyboards and a storage device for recording, editing. These machines were among the first to word processing capability in any form
6.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
7.
Computing
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Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating a mathematical sequence of steps known as an algorithm — e. g. through computers. The field of computing includes computer engineering, software engineering, computer science, information systems, the ACM Computing Curricula 2005 defined computing as follows, In a general way, we can define computing to mean any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computers. For example, an information systems specialist will view computing somewhat differently from a software engineer, regardless of the context, doing computing well can be complicated and difficult. Because society needs people to do computing well, we must think of computing not only as a profession, the fundamental question underlying all computing is What can be automated. The term computing is also synonymous with counting and calculating, in earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, but long before abstractions like the number arose, there were mathematical concepts to serve the purposes of civilization. These concepts include one-to-one correspondence, comparison to a standard, the earliest known tool for use in computation was the abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in Babylon circa 2400 BC. Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles, abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. This was the first known computer and most advanced system of calculation known to date - preceding Greek methods by 2,000 years. The first recorded idea of using electronics for computing was the 1931 paper The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena by C. E. Wynn-Williams. Claude Shannons 1938 paper A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits then introduced the idea of using electronics for Boolean algebraic operations, a computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions called a computer program. The program has a form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its source code form, enables a programmer to study. Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, the execution process carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer and they trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the semantics of the instructions, computer software or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms, program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software
