1.
Carrollton, New Orleans
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Carrollton is a neighborhood of uptown New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, which includes the Carrollton Historic District. It is the part of Uptown New Orleans farthest up river from the French Quarter and it was formerly a separate town incorporated in 1833, and was annexed by New Orleans in 1874 but has long retained some elements of distinct identity. Historically the boundaries of the city of Carrollton were the Mississippi River, the border of Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, Fig Street. As Lowerline is a street, some people think of the neighborhood of Carrollton as extending two blocks further to the larger thoroughfare of Broadway. The area on the side of Claiborne Avenue is sometimes referred to as Old Carrollton. During the American Civil War, Carrollton soon fell under Union control, winters in his The Civil War in Louisiana, reports that soldiers in Carrollton were heavy whiskey drinkers. A young officer complained that one-fifth of the regiment keeps drunk all the time, post commander General John W. Phelps permitted the men to drink because he thought that they must have whisky or die of country fever. General Benjamin F. Butler, from time to time, issued orders forbidding the sale of liquor. Butlers brother, Andrew J. Butler, who held no official capacity, Andrew Butler monopolized the liquor trade and brought cattle into the area from Texas and flour from the North. Winters describes Andrew Butler as a jolly, fat man who could be as hard as nails where a dollar was concerned, quickly established a monopoly on all groceries, breadstuffs, medicines, and staples brought into. He seized and operated a city bakery that was the only breadmaking establishment allowed in the city, many in New Orleans considered the Butler brothers on the make, and persons needing official favors were more likely to succeed if they were on good terms with Andrew Butler. The main street is broad Carrollton Avenue, lined with live oaks, the streetcar barn is a block off the avenue in Carrollton, on Willow St. and the landmark Camellia Grill diner is near the corner of St. Charles and Carrollton Avenues. The old Neoclassical Carrollton court house building is on Carrollton Avenue near the Mississippi, the neighborhood and Avenue are pronounced kaa-rull-ton or kaa-ril-tin by residents and other uptowners, but many people from the downtown parts of New Orleans pronounce the names as Karl- ton. Tulane University and Loyola University New Orleans are just a few blocks below Carrollton, and many students, faculty, in addition to Carrollton Avenue and Saint Charles Avenue, the neighborhood still retains two neighborhood main streets of mixed residential and commercial use. Lower Carrollton centers on Maple Street, with restaurants, coffee houses, bars. In the Northwest section of Carrollton on Claiborne Avenue is Palmer Park, the park has a monument to the Carrolltonians who died in World War I. After Hurricane Katrina, Palmer Park has hosted the monthly Mid-City art market, the historically predominantly African-American part of Carrollton along the riverfront has been known since the mid 20th century as Black Pearl. Mahalia Jackson, the Queen of Gospel music, was from the Black Pearl section of Carrollton and this is one proposed possible inspiration for the legendary song House of the Rising Sun
2.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
3.
Louisiana
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Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
4.
Courthouse
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A courthouse is a building that is home to a local court of law and often the regional county government as well, although this is not the case in some larger cities. The term is common in North America, in most other English-speaking countries, buildings which house courts of law are simply called courts or court buildings. In most of Continental Europe and former non-English-speaking European colonies, the equivalent term is a palace of justice, in most counties in the United States, the local trial courts conduct their business in a centrally located courthouse which may also house county governmental offices. The courthouse is located in the county seat, although large metropolitan counties may have satellite or annex offices for their courts. In some cases this building may be renamed in some way or its function divided as between a building and administrative office building. Many judges also officiate at marriage ceremonies in their courthouse chambers. Either way, a typical courthouse will have one or more courtrooms, each United States district court also has a federally owned building that houses courtrooms, chambers and clerks offices. The United States District Court for the Eastern District of California has a courthouse in Yosemite to hear misdemeanors, the courthouse is part of the iconography of American life and is equivalent to the city hall as the symbol of the municipium in European free cities. Courthouses are often shown in American cinema and they range from small-town rural buildings with a few rooms to huge metropolitan courthouses that occupy large plots of land. The style of American architecture used varies, with styles including federal, Greek Revival, neoclassicist. The Supreme Court of California ruled in 2002 that Los Angeles County was not liable to her three children under the California Government Tort Claims Act, after the Oklahoma City bombing, the federal government proceeded to heavily fortify all large federal buildings, including many urban courthouses. Some courthouses in areas with high levels of violent crime have redundant layers of security, see the category, Courthouses in Canada In Canada each municipality constructs its own courthouse, or several in the case of large cities. In smaller communities the court is in the building as the city hall. In the past many courthouses also included the local prison, one well-known court house in Canada is the Romanesque Revival Old City Hall in Toronto, Ontario. Lennox, Old City Hall was completed in 1899 and has been functioning as a municipal building ever since and this building can be described as Romanesque Revival due to multiple characteristics it shares with Romanesque architecture. Old City Hall has been designated a National Historical Site since 1989, appomattox Court House Court Courts of England and Wales List of courthouses
5.
Carrollton Avenue
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Carrollton Avenue is a major thoroughfare stretching 3.9 miles across the Uptown/Carrollton and Mid-City districts of New Orleans. South Carrollton Avenue runs from St. Charles Avenue in the Riverbend in a northeast lakebound direction through Carrollton, after crossing Canal Street it continues as North Carrollton Avenue until intersecting with Esplanade Avenue and Wisner Boulevard at the entrance to City Park. Carrollton Avenue is a broad tree-covered avenue, with a median for most of its length. Riverside of South Claiborne Avenue, Carrollton has one lane of traffic, the St. Charles Streetcar Line also runs along this section before turning onto St. Charles Avenue in the Riverbend. The landmark Camellia Grill is located near the streetcar turn and this section of the road is mostly residential with the exception of the commercial area of Riverbend. Between South Claiborne Avenue and Earhart Boulevard, there are three lanes of traffic in each direction and this area is a mix of commercial and residential and is home to such landmarks as the Notre Dame Seminary and the Rock n Bowl. Carrollton is entirely commercial between Earhart Boulevard and Tulane Avenue and maintains three lanes in each direction, lakeside of Tulane Avenue, Carrollton returns to mostly residential area with the exception of some commercial areas between Canal Street and Bienville Street. This stretch of road is three lanes in each direction, however lakeside of Canal Street the inner lanes in each direction are shared by the Carrollton Spur of the Canal Street Streetcar Line. Jesuit High School, an elite all-male Roman Catholic institution, is located at the corner of Carrollton and Banks Street. The Carrollton neighborhood was once an independent city and Carrollton Avenue was known as Canal Street in the city plans, the name was later changed to avoid confusion with Canal Street in downtown New Orleans. In addition to the Carrollton spurs of both the Canal and St, both routes were halted before Hurricane Katrina hit in August 2005, they have since been restored
6.
Canal Street, New Orleans
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Canal Street is a major thoroughfare in the city of New Orleans. Up until the early 1800s, it was the Creoles who lived in the Vieux Carré, after the Louisiana Purchase, a large influx of other cultures began to find their way into the city via the Mississippi River. A number of Americans from Kentucky and other Midwestern states moved into the city, along the division between these two cultures, a canal was planned. The canal was never built but the street took its place received the name. Furthermore, the median of the street known as the neutral ground. To this day, all medians of New Orleans streets are called neutral grounds, one end of Canal Street terminates at the Mississippi River. Canal Streets other terminus is in Mid-City at a collection of cemeteries, slightly offset from the Mid-City end is the beginning of Canal Boulevard, which extends to the shore of Lake Pontchartrain via the Lakeview neighborhood. Throughout its length, Canal, which runs east and west, serves as a line for cross streets running north and south. The street has three lanes of traffic in both directions, with a pair of tracks in the center. Canal Streets downtown segment serves as the hub of the public transit system or RTA, with numerous streetcar. Canal Street is often said to be the widest roadway in America to have called a street. For more than a century, Canal Street was the shopping district of Greater New Orleans. Local department stores Maison Blanche, D. H, the department stores began as sellers of fabric, notions, and accessories, with extensive floor space and glass windows. As elevators and escalators allowed for multi-floor department stores, the stores were enlarged, cities — and it received a boost in 1983 with the completion of Canal Places retail component. However, national trends disfavoring downtown retail finally caught up with Canal Street — with a key assist from the economic depression of the mid-80s. One Canal Place has three levels which are occupied by The Shops at Canal Place. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, a fire inflicted heavy damage to the Saks Fifth Avenue store, the mall reopened in February 2006, and a completely-remodeled Saks reopened in November. One Canal Place Office Tower is a Class A commercial office building managed by Corporate Realty and it is adjacent to the Westin New Orleans Hotel
7.
Jefferson Parish, Louisiana
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Jefferson Parish is a parish in the U. S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 432,552, Jefferson Parish is included in the New Orleans-Metairie, LA Metropolitan Statistical Area. Jefferson Parish was less affected by Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and has rebounded at a rapid pace than neighboring Orleans Parish. Jefferson Parish was named in honor of US President Thomas Jefferson of Virginia when the parish was established by the Louisiana Legislature on February 11,1825, a bronze statue of Jefferson stands at the entrance of the General Government Complex on Derbigny Street at the parish seat in Gretna. The parish seat was in the City of Lafayette, until that city was annexed by New Orleans in 1854, originally, this parish was larger than it is today, running from Felicity Street in New Orleans to the St. Charles Parish line. However, as New Orleans grew, it absorbed the cities of Lafayette, Jefferson City, Carrollton and these became part of Orleans Parish. The present borders between Jefferson Parish and Orleans Parish were set in 1874, the Jefferson Parish seat was moved to Gretna at the same time. NOTE, The City of Lafayette in Jefferson Parish, as it was recorded in U. S. Census records until 1870, should not be confused with the present city of Lafayette, Louisiana, in Lafayette Parish. From the 1940s to the 1970s, Jeffersons population swelled with an influx of white families from Orleans Parish. The completion of Veterans Highway in the late 1950s, following a parallel to Airline but further north. Terrytown, within the city limits of Gretna, was the first large subdivision to be developed, subsequent development has been extensive, taking place within Harvey, Marrero, Westwego and Avondale. In East Jefferson, the Causeway Boulevard corridor grew into a commercial office node, while the Elmwood neighborhood developed as a center for light manufacturing, by the mid-1990s, Jefferson Parish was exhibiting some of the symptoms presented by inner-ring suburbs throughout the United States. St. Tammany Parish and, to an extent, St. Charles Parish began to attract migrants from New Orleans. These trends were catalyzed by Hurricane Katrina, which destroyed much of New Orleans low-income housing, despite these challenges, Jefferson Parish still contains the largest number of middle class residents in metropolitan New Orleans and acts as the retail hub for the entire metro area. Even though Jefferson Parish was affected by Hurricane Katrina, it has rebounded more quickly than Orleans Parish, the parish has a current population of 432,000, which is 15,000 fewer people than was recorded by the 2000 U. S. Census. New Orleans Katrina-provoked population loss has resulted in Jefferson Parish becoming the second most populous parish behind East Baton Rouge Parish, with the landfall of Hurricane Katrina on August 29,2005, Jefferson Parish took a hard hit. On the East Bank, widespread flooding occurred, especially in the part of the parish. Schools also were reported to have severely damaged
8.
Municipal annexation
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Municipal annexation is a process by which a municipality expands its boundaries into adjacent areas not already incorporated into the municipality. This has been a response of cities to urbanization in neighboring areas. It may be done because the urban areas seek municipal services or because a city seeks control over its suburbs or neighboring unincorporated areas. In the United States, all governments are considered creatures of the state according to Dillons Rule. Dillons Rule implies, among other things, that the boundaries of any jurisdiction falling under state government can be modified by state government action, for this reason, examples of municipal annexation are distinct from annexations involving sovereign states. In 1909 the city of Atlanta, Georgia, then located only in Fulton County, annexed part of neighboring DeKalb County, the annexed portion of Westchester County is now Bronx county, the unannexed portion of Queens County is now Nassau County. As a result, Westchester County does not currently include any portion of the city of New York and it is sometimes called a flagpole annexation because the territory resembles a flagpole, in which the connection is the pole and the annexed territory the flag. In some states, municipalities are prohibited from annexing land not directly connected to their existing territory, a shoestring or flagpole annexation allows the municipality to do so. Such annexations are sometimes used when a municipality seeks to acquire unincorporated developed land, a related strategy is called strip annexation, which involves annexing a narrow strip that encloses a large block of unincorporated land. The strip protected the county island from being annexed by other municipalities, the annexation was challenged in court and, although found legal, eventually led to legislation in 1980 outlawing strip annexation. Some municipalities rushed to annex before the law took effect, such as Scottsdale, oHare Airport is municipally connected to the city of Chicago via a narrow strip of land, approximately 200 feet wide, along Foster Avenue from the Des Plaines river to the airport. This land was annexed in the 1950s to assure the airport was contiguous with the city to keep it under city control, the strip is bounded on the north by Rosemont and the south by Schiller Park. The Boston neighborhoods of Allston and Brighton were part of an independent town of Brighton before being annexed by Boston, at the time Brookline extended to the Charles River and separated Boston and Brighton. As a result, an annexation was obtained by Boston from Brookline when Brighton joined Boston. This was made necessary by Brooklines refusal to join Boston a year before Brightons annexation, south San Diego, located next to the Mexico–United States border, is physically separated from the rest of San Diego by the cities of National City and Chula Vista. A narrow strip of land at the bottom of San Diego Bay connects these southern neighborhoods with the rest of the city. Amalgamation Enclave and exclave Notes Further reading Jackson, Kenneth T. Crabgrass Frontier, The Suburbanization of the United States, New York, Oxford University Press, MRSC PUBLICATIONS › Annexation Handbook Publication, Municipal Research & Services Center of Washington
9.
County seat
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A county seat is an administrative center, seat of government, or capital city of a county or civil parish. The term is used in the United States, Canada, Romania, China, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, county towns have a similar function. In the United States, counties are the subdivisions of a state. Depending on the state, counties may provide services to the public, impose taxes. Some types of subdivisions, such as townships, may be incorporated or unincorporated. The city, town, or populated place that houses county government is known as the seat of its respective county, a county seat is usually, but not always, an incorporated municipality. The exceptions include the county seats of counties that have no incorporated municipalities within their borders, such as Arlington County, Virginia, likewise, some county seats may not be incorporated in their own right, but are located within incorporated municipalities. For example, Cape May Court House, New Jersey, though unincorporated, is a section of Middle Township, in some of the colonial states, county seats include or formerly included Court House as part of their name. Most counties have only one county seat, an example is Harrison County, Mississippi, which lists both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats. The practice of multiple county seat towns dates from the days when travel was difficult, there have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement, since a county seat is a source of pride for the towns involved. There are 36 counties with multiple county seats in 11 states, Coffee County, for example, the official county seat is Greensboro, but an additional courthouse has been located in nearby High Point since 1938. For example, Clearwater is the county seat of Pinellas County, Florida, in New England, the town, not the county, is the primary division of local government. Historically, counties in this region have served mainly as dividing lines for the judicial systems. Connecticut and Rhode Island have no county level of government and thus no county seats, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine the county seats are legally designated shire towns. County government consists only of a Superior Court and Sheriff, both located in the shire town. Bennington County has two towns, but the Sheriff is located in Bennington. In Massachusetts, most government functions which would otherwise be performed by county governments in other states are performed by town governments. As such, Massachusetts has dissolved many of its county governments, two counties in South Dakota have their county seat and government services centered in a neighboring county
10.
Uptown New Orleans
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It remains an area of mixed residential and small commercial properties, with a wealth of 19th-century architecture. It includes part or all of Uptown New Orleans Historic District, historically, uptown was a direction, meaning movement in the direction against the flow of the Mississippi. After the Louisiana Purchase, many settlers from parts of the United States developed their homes and businesses in the area upriver from the older Creole city. The very broadest definition of Uptown, historically, included everything upriver from Canal Street, in the narrowest usage, as a New Orleans City Planning neighborhood, Uptown refers to an area of only some dozen blocks centering on the intersection of Jefferson and St. Charles Avenues. Neither of these is what most New Orleanians of recent generations usually mean by uptown, the boundaries of the federal Uptown New Orleans Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, are the River to S. Claiborne Avenue and Jackson Avenue to Broadway. Uptown was developed during the 19th century, mostly from land that had plantations in the Colonial era. Several sections were developed as separate towns, like Lafayette, Jefferson City, Greenville. For a time in the early 19th century most of Uptown was part of Jefferson Parish until the City of New Orleans annexed them, in 1874, New Orleans added the towns of Lafayette, and Carrollton. Uptown has always had a sizable African American population, census data shows that ethnically and racially mixed blocks were common in the 19th and early 20th centuries, which continues to be the case with much of Uptown. Several small settlements grew up at steamboat landings a few miles upstream of New Orleans, the original Lafayette began as one of these. It was subdivided and incorporated in April 1833 as the City of Lafayette, the center of town was around Jackson Avenue. Lafayette was also the site of the original Jefferson Parish court house, the New Orleans and Carrollton Railroad, also incorporated in 1833, constructed a spur from the main line along Nyades Street down Jackson Avenue. Lafayette annexed Faubourg Delassize in 1844, bringing that citys boundary with New Orleans to Toledano Street, in 1852, New Orleans annexed Lafayette, moving the New Orleans city limit upriver to Toledano Street. The seat of Jefferson Parish moved to the City of Carrollton, however, the boundary between Jefferson Parish and Orleans Parish remained at Felicity Street until 1870, when it was moved to Lowerline Street. Cornelius Hurst, developer of Faubourg Hurstville, sold a block to the City of Lafayette for a cemetery in 1833. Now known as Lafayette Cemetery No,1, the land is bounded by Washington Avenue, 6th Street, Coliseum Street and Prytania Street. In 1972, this cemetery was added to the National Register of Historical Places, the Fund helped in the creation of a preservation plan with assistance from American Express. In 2010, the Louisiana Landmarks Society rated Lafayette Cemetery No.1 as one of the nine most endangered New Orleans landmarks and it said that two large oak trees threatened to destroy 30 tombs
11.
Prison
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Besides their use for punishing crimes, jails and prisons are frequently used by authoritarian regimes against perceived opponents. Prisons often have facilities that are designed with long term confinement in mind in comparison to jails. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in prisons or prisoner of war camps. The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization, corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi. Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines, eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion, the Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as cages, basements of public buildings. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, the Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula, during the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. Another common punishment was sentencing people to slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships. However, the concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th-century, Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation, branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals. However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London and these houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living, by the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace. From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution, rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, the prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies
12.
Neoclassical architecture
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Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century. In its purest form, it is a style derived from the architecture of classical antiquity, the Vitruvian principles. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro, Neoclassical architecture is still designed today, but may be labelled New Classical Architecture for contemporary buildings. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is referred to as Classicism. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée, the many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullées ideas and Edmund Burkes conception of the sublime, the baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. The most popular was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell, the book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book featured the work of Inigo Jones. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain, at the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic architect earl, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, in 1729, he and William Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of Palladios Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and this severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of Englands finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk, the main block of this house followed Palladios dictates quite closely, but Palladios low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicising vein was also detectable, to a degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for S, by the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s, in France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden. A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire, in France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire or Empire. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg, indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved an audience in the 1760s
13.
Hanging
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Hanging is the suspension of a person by a noose or ligature around the neck. Hanging has been a method of capital punishment since medieval times. The first account of execution by hanging was in Homers Odyssey, in this specialised meaning of the common word hang, the past and past participle is hanged instead of hung. Hanging is also a method of suicide in which a person applies a ligature to the neck and brings about unconsciousness. There are four ways of performing a judicial hanging, suspension hanging, the drop, the standard drop. A mechanised form of hanging, the upright jerker, was experimented with in the 18th century. Suspension, like the drop, causes death by using the weight of the body to tighten the noose around the trachea. Prisoners are reported to have little or no struggle before they go limp because their jugular vein and carotid arteries are blocked and blood flow to the brain is reduced. The short drop is performed by placing the condemned prisoner on the back of a cart, horse, or other vehicle, the object is then moved away, leaving the person dangling from the rope. A ladder was also used with the condemned being forced to ascend, after which the noose was tied. Another method involves using a stool, which the condemned is required to stand on, the executioner stands on a stepped platform approximately 4 feet high beside the condemned, and guides the head downward with his hand simultaneous to the efforts of his assistants. Nazi war criminal Karl Hermann Frank was also executed in this manner in 1946 in Prague and its use rapidly spread to English-speaking countries and those where judicial systems had an English origin. It was considered an improvement on the short drop because it was intended to be enough to break the persons neck, causing immediate paralysis. This method was used to execute condemned Nazis under United States jurisdiction after the Nuremberg Trials including Joachim von Ribbentrop and Ernst Kaltenbrunner. In the execution of Ribbentrop, historian Giles MacDonogh records that, The hangman botched the execution, a Life magazine report on the execution merely says, The trap fell open and with a sound midway between a rumble and a crash, Ribbentrop disappeared. The rope quivered for a time, then stood tautly straight and this process, also known as the measured drop, was introduced to Britain in 1872 by William Marwood as a scientific advance on the standard drop. The careful placement of the eye or knot of the noose contributed to breaking the neck, between 1892 and 1913, the length of the drop was shortened to avoid decapitation. After 1913, other factors were taken into account
14.
Louisiana Supreme Court
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The Supreme Court of Louisiana is the highest court and court of last resort in the U. S. state of Louisiana. The modern Supreme Court, composed of seven justices, meets in the French Quarter of New Orleans, the Supreme Court, and Louisiana state law, are historically based in the colonial governments of France and Spain during the 18th century. The current Supreme Court traces its roots back to these beginnings, under the colonial governments of France and Spain, the courts of Louisiana existed in several different forms. In 1712, a charter granted by France created a Superior Council with executive, in 1769, Spain gained control over the Louisiana territory, and the Superior Council was replaced with the Cabildo. The Governor of the held the power of having final authority in cases. In 1803, Louisiana became a territory of the United States, in 1804, Congress created a three judge Superior Court for the territory and gave the Legislative Council the power to create other courts. In 1807, the newly elected Legislative Council created courts in each of the territorys nineteen parishes and these courts were courts of general jurisdiction with an appeal lying to the Superior Court. In the first Constitution for the state of Louisiana, one Supreme Court was created, the number of judges was fixed to be not less than three and not more than five who were to be appointed by the Governor. The Court was required to sit in New Orleans and Opelousas, the 1845 Constitution created a Supreme Court composed of one Chief Justice and three Associate Justices appointed by the Governor to eight-year terms. The Court sat in New Orleans, the 1852 Constitution increased the number of Justices on the Court to five, and all became elected by the people. The Chief Justice was elected at-large by the state and the Associate Justices were elected from four districts throughout the state. In 1864, the Justices again became appointed, and their length was decreased to eight years. The 1868 Constitution did not change the makeup or terms of the Supreme Court, however, it did change, the post-Reconstruction Constitution of 1879 substantially modified the organization of the Louisiana judiciary. The Constitution created the Supreme Court, Courts of Appeal, District Courts, the Supreme Court retained five justices, but they were now appointed by the Governor and served twelve-year terms. For the first time, the Supreme Court was given power over the inferior courts. It also gave more limitations to the opportunity to vote by people of color, in 1898, the Supreme Courts jurisdiction was further expanded. The Court was given jurisdiction over the bar. New Orleans was fixed as the seat of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice was determined by the senior justice in point of service
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Slavery in the United States
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Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
16.
John McDonogh
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John McDonogh was a United States entrepreneur and philanthropist, described as miserly, controversial, and eccentric. He is best known for endowing public education in two major American cities—New Orleans and Baltimore, McDonogh was born in Baltimore and entered the shipping business there. In 1800 his employers sent him as supercargo on a ship to Liverpool, England and he was successful, and after a second such voyage decided to make his home in New Orleans. Establishing a store and engaging in the commission and shipping business, in 1818, he was a candidate for the U. S. Senate. After he lost that election, he left New Orleans and settled across the Mississippi River, establishing the town of McDonoghville, now called McDonogh, the site of his McDonoghville home has long since been eroded into the Mississippi River. He was also rebuffed in courtship later in life, a failure to marry and the loss of the Senate race may have contributed to a life which has been described as reclusive. His land holdings entirely surrounded the rapidly growing city of New Orleans, in 1822 he devised a manumission scheme by which his slaves could buy their freedom. The process took about 15 years, thus he was able to profit from their labor before he set them free, McDonogh was also active in, and contributed to, the American Colonization Society, which enabled freed black slaves to emigrate back to Africa. McDonogh used the Society to provide passage to Liberia for many of his former slaves and this was unprecedented, and proved controversial. His heirs contested the will, and the case, McDonoghs Executors v. Murdoch and this delayed execution of the will until 1858, with New Orleans receiving a settlement of $704,440. Baltimore already had a public school system, but McDonoghs will also stipulated the creation of a school farm for underprivileged boys outside of the city. McDonogh School in Owings Mills, Maryland, founded in 1873, was the result, the New Orleans public school system had been established in 1841, but the McDonogh Fund facilitated major expansion. Eventually over 30 schools were built, most emblazoned with his name, by the early 1970s there were 20 McDonogh schools remaining in New Orleans. In the 1980s and 1990s, many of those were renamed in a movement to remove the names of slaveholders from New Orleans public schools. The following John McDonogh schools are still in operation, post-Katrina, John McDonogh High School and McDonogh #7, #15, #26, #28, #32, #35, McDonoghs will proved difficult to administer because of the large number of properties involved, many of which were rented. Also, McDonogh had stipulated the properties to be a perpetual trust, the trustees eventually got a court ruling allowing them to sell off the property. Money from the trust funded schools for about 100 years, although because of growth the estate was not sufficient to cover the entire school systems expenses. Remember always that labor is one of the conditions of our existence, time is gold, throw not one minute away, but place each one into account
17.
Arbor Day
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Arbor Day is a holiday in which individuals and groups are encouraged to plant and care for trees. Today, many countries such an holiday. Though usually observed in the spring, the date varies, depending on climate, the Spanish village of Mondoñedo held the first documented arbor plantation festival in the world organized by its mayor in 1594. The place remains as Alameda de los Remedios and it is planted with lime. A humble granite marker and a bronze plate recall the event, the festival began on Carnival Tuesday with the ringing of two bells of the church, and the Middle and the Big. Tree plantations continued by Arroyada and Fuente de la Mora, afterwards, there was a feast, and did not miss the dance. The party and plantations lasted three days and he drafted a manifesto in defence of the trees that was sent to surrounding towns to spread the love and respect for nature, and also he advised to make tree plantations in their localities. The first American Arbor Day was originated in Nebraska City, Nebraska, on April 10,1872, an estimated one million trees were planted in Nebraska. Birdsey Northrop of Connecticut was responsible for globalizing it when he visited Japan in 1883 and delivered his Arbor Day, in that same year, the American Forestry Association made Northrop the Chairman of the committee to campaign for Arbor Day nationwide. He also brought his enthusiasm for Arbor Day to Australia, Canada, McCreight urged President Roosevelt to make a public statement to school children about trees and the destruction of American forests. On April 15,1907, Roosevelt issued an Arbor Day Proclamation to the School Children of the United States about the importance of trees, pinchot wrote McCreight, we shall all be indebted to you for having made the suggestion. National Schools Tree Day is held on the last Friday of July for schools, many states have Arbor Day although only Victoria has Arbor Week, which was suggested by Premier Dick Hamer in the 1980s. Arbor Day has been observed in Australia since 20 June 1889, international Day of Treeplanting is celebrated in Flanders on or around 21 March as a theme-day/educational-day/observance, not as public holidays. Tree planting is sometimes combined with awareness campaigns of the fight against cancer, the Arbor Day is celebrated on September 21. However, schools nationwide celebrate this day with environment-related activities, namely tree planting, Arbour Day is celebrated on November 22. It is sponsored by the National Parks Trust of the Virgin Islands, activities include an annual national Arbour Day Poetry Competition and tree planting ceremonies throughout the territory. Cambodia celebrates Arbor Day on July 9 with a planting ceremony attended by the king. Founded by Sir George W. Ross, later the Premier of Ontario and this predates the claimed founding of the day by Don Clark of Schomberg, Ontario for his wife Margret Clark in 1906
18.
Benjamin Franklin High School (New Orleans)
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Benjamin Franklin High School is a Selective Admissions Public Charter high school in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. Commonly nicknamed Franklin or Ben Franklin, this school should not be confused with Franklin High School in Franklin, Ben Franklin was founded in 1957 as a school for gifted children. In 1990, it moved to its current location on the campus of the University of New Orleans in the Lake Terrace/Lake Oaks neighborhood of Orleans Parish, near Lake Pontchartrain. The school was damaged by several feet of water due to Hurricane Katrina in the fall of 2005. Although the school is part of the Orleans Parish School District, Ben Franklin has a selective admissions process, and according to CBS News is a magnet for the citys smart and motivated students. It has been named a Blue Ribbon School four times by the U. S. Department of Education, the class of 2008 produced 17 National Achievement Semifinalists, the most of any school in the United States. Ben Franklin is a member of the Louisiana High School Athletic Association, extracurricular activities are also offered in the form of performing arts, school publications, and clubs. Because of its admissions policies, the school was accused in 1996 of an admissions bias against African Americans. Notable alumni of the school include Wynton Marsalis, a Pulitzer Prize winning trumpeter, Benjamin Franklin High School opened as a school for gifted children in 1957 under the direction of School Superintendent James F. Redmond and Principal Naomi Gardberg. At the time, schools under the Orleans Parish School Board were segregated, in 1960, Judge J. Skelly Wright of the U. S. District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana ordered the desegregation of New Orleans schools in Bush v. Orleans Parish School Board. In response to the order,2,000 youths surged through New Orleans streets in demonstrations against school integration on November 16,1960, only eight Franklin students were absent from class. A Time Magazine article later stated that Redmonds proudest memory of the first day of three weeks ago, when truancy was rife, is that my Franklin kids stuck with it. From its inception, Franklin was designed to be a school for gifted students. Following an appeal of Bush v. Orleans Parish School Board, under pressure from federal courts, Franklin became the first public high school in New Orleans to desegregate in 1963. For over 30 years the school was housed in the historic Carrollton Courthouse on Carrollton Avenue in Uptown New Orleans, built in 1855, the building had served as the Jefferson Parish Courthouse until the City of Carrollton was incorporated into New Orleans. By 1987, the building had fallen into disrepair and lacked air conditioning. Despite these conditions, Franklin maintained a reputation as a place of academic excellence, in the late 1980s, the Orleans Parish School Board leased land from the University of New Orleans and built a larger and more modern campus for Ben Franklin. Ben Franklin moved to this current Lake Terrace/Lake Oaks campus during the 1989–1990 school year, the building was designed by E. Eean Mcnaughton Architects and received an honor award from the American Institute of Architects Gulf States Region in 1994
19.
Historic preservation
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The term tends to refer specifically to the preservation of the built environment, and not to preservation of, for example, primeval forests or wilderness. In England, antiquarian interests were a familiar gentlemans pursuit since the mid 17th century, Fellows of the Royal Society were often also Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries. Another early preservation event also occurred at Berkhamsted, in 1866, Lord Brownlow who lived at Ashridge, tried to enclose the adjoining Berkhamsted Common with 5-foot steel fences in an attempt to claim it as part of his estate. In England from early Anglo-Saxon times, Common land was an area of land which the community could use as a resource. Across England between 1660 and 1845,7 million acres of Common land had been enclosed by land owners by application to parliament. In 1870, Sir Robert Hunter and the Commons Preservation Society succeed in legal action that ensured protection of Berkhamsted Common, in 1926 the common was acquired by the National Trust. By the mid 19th century, much of Britains unprotected cultural heritage was being slowly destroyed, even well-meaning archaeologists like William Greenwell excavated sites with virtually no attempt at their preservation, Stonehenge came under increasing threat by the 1870s. Tourists were chipping off parts of the stones or carving their initials into the rock, the private owners of the monument decided to sell the land to the London and South-Western Railway as the monument was not the slightest use to anyone now. John Lubbock, an MP and botanist emerged as the champion of the national heritage. Soon, he began campaigning in Parliament for legislation to protect monuments from destruction and this finally led to the legislative milestone under the Liberal government of William Gladstone of the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882. The first government appointed inspector for this job was the archaeologist Augustus Pitt-Rivers, the Act only covered ancient monuments and explicitly did not cover historic buildings or structures. The Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 had only given legal protection to prehistoric sites, the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 took this further by empowering the governments Commissioners of Work and local County Councils to protect a wider range of properties. Further updates were made in 1910, Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire, a medieval manor house had been put up for sale in 1910 with its greatest treasures, the huge medieval fireplaces, still intact. However, when an American bought the house they were ripped out, the former viceroy of India, George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, was outraged at this cultural destruction and stepped in to buy back the castle and reinstall the fireplaces. After a nationwide hunt for them they were found in London. He restored the castle and left it to the National Trust on his death in 1925 and his experience at Tattershall influenced Lord Curzon to push for tougher heritage protection laws in Britain, which saw passage as the Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act 1913. The new structure involved the creation of the Ancient Monuments Board to oversee the protection of such monuments, powers were given for the board, with Parliamentary approval, to issue preservation orders to protect monuments, and extended the public right of access to these. The term monument was extended to include the lands around it, the National Trust was founded in 1894 by Octavia Hill, Sir Robert Hunter and Hardwicke Canon Rawnsley as the first organisation of its type in the world
20.
National Trust for Historic Preservation
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The National Trust for Historic Preservation is a privately funded, nonprofit organization based in Washington, D. C. that works in the field of historic preservation in the United States. The organization is governed by a board of trustees and led by current president, the National Trust presently has around 750,000 members and supporters. The National Trust issues the quarterly Preservation magazine and produces the PreservationNation blog, towards the end of the 19th century, as the United States was rebuilding after the Civil War, the country was beginning to form its sense of national identity and history. The government began to enact legislation for the preservation of sites, in 1872, an Act of Congress established the first National Park, Yellowstone. In 1906, the Antiquities Act enabled the President to declare landmarks or objects as a national monument, then in 1935, Congress passed the Historic Sites Act which outlined programs for research and inventory of historic sites. Meanwhile, historic preservation initiatives existed on local and state levels, in 1931, the first historic district was created in Charleston, South Carolina. However, efforts to save and maintain historic sites were largely limited to private citizens or local groups. In the late 1940s, leaders in American historic preservation saw the need for an organization to support local preservation efforts. In 1946, David E. Finley, Jr. George McAneny, Christopher Crittenden, the meeting’s attendants became the first charter members of the Council. The organization’s first headquarters was in the offices of Ford’s Theatre in downtown Washington, the creation of the National Trust was proposed as a bill to Congress, H. R.5170, introduced by Congressman J. Hardin Peterson of Florida and passed. The National Trust for Historic Preservation was formally established through the Act of Congress when President Harry S. Truman signed the legislation on October 26,1949. The charter provided that the Trust should acquire and preserve historic sites and objects of national significance, Finley served as the National Trusts first chairman of the board, remaining in the position for 12 years. The National Trust and the National Council existed side by side for years until the need to merge resources compelled the Executive Committee to integrate the two entities. In 1952, the boards of organizations approved a merger of the Council into the National Trust. The merger was effective the following year and was completed by 1956, the National Trust became a membership organization and assumed all other functions of the National Council. In 1957, the National Trust officially acquired its first property, over the next decade, the National Trust grew to become the leading national organization in historic preservation. They began working with citizens and city planning officials on matters, including federal, state. National Trust staff also traveled to parts of the country to advise local communities on preservation projects, in 1966, Congress passed the National Historic Preservation Act, a significant legislation for the preservation movement
21.
Houston
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Houston is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States. With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 square miles, it also is the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it is the city of Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land. Houston was founded on August 28,1836, near the banks of Buffalo Bayou and incorporated as a city on June 5,1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded, the burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the citys population. Houstons economy has an industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics. Leading in health care sectors and building equipment, Houston has more Fortune 500 headquarters within its city limits than any city except for New York City. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled, the city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has described as the most diverse in the United States. It is home to cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has a visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District. In August 1836, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, purchased 6,642 acres of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the general at the Battle of San Jacinto. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through the slave trade. New Orleans was the center of trade in the Deep South. Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War, many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5,1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor, in the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas
22.
University of New Orleans
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The University of New Orleans, often referred to locally as UNO, is a medium-sized public urban university located on the New Orleans lakefront within New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. It is a member of the University of Louisiana System and the Urban 13 association, soon after the transition was approved, the UNO Presidential Search Committee selected UNO alumnus Peter J. Fos as president. Dr. Fos retired in January 2016 and a Search Committee selected Dr. John W. Nicklow as the universitys 2nd president, State Senator Theodore M. Hickey of New Orleans in 1956 authored the act which established the University of New Orleans. At the time New Orleans was the largest metropolitan area in the United States without a public university though it had several private universities, such as Tulane, Loyola, the institution was originally named Louisiana State University in New Orleans or LSUNO but renamed in 1974. The UNO University Ballroom was named in Hickeys honor late in 2014, the university was built on the New Orleans Lakefront when the United States Navy relocated Naval Air Station New Orleans. The Orleans Levee Board leased the closed base to the LSU Board of Supervisors, the renovation went quicker than expected. LSUNO opened for classes in 1958, two ahead of schedule. It was originally reckoned as a department of the main campus in Baton Rouge. In 1963, the LSU System of Higher Education was established, to signify that it was now a co-equal institution with LSU, its chief executives title was changed from vice president in charge to chancellor. After a decade of growth, the LSU Board of Supervisors approved a change to the current University of New Orleans. Nearly fifty years later, in 2011, the University of New Orleans officially became part of the University of Louisiana system, on August 29,2005, the university suffered damage due to Hurricane Katrina. The main campus is on high ground and the damage was caused mostly by winds, rain-driven-water. UNO was the first of the large, damaged universities in New Orleans to re-open, albeit virtually, the university was able to offer classes in the fall semester immediately following Hurricane Katrina at satellite campuses, the main campus re-opened in December 2005. Hurricane Katrina reduced enrollments at all colleges in New Orleans, and this echoed the damage to New Orleans as a whole, since UNO serves as a leader in educating students from New Orleans. Since the hurricane, the student enrollment is on a steady increase toward pre-Katrina numbers and his plan was withdrawn in both houses of the legislature because of a lack of support from his colleagues. There are more than 120 registered clubs and organizations active at UNO, UNO Student Government, is the official student government association. Registered organizations are separated into categories of religious, honorary, political, professional, social, service, organizations. Driftwood is the UNO weekly newspaper and is published every Thursday, UNO also owns and operates WWNO, a local radio station
23.
Tulane University
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Tulane University is a private, nonsectarian research university in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. It is generally considered the top university and the most selective institution of education in the state of Louisiana. From a nationwide perspective, U. S. News & World Report categorizes Tulane as most selective, the school is known to attract a geographically diverse student body, with 85% of undergraduate students coming from over 300 miles away. The school was founded as a medical college in 1834. The institution was privatized under the endowments of Paul Tulane and Josephine Louise Newcomb in 1884, Tulane is the 9th oldest private university in the Association of American Universities, which consists of major research universities in the United States and Canada. The Tulane University Law School and Tulane University Medical School are considered the 12th oldest and 15th oldest law and medical schools, respectively, members of Congress, heads of Federal agencies, two Surgeon Generals of the United States, U. S. At least two Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the University, the university was founded as the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834 partly as a response to the fears of smallpox, yellow fever, and cholera in the United States. The university became only the medical school in the South. In 1847, the legislature established the school as the University of Louisiana, a public university. Subsequently, in 1851, the university established its first academic department, the first president chosen for the new university was Francis Lister Hawks, an Episcopalian priest and prominent citizen of New Orleans at the time. The university was closed from 1861 to 1865 during the American Civil War, after reopening, it went through a period of financial challenges because of an extended agricultural depression in the South which affected the nations economy. Paul Tulane, owner of a dry goods and clothing business. This donation led to the establishment of a Tulane Educational Fund and this act created the Tulane University of Louisiana. The university was privatized, and is one of only a few American universities to be converted from a public institution to a private one. In 1884, William Preston Johnston became the first president of Tulane and he had succeeded Robert E. Lee as president of Washington and Lee University after Lees death. He had moved to Louisiana and become president of Louisiana State University, in 1885, the university established its graduate division, later becoming the Graduate School. One year later, gifts from Josephine Louise Newcomb totaling over $3.6 million, Newcomb was the first coordinate college for women in the United States and became a model for such institutions as Pembroke College and Barnard College. In 1894 the College of Technology formed, which would become the School of Engineering
24.
Pelican Publishing Company
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Pelican Publishing Company is a book publisher based in Gretna, a suburb of New Orleans. Formed in 1926, Pelican is the largest independent trade book publisher located in the U. S. South, Pelican publishes approximately 60 titles per year and maintains a backlist of over 2500 books. Most of its titles relate to Louisiana and Southern culture, cuisine, art, travel guides, history, childrens books, formed in 1926 by John McClure, Pelican was tied early in its history to William Faulkner and Stuart O. Landry. In 1970, Dr. Milburn E. Calhoun and family acquired Pelican, Calhoun served as company president and publisher prior to his death in 2012. Since his passing, daughter Kathleen Calhoun Nettleton has occupied his place as publisher, Pelican Publishing Company has produced many noteworthy titles, including the following, Arnauds Restaurant Cookbook, Legendary Creole Cuisine by Kit Wohl. Blood in West Virginia, Brumfield v. McCoy by Brandon Ray Kirk, the Cajun Night Before Christmas by James Rice, A parody of the popular Night Before Christmas poem in which Santa Claus visits Cajun Louisiana. The Cavalry Battle that Saved the Union, Custer vs. Stuart at Gettysburg, Paul D. DArtois Finn McCools Football Club by Stephen Rea, released February 2009. Memoir of the experiences at an Irish pub in New Orleans and what happened to the patrons before, during. Louisiana Almanac, A resource of statistical data and historical information related to the State of Louisiana, the Maverick Guide, A series of travel guides begun by Robert W. Bone. By James Ronald Kennedy and Walter Donald Kennedy, A controversial historical perspective that argues that the Confederacy had the right to secede from the Union
25.
The Advocate
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The Advocate is an American LGBT-interest magazine, printed bi-monthly and available by subscription. The Advocate brand also includes a website, both magazine and website have an editorial focus on news, politics, opinion, and arts and entertainment of interest to lesbians, gay men, bisexuals and transgender people. The Advocate was first published as a newsletter by the activist group Personal Rights in Defense. The newsletter was inspired by a raid on a Los Angeles gay bar, the Black Cat Tavern, on January 1,1967. Richard Mitch and Bill Rau joined PRIDE and, along with Aristide Laurent and artist Sam Winston, the first issue bore a cover date of September 1967, and was sold for 25 cents in gay bars in Los Angeles. By early 1968, PRIDE was struggling to stay viable and Mitch, in 1969 the newspaper was renamed The Advocate and distributed nationally. By 1974, Mitch and Rau were printing 40,000 copies for each issue, the newspaper attracted the attention of David B. Goodstein, an investment banker from San Francisco who bought the publication in 1974, goodstein also worked toward reducing sex-oriented advertisements in favor of more mainstream sponsors. Goodstein and Dr. Rob Eichberg created The Advocate Experience, loosely based on the then-popular EST, it was a two-weekend, all-day series of extensive self-realization workshops to bring self-acceptance, awareness and tolerance within the LGBT community. Goodstein and Eichberg facilitated the workshops for much of their duration, Goodsteins later editorials remained strongly opposed state intervention during the early years of the AIDS epidemic. Soon after Goodsteins death in 1985, the magazine was transformed from a newspaper format in two sections to a standard magazine format, beginning with the October 1,1985 issue. Breakthroughs in straight celebrity covers came under the flamboyant command of editor in chief, Richard Rouilard in the 1980s, after his death from AIDS, this editorial trend continued successfully with editor in chief Jeff Yarbrough. It was during this time that the magazine stopped carrying sexually explicit advertisements, the Advocate changed hands through a series of mergers and acquisitions, first unsuccessfully with PlanetOut in 2006, and later with Here Media. Starting in 2010, Here Media consolidated the distribution for The Advocate, the Advocate print version continues to be published and is available enclosed with Out as a combination package via subscription. In 2010 there were reports of freelance writers not being paid for their work. As of May 2013, The Advocate is no longer produced in-house at Here Media, Grand Editorial is a contractor based in Brooklyn, New York, that also produces Out. The Advocate is now published bi-monthly with 6 issues per year, the Advocate provided a venue for several noteworthy LGBT cartoonists in the 1970s and 1980s. Early in its history the publication ran single-panel gag cartoons by Joe Johnson featuring effeminate Miss Thing and beefy Big Dick, after these were discontinued, Its a Gay Life by Donelan debuted in 1977 and ran for 15 years
26.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
