1.
Carpool
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Carpooling is the sharing of car journeys so that more than one person travels in a car. By having more people using one vehicle, carpooling reduces each persons travel costs such as costs, tolls. Authorities often encourage carpooling, especially during periods of high pollution or high fuel prices, in 2009, carpooling represented 43. 5% of all trips in the United States and 10% of commute trips. The majority of carpool commutes are fam-pools with family members, carpool commuting is more popular for people who work in places with more jobs nearby, and who live in places with higher residential densities. However, carpooling is significantly less likely among people who spend time at work, older workers. Drivers and passengers offer and search for journeys through one of the several mediums available, after finding a match they contact each other to arrange any details for the journey. Costs, meeting points and other details like space for luggage are agreed on and they then meet and carry out their shared car journey as planned. Carpooling is commonly implemented for commuting but is popular for longer one-off journeys. Carpooling is not always arranged for the length of a journey. Especially on long journeys, it is common for passengers to join for parts of the journey. This gives carpooling extra flexibility, and enables people to share journeys. Like other online marketplaces, they use community-based trust mechanisms, such as user-ratings, many companies and local authorities have introduced programs to promote carpooling. In an effort to reduce traffic and encourage carpooling, some governments have introduced high-occupancy vehicle lanes in which only vehicles with two or more passengers are allowed to drive, HOV lanes can create strong practical incentives for carpooling by reducing travel time and expense. In some countries it is common to find parking spaces reserved for carpoolers, in 2011, an organization called Greenxc created a campaign to encourage others to use this form of transportation in order to reduce their own carbon footprint. Several people were fined by undercover tax officers during a 2011 crackdown, Carpooling usually means to divide the travel expenses in equal parts between all the occupants of the vehicle. The driver doesn’t try to earn money, but to share with several people the cost of a trip he would do anyway, the expenses to be divided basically include the fuel and possible tolls. But if we include in the calculation the amortization of the purchase and maintenance, insurance and taxes paid by the driver. There are platforms that facilitate carpooling by connecting people seeking respectively passengers and drivers, usually there is a fare set up by the car driver and accepted by passengers, because they get an agreement before trip start
2.
Zipcar
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Zipcar is an American car-sharing company and a subsidiary of Avis Budget Group. Zipcar provides automobile reservations to its members, billable by the hour or day, Zipcar was founded in 2000 by Antje Danielson and Robin Chase. On March 14,2013, Avis Budget Group purchased Zipcar for approximately US$500 million in cash, Scott Griffith, who had run the company for the previous 10 years, resigned the day after the acquisition closed and passed the reins to a new company president, Mark Norman. In early 2014, Kaye Ceille took over as Zipcars North American President, in the summer of 2016, Kaye Ceille became a managing director of Avis Budget Group International. Members can reserve vehicles with Zipcars mobile app, online, or by phone at any time, Zipcar members have automated access to Zipcars using an access card which works with the cars technology to unlock the door, the keys are already located inside. Alternatively, members can use Zipcars Android or iPhone app to locate a Zipcar by honking its horn as well as to unlock the doors, Zipcar charges a one-time application fee, an annual fee, and a reservation charge. Fuel, parking, insurance, and maintenance are included in the price, in the third quarter of 2007, Zipcar merged with Seattle-based rival Flexcar to create a nationwide car rental company. The companys IPO was in April 2011, Zipcar common stock traded on NASDAQ under the ticker symbol ZIP until it was acquired by Avis in 2013. Zipcar was co-founded by Antje Danielson and Robin Chase based on existing German, in June 2000, the first Zipcars hit the road around Boston, Massachusetts. In January 2001, Antje was fired from Zipcar after Robin Chase petitioned Zipcar’s board for the ability to make hiring and firing decisions without consulting them. In September 2001, the Washington, D. C. office opened, in February 2003, after difficulties in securing additional rounds of funding, the Zipcar board replaced Robin Chase as CEO with Scott Griffith. In July 2005, Zipcar secured $10 million in funding led by Benchmark Capital, in August 2005, San Francisco office opened. In May 2006, the Toronto office opened, in May 2006, General Electrics Commercial Finance Fleet Services gave Zipcar $20 million in lease line financing. In September 2006, Toronto market was named fastest growing new market in company history, in November 2006, London office opened. In April 2007, Vancouver office opened, in October 2007, Zipcar and Flexcar executives announced a merger of the two companies, with the Zipcar brand and headquarters replacing that of Flexcar. On July 11,2008, Zipcar announced it doubled membership in past year, including the Flexcar members it acquired, and now had 225,000 members. In June 2009, the company announced an application at the Apple World Wide Developer Conference. Following impressive third-quarter results, previous CEO Scott Griffith announced that 2012 would mark Zipcars first full year of profitability on a US GAAP basis, Scott Griffith stepped down on March 15,2013 following Avis Budget Groups acquisition of Zipcar
3.
Car rental
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A car rental, hire car, or car hire agency is a company that rents automobiles for short periods of time, generally ranging from a few hours to a few weeks. It is often organized with local branches, and primarily located near airports or busy city areas. Car rental agencies may also serve the industry needs, by renting vans or trucks. The earliest known example of cars being offered for rent dates to 1906, the German company Sixt was established in 1912 with three cars for rent. Joe Saunders of Omaha, Nebraska first started with one borrowed Model T Ford in 1916. The company name became Saunders Drive-It-Yourself System and then Saunders System, by 1926, Saunders had expanded to 56 cities. Saunders company was bought by Avis in 1955, an early competitor to Saunders was Walter L. Jacobs, whose Chicago-based Rent-a-Car opened in 1918 with twelve Ford Model T. The company was bought in 1923 by John Hertz, in Britain, car rental started with Godfrey Davis, established in 1920, and bought by Europcar in 1981. The sector expanded rapidly in the US, in 1926, the American Driveurself Association assembled over 1200 delegates in Chicago, Car rental companies operate by purchasing or leasing a number of fleet vehicles and renting them to their customers for a fee. In the UK, the registration of rental cars can be concealed by using unfamiliar initials or subsidiaries, in North America, it is common to see rental companies with their own branded second-hand car dealers where ex-rental stock is sold direct to the public. Alternatively, auctions are used such as Manheim Auctions in the USA. At major airports or in cities, some independent car rental agencies offer high-end vehicles for rent. Some specialized companies such as Rent-a-Wreck offer older vehicles at reduced prices and this describes the size, door count, gearbox type, and whether the car is air-conditioned, encoded into four letters. The first letter in the Acriss Code represents the general classification of the vehicle, the second letter specifies the vehicle variant on offer. Car rentals are subject to conditions which vary from one country to another. Generally the vehicle must be returned in the condition it was rented in. For insurance reasons, some companies stipulate a minimum and/or maximum rental age. In some cases, the age for rental can be as high as 25, even in countries where the minimum legal age to hold a drivers license is much lower
4.
Company
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A company, abbreviated co. is a legal entity made up of an association of people, be they natural, legal, or a mixture of both, for carrying on a commercial or industrial enterprise. Company members share a common purpose and unite in order to focus their various talents and organize their collectively available skills or resources to achieve specific, because companies are legal persons, they also may associate and register themselves as companies – often known as a corporate group. When the company closes it may need a certificate to avoid further legal obligations. A company can be defined as a person, invisible, intangible, created by or under law, with a discrete legal personality, perpetual succession. It is not affected by the death, insanity, or insolvency of an individual member, by 1303, the word referred to trade guilds. Usage of company to mean business association was first recorded in 1553, in English law and in legal jurisdictions based upon it, a company is a body corporate or corporation company registered under the Companies Acts or similar legislation. It may be referred to as a firm, in the US, a company is not necessarily a corporation. Commonly used where companies are formed for non-commercial purposes, such as clubs or charities, the members guarantee the payment of certain amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise they have no economic rights in relation to the company. This type of company is common in England, a company limited by guarantee may be with or without having share capital. The most common form of used for business ventures. This type of company is common in England and many English-speaking countries, a company limited by shares may be a publicly traded company or a privately held company. A company limited by guarantee with a share capital, a hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial purposes, but the activities of the company are partly funded by investors who expect a return. This type of company may no longer be formed in the UK, a company—statutorily authorized in certain states—that is characterized by limited liability, management by members or managers, and limitations on ownership transfer, i. e. L. L. C. LLC structure has been called hybrid in that it combines the characteristics of a corporation, an unlimited company with or without a share capital. A hybrid entity, a company where the liability of members or shareholders for the debts of the company are not limited, in this case doctrine of veil of incorporation does not apply. Less common types of companies are, Companies formed by letters patent, most corporations by letters patent are corporations sole and not companies as the term is commonly understood today. Before the passing of modern companies legislation, these were the types of companies. Now they are rare, except for very old companies that still survive
5.
Cooperative
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Cooperatives frequently have social goals which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6. 9% of their profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2. 4% for other rival supermarkets. The International Co-operative Alliance was the first international association formed by the cooperative movement and it includes the World Council of Credit Unions. A second organization was formed later in Germany, the International Raiffeisen Union, in the United States, the National Cooperative Business Association serves as the sectors oldest national membership association. It is dedicated to ensuring that cooperative businesses have the same opportunities as other businesses operating in the country, a U. S. National Cooperative Bank was formed in the 1970s. By 2004, a new association focused on worker co-ops was founded, since 2002 cooperatives and credit unions could be distinguished on the Internet by use of a. coop domain. Since 2014, following International Cooperative Alliances introduction of the Cooperative Marque, ICA cooperatives, cooperation dates back as far as human beings have been organizing for mutual benefit. Tribes were organized as cooperative structures, allocating jobs and resources among each other, in alpine environments, trade could only be maintained in organized cooperatives to achieve a useful condition of artificial roads such as Viamala in 1472. Pre-industrial Europe is home to the first cooperatives from an industrial context, in 1761, the Fenwick Weavers Society was formed in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, Scotland to sell discounted oatmeal to local workers. Its services expanded to include assistance with savings and loans, emigration and education, owen left New Lanark to pursue other forms of cooperative organization and develop coop ideas through writing and lecture. Cooperative communities were set up in Glasgow, Indiana and Hampshire, in 1828, William King set up a newspaper, The Cooperator, to promote Owens thinking, having already set up a cooperative store in Brighton. The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, is considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, used as a model for modern coops. A group of 28 weavers and other artisans in Rochdale, England set up the society to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford, within ten years there were over a thousand cooperative societies in the United Kingdom. Other events such as the founding of a society by the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1832 were key occasions in the creation of organized labor. Cooperatives traditionally combine social benefit interests with capitalistic property-right interests, Cooperatives achieve a mix of social and capital purposes by democratically governing distribution questions by and between equal by not controlling members. Democratic oversight of decisions to equitably distribute assets and other benefits means capital ownership is arranged in a way for social benefit inside the organization, external societal benefit is also encouraged by incorporating the operating-principle of cooperation between co-operatives. In the final year of the 20th century, cooperatives banded together to establish a number of social enterprise agencies which have moved to adopt the cooperative model. In the years 1994–2009 the EU and its member nations gradually revised national accounting systems to make visible the increasing contribution of social economy organizations, the roots of the cooperative movement can be traced to multiple influences and extend worldwide
6.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
7.
Sustainable transport
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Components for evaluating sustainability include the particular vehicles used for road, water or air transport, the source of energy, and the infrastructure used to accommodate the transport. Another component for evaluation is pipelines for transporting liquid or gas materials, Transport operations and logistics as well as transit-oriented development are also involved in evaluation. Transportation sustainability is largely being measured by transportation system effectiveness and efficiency as well as the environmental, the entire life cycle of transport systems is subject to sustainability measurement and optimization. Sustainable transport systems make a contribution to the environmental, social. The advantages of increased mobility need to be weighed against the environmental, social, Transport systems have significant impacts on the environment, accounting for between 20% and 25% of world energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. The majority of the emissions, almost 97%, came from burning of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are increasing at a faster rate than any other energy using sector, road transport is also a major contributor to local air pollution and smog. The United Nations Environment Programme estimates that each year 2.4 million premature deaths from air pollution could be avoided. The social costs of transport include road crashes, air pollution, physical inactivity, time taken away from the family while commuting, many of these negative impacts fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars. Traffic congestion imposes economic costs by wasting time and by slowing the delivery of goods. Traditional transport planning aims to improve mobility, especially for vehicles, communities which are successfully improving the sustainability of their transport networks are doing so as part of a wider programme of creating more vibrant, livable, sustainable cities. There are many definitions of the transport, and of the related terms sustainable transportation. Is Affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers a choice of transport mode, Sustainability extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions. A Life-cycle assessment involves production, use and post-use considerations, a cradle-to-cradle design is more important than a focus on a single factor such as energy efficiency. Most of the tools and concepts of sustainable transport were developed before the phrase was coined, walking, the first mode of transport, is also the most sustainable. Public transport dates back at least as far as the invention of the bus by Blaise Pascal in 1662. The first passenger tram began operation in 1807 and the first passenger service in 1825. Pedal bicycles date from the 1860s and these were the only personal transport choices available to most people in Western countries prior to World War II, and remain the only options for most people in the developing world
8.
The Economist
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The Economist is an English-language weekly magazine-format newspaper owned by the Economist Group and edited at offices in London. Continuous publication began under its founder, James Wilson, in September 1843, in 2015 its average weekly circulation was a little over 1.5 million, about half of which were sold in the United States. The publication belongs to the Economist Group and it is 50% owned by the English branch of the Rothschild family and by the Agnelli family through its holding company Exor. The remaining 50% is held by investors including the editors. The Rothschilds and the Agnellis are represented on the board of directors, a board of trustees formally appoints the editor, who cannot be removed without its permission. Although The Economist has an emphasis and scope, about two-thirds of the 75 staff journalists are based in the London borough of Westminster. For the year to March 2016 the Economist Group declared operating profit of £61m, previous major shareholders include Pearson PLC. The Economist takes a stance of classical and economic liberalism which is supportive of free trade, globalisation, free immigration. The publication has described itself as a product of the Caledonian liberalism of Adam Smith and it targets highly educated readers and claims an audience containing many influential executives and policy-makers. The publications CEO described this recent global change, which was first noticed in the 1990s and accelerated in the beginning of the 21st century, on the contents page of each issue, The Economists mission statement is written in italics. The Economist was founded by the British businessman and banker James Wilson in 1843, to advance the repeal of the Corn Laws, articles relating to some practical, commercial, agricultural, or foreign topic of passing interest, such as foreign treaties. An article on the principles of political economy, applied to practical experience, covering the laws related to prices, wages, rent, exchange, revenue. Parliamentary reports, with focus on commerce, agriculture and free trade. Reports and accounts of popular movements advocating free trade, general news from the Court of St. Jamess, the Metropolis, the Provinces, Scotland, and Ireland. Law reports, confined chiefly to areas important to commerce, manufacturing, books, confined chiefly, but not so exclusively, to commerce, manufacturing, and agriculture, and including all treatises on political economy, finance, or taxation. A commercial gazette, with prices and statistics of the week, correspondence and inquiries from the news magazines readers. It has long respected as one of the most competent. Its logo was designed in 1959 by Reynolds Stone, in January 2012 The Economist launched a new weekly section devoted exclusively to China, the first new country section since the introduction of a section about the United States in 1942
9.
The Hertz Corporation
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The Hertz Corporation, a subsidiary of Hertz Global Holdings Inc is an American car rental company with international locations in 150 countries worldwide. Hertz is the largest U. S. car rental company by sales, on May 7,2013, it was announced that Hertz would relocate its corporate headquarters to Estero, just outside Fort Myers in Southwest Florida. The company was founded by Walter L. Jacobs in 1918, in 1923, Jacobs sold it to John D. Hertz who made it a subsidiary of his Yellow Truck and Coach Manufacturing Company and he sold a controlling interest in the Yellow Truck and Coach Manufacturing Company to General Motors in 1925 who then purchased the remaining shares in 1943. Hertz arranged for The Omnibus Corporation, which he also owned and he sold all The Omnibus Corporations public transport interests the same year, changed its name to The Hertz Corporation and floated it on the New York Stock Exchange the following year. In 1954, the new corporation bought New York truck leasing company, in 1967, The Hertz Corporation became a wholly owned subsidiary of RCA but was operated as a separate entity. In 1985, Hertz joined and was acquired by UAL Corporation, on December 30,1987, Hertz was sold to Park Ridge Corporation, which was then owned by Ford Motor Company and members of Hertz senior management. In 1988, Volvo North America Corporation invested in Park Ridge Corporation, on June 13,2005, Ford issued a notice that Hertz would be let loose in an initial public offering. The sale was completed on December 22,2005 and this private equity group took Hertz public on November 16,2006. On January 11,2010, Hertz announced the acquisition of used cars dealer British Car Auctions for an undisclosed sum, in November 2011, Hertz introduced ExpressRent kiosks at a number of locations. This was the first large scale car rental kiosk deployment in the U. S. using a live agent assistant via video chat. In response to Icahn’s reported share purchase the Hertz Board reportedly stated that it would issue one preferred share for each current share in what is referred to as a “poison pill” response. Kathryn V. Marinello was named President and Chief Executive Officer, tom Kennedy has served as Senior Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer since December 2013. Jeffrey T. Foland is the Senior Executive Vice President and Chief Revenue Officer since January 2015, with oversight of global car rental marketing, sales, pricing, tyler Best is the Executive Vice President and Chief Information Officer since January 2015. He oversees the company’s global Information Technology functions, alexandria Marren is the Executive Vice President, North American Rental Car Operations since August 2015. Eliana Zem has served as the Executive Vice President and Chief Human Resources Officer of Hertz since June 2015, michel Taride was appointed Executive Vice President and President of Hertz International, Ltd. in January 2010. Taride has managed fleet planning and remarketing functions of Hertz International since December 2010, Dollar-Thrifty investors in Tulsa, Oklahoma rejected this US$1,440,000,000 bid from Hertz on September 30,2010. Dollar-Thrifty subsequently announced on October 12,2011 that it had taken itself off the market because it did not receive any proposals that would pass antitrust review
10.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
11.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
12.
Toyota Prius
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The Toyota Prius is a full hybrid electric automobile developed by Toyota and manufactured by the company since 1997. Initially offered as a 4-door sedan, it has produced only as a 5-door hatchback since 2003. The United States Environmental Protection Agency and California Air Resources Board rate the Prius as among the cleanest vehicles sold in the United States based on smog-forming emissions, the 2016 model year Prius Eco ranks as the all-time most fuel efficient gasoline-powered car available in the US without plug-in capability. The Prius first went on sale in Japan in 1997, and was available at all four Toyota Japan dealerships and it was subsequently introduced worldwide in 2000. The Prius is sold in over 90 markets, with Japan, Global cumulative Prius liftback sales reached the milestone 1 million vehicle mark in May 2008,2 million in September 2010, and passed the 3 million mark in June 2013. Cumulative sales of one million were achieved in the U. S. by early April 2011, as of January 2017, the Prius liftback is the worlds top selling hybrid car with almost 4 million units sold. In 2011, Toyota expanded the Prius family to include the Prius v, an extended hatchback wagon, and the Prius c, the production version of the Prius plug-in hybrid was released in 2012. The second generation of the variant, the Prius Prime, was released in the U. S. in November 2016. The Prime achieved the highest miles per gallon equivalent rating in all-electric mode of any vehicle rated by EPA with a combustion engine. Global sales of the Prius c variant passed the one million mark during the first half of 2015, the Prius family totaled global cumulative sales of 6.1 million units in January 2017, representing 61% of the 10 million hybrids sold worldwide by Toyota since 1997. Prius is a Latin word meaning first, original, superior or to go before, in February 2011, Toyota asked the public to decide on what the most proper plural form of Prius should be, with choices including Prien, Prii, Prium, Prius, or Priuses. The company said it would use the most popular choice in its advertising and on 20 February announced that Prii was the most popular choice, in Latin prius is the neuter singular of the comparative form of an adjective with only comparative and superlative. Consequently, like all third declension words, the plural in Latin was priora which was used by the Lada Priora in 2007, despite the official plural form used by Toyota, Priuses remains good English, and is the more frequently used plural form. In 1995, Toyota debuted a concept car at the Tokyo Motor Show. The first Prius, model NHW10, went on sale on 10 December 1997 and it was available only in Japan, though it has been imported privately to at least the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. The first generation Prius, at its launch, became the worlds first mass-produced gasoline-electric hybrid car. At its introduction in 1997, it won the Car of the Year Japan Award, UK sales of the first generation Prius began on 19 October 2000. Production commenced in December 1997 at the Takaoka plant in Toyota, Aichi, production recommenced in May 2000 at the Motomachi plant in the same area, before XW10 manufacture ended in June 2003 after a further 33,411 vehicles had been produced
13.
PhillyCarShare
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PhillyCarShare was a non-profit car-sharing organization in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania established in 2002. The service was acquired by Enterprise in 2011, and was renamed Enterprise CarShare in 2014, PhillyCarShare has cars available for use 24 hours per day throughout the city of Philadelphia and the region. The goals of the company are to reduce the number of cars on the road, promote the use of gas-saving automobiles, reduce pollution, promote a car-free lifestyle and save its members money. This program allowed city workers to utilize car-sharing vehicles, and allowed the city to reduce its fleet of underutilized city-owned vehicles by 330 cars, the fleet reduction is estimated to have saved the City of Philadelphia $8 million. The City of Wilmington, Delaware joined PhillyCarShare in 2007, with the partnership between the City of Philadelphia and PhillyCarShare, the City became the first government worldwide to share cars with local residents in a major fleet reduction effort. In October 2007, PhillyCarShare announced that its membership had reached 30,000, at the time of acquisition by Enterprise in 2011, it was reported that there was a membership of 13,000. The PhillyCarShare fleet includes two dozen makes and models. Nearly half the fleet is made up of vehicles, including the Toyota Prius, Honda Civic Hybrid. PhillyCarShare introduced their Key to the City program in 2007 bringing discounts to Philadelphia area retailers, all members have a keytag which they can show at participating retailers to enjoy exclusive discounts. Discounts include local eateries, shops and cultural institutions, in 2006, PhillyCarShare began issuing a Music to drive by CD entitled Philly Sound Clash. Copies of the CD are placed in all of the vehicles, the CD features local Philadelphia artists in a battle of the bands type contest, 2007s winner was Philadelphia Slick
14.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
15.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
16.
Enjoy (car sharing)
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Enjoy is an Italian car sharing service provided by Eni. Enjoy is active in Milan, Turin, Rome, Florence, the system offers exclusively Fiat 500 vehicles with one-way point-to-point rentals charged by the minute. Cars can be rented wherever parked via a smartphone app, car2go, a similar car sharing system also active in Italy
17.
Turin
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Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
18.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
19.
Greenwheels
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Greenwheels is the largest carsharing corporation in the Netherlands and also operates in Germany. Operations in the United Kingdom ceased on 1 March 2013, founded as Collect Car B. V. on 21 June 1995 by Gijs van Lookeren Campagne and Jan Borghuis, who were inspired by car sharing by German students in the 1980s. The car sharing firm received a financial boost by Dutch entrepreneur Eckart Wintzen in 1997, by the end of 2005, Greenwheels owned 98. 5% of StattAuto shares. Greenwheels also operated in London as Greenwheels UK until 1 March 2013, early 2016, the CarSharing company Quicar in Hannover was acquired by Volkswagen Leasing GmbH. Greenwheels will continue 60 Quicar stations from 1 April 2016 and occupy a total of 80 vehicles of the types VW up, VW Golf Variant 5th generation and VW Caddy. Greenwheels has extensive locations in urban centres in Germany and Netherlands, in the UK, operations were only in the boroughs of Wandsworth and Lambeth, and closed on 1 March 2013 because Greenwheels UK did not have enough members to continue our services. London boroughs of Lambeth and Wandsworth, Greenwheels fleet consists of subcompact or compact that are better able to handle the narrow and congested streets found in European cities. VW Golf Variant 5th generation VW Caddy Official website
20.
Volkswagen Up
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The Volkswagen Up is a city car, part of the Volkswagen Group New Small Family series of models, unveiled at the 2011 International Motor Show Germany. Production of the Up started in December 2011 at the Volkswagen Bratislava Plant in Bratislava, the production Up follows a series of concept cars, starting in 2007 at the Frankfurt Motor Show. The exterior was designed by the Brazilian designer Marco Pavone. This design was chosen and enhanced by Volkswagen Group Chief Designer Walter deSilva, shown at the Frankfurt launch were several further Up concepts, including a 98 hp GT version, a natural gas-powered Eco-up. and a four-door Cross model. A battery electric version, called E-up, was launched in autumn 2013, the Up won the 2012 World Car of the Year. The SEAT Mii and Škoda Citigo are rebadged versions of the Up, with different front and rear fascias. In February 2014 Volkswagen introduced a version of the Up for Latin America. All versions have revised tailgates with a metal section instead of the dark glass trim used in Europe. The 5-door Brazilian Up also uses a different rear design with sectioned glass. The South American model retains the European versions safety levels with a five-star crash rating, in July 2015, Volkswagen introduced a new powertrain for the Up sold in Brazil, using a 1.0 L, direct fuel injection three-cylinder turbocharged engine. At the Geneva Motor Show in 2016, the model sold in Europe received a facelift and the new TSI engine, at International Motor Show Germany IAA2011 Volkswagen unveiled the final version of the Up based on the Volkswagen New Small Family modular architecture. The three-door bodywork is inspired by the 2007 concept UP, the range is 1.0 L three-cylinder gasoline 60 hp and 75 hp. Both the three and five doors are available with engines running on CNG and called eco-Up, the Up is a front-wheel drive with transverse engine mated to a five-speed manual gearbox and is 3.54 metres long has a wheelbase of 2.42 m. The cabin is configured to four seats, the UP is available to order in the United Kingdom since October 2011 for five models – marketed as Take up. British television show Top Gear presenters mock the name by calling the model Up-exclamation-mark. It was introduced on the German market on December 3,2011, deliveries to other European markets began in April 2012. SEAT Mii limited production started in October 2011 for the European market, the final version was launched in May 2012. The Škoda Citigo was launched in the Czech Republic in October 2011, the Citigo will be sold in other countries of Europe from summer 2012, as well as in Asia, possibly including Russia if it will be produced in Kaluga
21.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
22.
Flinkster
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Flinkster was originally called DB Carsharing. Flinkster offers own cars and access to those of regional partners, the Flinkster user discovers the actual provider of the car only when standing in front of it. Flinkster offers two models, the nationwide tariff without a monthly fee, and a city tariff with lower usage fees. Holders of a BahnCard, the DB customer loyalty card, enjoy special conditions
23.
Ravensburg
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Ravensburg is a town in Upper Swabia in Southern Germany, capital of the district of Ravensburg, Baden-Württemberg. Ravensburg was first mentioned in 1088, in the Middle Ages, it was an Imperial Free City and an important trading centre. The Great Ravensburg Trading Society owned shops and trading companies all over Europe, the historic town centre is still very much intact, including three town gates and over 10 towers of the medieval fortification. The all-white Mehlsack is a tower marking the Altstadt’s southern edge, a steep staircase leads up to the Veitsburg, a quaint baroque castle. The towns most popular festival is the Rutenfest in mid year, Ravensburg was first mentioned in writing in 1088. It was founded by the Welfs, a Frankish dynasty in Swabia who became later Dukes of Bavaria and Saxony, with the death of Conradin 1268 in Naples the Hohenstaufen line became extinct. Their former estates became imperial property of the Holy Roman Empire, like many other cities in Swabia, at the end of the 13th century Ravensburg became an Imperial Free City in 1276. The Great Ravensburg Trading Society was founded at Ravensburg and Konstanz around 1380 by the merchant families of Humpis, Mötteli, at first, the society mostly dealt in the production of linen and fustian. With the opening of one of the first paper mills north of the Alps in 1402 in Ravensburg, the Ravensburg stores also sold oriental spices, Mediterranean wines and Bohemian ores. After the liquidation of the Great Ravensburg Trading Society in 1530, the Thirty Years War caused a grave decline of the population. Swedish troops destroyed the old castle, now named Veitsburg after the St. Veit chapel at the castle grounds, following the Reformation a paritetic government emerged, meaning an equal distribution of public offices between the Catholic and Protestant confession. The city council was one half each Protestant and Catholic, for some time there was even a Catholic and a Protestant mayor at the same time, and the both confessions celebrated the village fair, the Rutenfest, apart from each other. This system was approved at the end of the Thirty Years War in the Peace of Westphalia which named four Paritetic Imperial Cities, Augsburg, Biberach, Dinkelsbühl, as a result, Ravensburg first became a Bavarian exclave within Württemberg. After a swap of estates between Bavaria and Württemberg it was incorporated in the Kingdom of Württemberg in 1810, since Ravensburg was impoverished and depopulated after the Thirty Years War, only a few new buildings were raised during the 18th and the early 19th century. The benefit of this economic stagnation was the conservation of an intact medieval city with nearly all towers. During World War II Ravensburg was strategically of no relevance, Ravensburg did not harbor any noteworthy arms industry, but was home to a big aid supplies center belonging to the Swiss Red Cross, so no air raid destroyed the historic city center. In the 1970s, Ravensburg increased in population and territory by the incorporation of communities like Eschach, Schmalegg. Ravensburg University of Cooperative Education was established in the town in 1978, in the 1980s, the Old Town was renovated and all transit traffic was banned from the city center
24.
Cambio CarSharing
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Cambio CarSharing is a carsharing company which was formed in 2000 as a merger of several carsharing companies in different cities in Germany and Belgium. Cambio is a member of Bundesverband CarSharing e. V. the industry association of the car sharing organisations in Germany. Currently, the cambio-group in Germany and Belgium has over 63,500 customers, the group is one of the three largest carsharing companies in Germany. The locations of cambio in Germany are Aachen, Berlin, Bonn, Bremen, Bremerhaven, Bielefeld, Hamburg, Jülich, Cologne, Lüneburg, Oldenburg, Saarbrücken, Uelzen, Winsen and Wuppertal. Cambio partners with the Stadtmobil group so that customers of both groups can cross book cars at most locations of the group, using the same smart card. The vehicles can be booked by customers via the internet or by telephone at any time, the travel time can be between one hour and 30 days. Depending on the station and the type of car, bookings with no end time specified are possible, the booking is transferred within minutes to the vehicle station. At the station, the key safe or vehicle can be opened with a smart card and after returning the car. The number of kilometers driven and the time are calculated. Fuel, car insurance, taxes, maintenance and depreciation are included, the cambio Mobility Services GmbH & Co. KG was founded in 2000 by the merger of carsharing company StadtteilAutoAachen, StadtAuto Bremen, StadtAuto Bremen and Stadtteilauto Aachen worked separately since 1990, Stadtauto Köln since 1992. In 2000 Stadtteilauto Aachen brought a newly formed subsidiary into the group, in October 2001, the Bielefeld carsharing company CityMobil joined the cambio Group. In April 2003 the Oldenburg carsharing-club StadtTeilAuto was changed to cambio Oldenburg, cambio Belgium has been in Wallonia since 2000, since 2003 in Brussels, and since 2004 in Flanders. Cambio Belgium has about 8430 customers and 405 cars at 171 stations, since 2008 cambio exists in Berlin and under the name GoCar in Ireland. The vehicles are charged from the energy of 100% renewable energy power plants. In Cologne electric vehicles will be offered from March 2012, in 2010, the companys service in the cities of Aachen, Bielefeld and Cologne were awarded with the Service-Test Engel des ADAC NRW. In May 2011 the company was awarded for environmentally-friendly transport services and received the blauen Engel, the cambio Mobility Services GmbH & Co. KG itself operates no carsharing service, but provides services, especially software and call center services, for all subsidiaries
25.
Bremen
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The City Municipality of Bremen is a Hanseatic city in northwestern Germany, which belongs to the state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen. As a commercial and industrial city with a port on the River Weser, Bremen is part of the Bremen/Oldenburg Metropolitan Region. Bremen is the second most populous city in Northern Germany and eleventh in Germany, Bremen is a major cultural and economic hub in the northern regions of Germany. Bremen is home to dozens of galleries and museums, ranging from historical sculptures to major art museums. Bremen has a reputation as a working class city, along with this, Bremen is home to a large number of multinational companies and manufacturing centers. Companies headquartered in Bremen include the Hachez chocolate company and Vector Foiltec, four-time German football champions Werder Bremen are also based in the city. Bremen is some 60 km south from the Weser mouth on the North Sea, with Bremerhaven right on the mouth the two comprise the state of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen. The marshes and moraines near Bremen have been settled since about 12,000 BC, burial places and settlements in Bremen-Mahndorf and Bremen-Osterholz date back to the 7th century AD. Since The Renaissance, some scientists have believed that the entry Fabiranum or Phabiranon in Ptolemys Fourth Map of Europe, written in 150 AD, but Ptolemy gives geographic coordinates, and by these dates Phabiranon is situated northeast of the mouth of river Visurgis. At that time the Chauci lived in the now called north-western Germany or Lower Saxony. By the end of the 3rd century, they had merged with the Saxons, during the Saxon Wars the Saxons, led by Widukind, fought against the West Germanic Franks, the founders of the Carolingian Empire, and lost the war. Charlemagne, the King of the Franks, made a new law, the Lex Saxonum which stated that Saxons were not allowed to worship Odin, in 787 Willehad of Bremen became the first Bishop of Bremen. The citys first stone walls were built in 1032, around this time trade with Norway, England and the northern Netherlands began to grow, thus increasing the importance of the city. The city was recognised as an entity with its own laws. Property was to be inherited without feudal claims for reversion to its original owner. This privilege laid the foundation for Bremens later status of imperial immediacy, since the city was the major taxpayer, its consent was generally sought. In this way the city wielded fiscal and political power within the Prince-Archbishopric, in 1260 Bremen joined the Hanseatic League. In 1350, the number of inhabitants reached 20,000, around this time the Hansekogge became a unique product of Bremen
26.
Mobility Carsharing
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Mobility Carsharing is a Swiss cooperative of car sharing. It covers almost all organised carsharing in Switzerland, Mobility offers 2’950 vehicles at 1’500 sites for private customers as well as mobility solutions for companies. The combination of public and private transportation aims to give cooperative members, Mobility operates more than 2’950 vehicles at 1’500 sites in Switzerland and has 131700 customers of which 63’600 are members of the cooperative. The company employs a workforce of 205 staff and generates a turnover of CHF79 million and it is the most important car sharing company in Switzerland. Mobility was founded in 1997 with the merger of the two Swiss car sharing cooperatives AutoTeilet-Genossenschaft and ShareCom and these predecessor companies were both founded in 1987, ATG in Stans and ShareCom in Zurich. The two began cooperating as early on as 1991, each enabling their members to use the other’s vehicles and that same year they were both involved in setting up the association European Car Sharing. In 1996, ATG took over the Geneva-based cooperative CopAuto, ShareCom developed the first on-board computers in the same year. Mobility CarSharing was formed from the merger between ATG and ShareCom in 1997, its headquarters were in Zurich and it had 17’400 customers and 760 vehicles. After this, the system underwent technological refinement, the vehicles were fitted with on-board computers and members were issued with a chip card. These expensive technical facilities imposed a financial burden on the company. Since then, Mobility has continuously increased its number of members and customers as well as adding more vehicles and sites. A range of cooperative ventures have been launched or expanded, in 2013 Mobility received the GfM award from the Swiss Marketing Association. As of 1 October 2007 the company’s registered headquarters was moved to Lucerne, the company will relocate their headquater to Rotkreuz ZG by 2018. The vehicle fleet comprises ordinary vehicles in nine categories, ranging from compact cars to convertibles. Their striking red colour is the company’s main hallmark, making the vehicles clearly recognizable throughout Switzerland, one of the key considerations for Mobilitys vehicle management programme is sustainability, according to the company itself, its entire fleet achieves emissions averaging 97 g CO2/km. This puts Mobility 33% below Switzerland’s mandatory threshold as applicable from 2015, vehicles are reserved online or by telephone. Mobility offers round-the-clock availability, even at short notice, the reservation of the vehicle is confirmed within a few minutes via text message. The vehicle can then be opened with the Mobility Card and used, certain vehicle types are fitted so that they can be operated entirely without a key
27.
Bern
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The city of Bern or Berne is the de facto capital of Switzerland, referred to by the Swiss as their Bundesstadt, or federal city. With a population of 141,762, Bern is the fourth-most populous city in Switzerland, the Bern agglomeration, which includes 36 municipalities, had a population of 406,900 in 2014. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000, Bern is also the capital of the canton of Bern, the second-most populous of Switzerlands cantons. The official language in Bern is German, but the language is an Alemannic Swiss German dialect. In 1983, the old town in the centre of Bern became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Bern is ranked among the top ten cities for the best quality of life. The etymology of the name Bern is uncertain and it has long been considered likely that the city was named after the Italian city of Verona, which at the time was known as Bern in Middle High German. As a result of the find of the Bern zinc tablet in the 1980s, it is now common to assume that the city was named after a pre-existing toponym of Celtic origin. The bear was the animal of the seal and coat of arms of Bern from at least the 1220s. The earliest reference to the keeping of bears in the Bärengraben dates to the 1440s. No archaeological evidence that indicates a settlement on the site of city centre prior to the 12th century has been found so far. In antiquity, a Celtic oppidum stood on the Engehalbinsel north of Bern, fortified since the second century BC, during the Roman era, a Gallo-Roman vicus was on the same site. The Bern zinc tablet has the name Brenodor, in the Early Middle Ages, a settlement in Bümpliz, now a city district of Bern, was some 4 km from the medieval city. The medieval city is a foundation of the Zähringer ruling family, according to 14th-century historiography, Bern was founded in 1191 by Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen. In 1218, after Berthold died without an heir, Bern was made an imperial city by the Goldene Handfeste of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. In 1353, Bern joined the Swiss Confederacy, becoming one of the eight cantons of the period of 1353 to 1481. The city grew out towards the west of the boundaries of the peninsula formed by the river Aare, the Zytglogge tower marked the western boundary of the city from 1191 until 1256, when the Käfigturm took over this role until 1345. It was, in turn, succeeded by the Christoffelturm until 1622, during the time of the Thirty Years War, two new fortifications – the so-called big and small Schanze – were built to protect the whole area of the peninsula
28.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
29.
Public transport
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Public transport modes include city buses, trolleybuses, trams and passenger trains, rapid transit and ferries. Public transport between cities is dominated by airlines, coaches, and intercity rail, high-speed rail networks are being developed in many parts of the world. Most public transport runs to a timetable, with the most frequent services running to a headway. Share taxis offer services in many parts of the world. Paratransit is sometimes used in areas of low demand and for people who need a door-to-door service, there are distinct differences in urban public transit between Asia, North America, and Europe. In Asia, mass transit operations are run by profit-driven privately owned and publicly traded mass transit. In North America, mass transit operations are run by municipal transit authorities. In Europe, mass transit operations are run by both state-owned and private companies. Public transport services can be profit-driven by use of pay-by-the-distance fares or funded by government subsidies in which flat rate fares are charged to each passenger. Services can be profitable through high ridership numbers and high farebox recovery ratios, or can be regulated. Fully subsidized, zero-fare services operate in some towns and cities, for geographical, historical and economic reasons, there are differences internationally regarding use and extent of public transport. It has 3,400 members from 92 countries, conveyances designed for public hire are as old as the first ferries, and the earliest public transport was water transport, on land people walked or rode an animal. Ferries appear in Greek mythology—corpses in ancient Greece were buried with a coin underneath their tongue to pay the ferryman Charon to take them to Hades, the omnibus was introduced to London in July 1829. The first passenger railway opened in 1806, it ran between Swansea and Mumbles in southwest Wales in the United Kingdom. In 1825 George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in northeast England, the usability of different types of public transport, and its overall appeal, can be measured by seven criteria, although they overlap somewhat. These are speed, comfort, safety, cost, proximity, speed is calculated from total journey time including transfers. Proximity means how far passengers have to walk or otherwise travel before they can begin the public transport leg of their journey, timeliness is how long they have to wait for the vehicle. Directness records how far a journey using public transport deviates from the shortest route, an airline provides scheduled service with aircraft between airports
30.
Car2Go
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Car2go is a German car rental company. It is a subsidiary of Daimler AG providing carsharing services in European, the company offers exclusively Smart Fortwo and Mercedes-Benz vehicles and features one-way point-to-point rentals. Users are charged by the minute, with hourly and daily rates available, the service forgoes the typical centralized rental office, and cars are user-accessed wherever parked via a downloadable smartphone app. As of October 2016, car2go is the largest carsharing company in the world with over 2,000,000 members. Daimler introduced the service in Ulm, Germany, in October 2008, as of October 2016, car2go operates over 14,000 vehicles, which serve eight countries and 30 cities worldwide with over 2,000,000 customers. Starting in May 2015, car2go added a $1 Driver Protection Fee for each ride to offset the lowered deductible, since inception, car2go withdrew from several locations, including Britain, where it closed its service in London and Birmingham after only a year of operation. Due to a lack of charging stations, car2go in San Diego, California, when the service started in 2011, car2go expected 1,000 charging stations to be deployed around the city, but only 400 were in place by early 2016. As a result, an average of 20% of the fleet is unavailable at any given time because the cars are either being charged or because they don’t have enough electricity in them to be driven. The company charges a per minute rate, with discounted fixed rates for hourly and daily usage also available, the rates are all-inclusive and cover rental, gas, insurance, parking, and maintenance. In Horseshoe Bay, Canada, a satellite parking location near Vancouver, BC, Canada. A low fixed annual fee is also charged. In most markets, car2go vehicles can park in either specially designated parking spots, or in parking areas. In most cities, car2go offers only two-passenger vehicles, namely two types of Smart Fortwo car2go edition vehicles, gasoline-powered, and electric-powered. Electric car2go models are available in several markets, have a range of 84 miles. In its Canadian markets, car2go has a program in place to supplement its fleet with a small number of four-door Mercedes B-class vehicles. First-party and third-party apps for mobile devices allow users to locate, carsharing Official website Daimler Mobility Concepts
31.
GoGet
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GoGet CarShare is a car sharing service operating in Sydney, Melbourne, Canberra, Brisbane and Adelaide, and the first such program in Australia. GoGet was launched as Newtown CarShare on 6 June 2003 with three vehicles and twelve founding members, following interest from the City of Darebin, the service was extended to Melbourne under the name GoGet in November 2004. With the growth of the service to areas in Sydney. GoGet members choose a plan and pay an annual fee. Fees cover fuel, insurance, maintenance, and cleaning, the vehicles are mostly late-model hatchbacks, but also include vans, utes and premium vehicles. Each vehicle has a location, referred to as a pod, either in a car park or on a street. Members reserve a car by web or telephone and use a key card to access the vehicle, GoGet is an invented word which reflects the utility you get from using, rather than owning, a car. As in Go get the shopping, go get the kids, in June 2014, GoGet had over 1300 vehicles Australia-wide. In October 2015, GoGet had over 65,000 members, Toyota Yaris Toyota Corolla Kia Carnival Toyota HiLux Toyota HiAce Toyota Rav4 Kia Sportage Hyundai i30 wagon Audi A1 Audi A3 GoGet CarShare
32.
Cycling
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Cycling, also called bicycling or biking, is the use of bicycles for transport, recreation, exercise or sport. Persons engaged in cycling are referred to as cyclists, bikers, or less commonly, apart from two-wheeled bicycles, cycling also includes the riding of unicycles, tricycles, quadracycles, recumbent and similar human-powered vehicles. Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century and now approximately one billion worldwide. They are the means of transportation in many parts of the world. Cycling is widely regarded as an effective and efficient mode of transportation optimal for short to moderate distances. Cycling also offers a reduced consumption of fuels, less air or noise pollution. These lead to financial cost to the user as well as to society at large. By fitting bicycle racks on the front of buses, transit agencies can significantly increase the areas they can serve, in many countries, the most commonly used vehicle for road transport is a utility bicycle. These have frames with relaxed geometry, protecting the rider from shocks of the road, utility bicycles tend to be equipped with accessories such as mudguards, pannier racks and lights, which extends their usefulness on a daily basis. As the bicycle is so effective as a means of various companies have developed methods of carrying anything from the weekly shop to children on bicycles. Certain countries rely heavily on bicycles and their culture has developed around the bicycle as a form of transport. In Europe, Denmark and the Netherlands have the most bicycles per capita, road bikes tend to have a more upright shape and a shorter wheelbase, which make the bike more mobile but harder to ride slowly. The design, coupled with low or dropped handlebars, requires the rider to bend forward more, making use of stronger muscles, the price of a new bicycle can range from US$50 to more than US$20,000, depending on quality, type and weight. However, UCI regulations stipulate a legal race bike cannot weigh less than 6.8 kg, being measured for a bike and taking it for a test ride are recommended before buying. The drivetrain components of the bike should also be considered, a middle grade dérailleur is sufficient for a beginner, although many utility bikes are equipped with hub gears. If the rider plans a significant amount of hillclimbing a triple-chainrings crankset gear system may be preferred, otherwise, the relatively lighter and less expensive double chainring may be better. Much simpler fixed wheel bikes are also available, many road bikes, along with mountain bikes, include clipless pedals to which special shoes attach, via a cleat, enabling the rider to pull on the pedals as well as push. For basic maintenance and repairs cyclists can carry a pump, a repair kit, a spare inner tube, and tire levers
33.
City CarShare
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City Carshare was founded as the first carsharing program in the San Francisco Bay area, and remains the only non-profit program in the metropolitan region. It provides its members with the use of fuel-efficient vehicles by the hour, City CarShare was the only carsharing program in the San Francisco area from its founding in 2001 until 2005. The organization began with a fleet of 12 lime green Volkswagen Beetles and 850 members, the original pricing was a $300 deposit with a $10 monthly fee, in addition to fees of $2.50 per hour and 45 cents per mile driven. City CarShare expanded to locations in Oakland, Berkeley. In 2004 City carshare began providing vehicles to the city of Berkeley, the city sold off cars from its fleet in favor of using shared vehicles. By 2005 ABC7 reported that the organization had saved more than one million gallons of gasoline since its founding, at this point, City CarShare was the largest non-profit car sharing program in the United States. In 2006, University of California, Berkeley produced a study showing that City CarShare prevented nearly 25 million pounds of carbon emissions a year from entering the atmosphere, in 2011 City CarShare was one of eighteen organizations to form the North American CarSharing Association, the worlds largest. City CarShare was one of the organizations in the new association. In 2011 City CarShare also partnered with the city of San Francisco to provide on-street parking exclusively for City CarShare vehicles. The Clean Fleet Report has named City CarShare one of the ten best car-share programs in the United States, the fleet was specifically implemented with Mitsubishi_i-MiEV electric vehicles. The use of vehicles in the fleet and around the city led the City of San Francisco to institute the installation of electric-vehicle charging stations in the downtown area. The company also runs the CommunityShare program for low income individuals, in August 2015 Carma partnered with City CarShare. In November 2016 City CarShare reached an agreement with Getaround, to continue using the car sharing service, former City Carshare members must join Facebook. City CarShare was founded by a group of Californian transportation activists in the San Francisco Bay area, with the help of organizations in Berkeley, Oakland. The first official member of City CarShare was San Francisco native Elizabeth Sullivan, the CEO of the organization is Rick Hutchinson, who has attended the signing of new legislation with California politicians in support of making car-sharing easier and more cost efficient. City CarShare has also worked with city officials to debut new sustainable transportation initiatives, Hutchinson became CEO in 2005, replacing CEO Larry Magid, who had held the position since 2002. In September 2013, City Carshare launched Dash, a three-year pilot carsharing program in Hacienda Business Park, in Pleasanton, California. The service will be provided with 30 Scion iQ EVs, which are part of a 100 electric car built by Toyota to be field tested in the U. S
34.
Traffic congestion
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Traffic congestion is a condition on transport networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. The most common example is the use of roads by vehicles. When traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the stream, this results in some congestion. As demand approaches the capacity of a road, extreme traffic congestion sets in, when vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time, this is colloquially known as a traffic jam or traffic snarl-up. Traffic congestion can lead to becoming frustrated and engaging in road rage. Mathematically, congestion is usually looked at as the number of vehicles that pass through a point in a window of time, Congestion flow lends itself to principles of fluid dynamics. Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for greater than the available street capacity. About half of U. S. traffic congestion is recurring, Traffic research still cannot fully predict under which conditions a traffic jam may suddenly occur. It has been found that individual incidents may cause ripple effects which then spread out and create a traffic jam when, otherwise. Some traffic engineers have attempted to apply the rules of fluid dynamics to traffic flow, Traffic scientists liken such a situation to the sudden freezing of supercooled fluid. However, unlike a fluid, traffic flow is affected by signals or other events at junctions that periodically affect the smooth flow of traffic. Alternative mathematical theories exist, such as Boris Kerners three-phase traffic theory, because of the poor correlation of theoretical models to actual observed traffic flows, transportation planners and highway engineers attempt to forecast traffic flow using empirical models. These models are typically calibrated by measuring actual traffic flows on the links in the network. That discovery enabled the team to solve traffic-jam equations that were first theorized in the 1950s, congested roads can be seen as an example of the tragedy of the commons. Privatization of highways and road pricing have both proposed as measures that may reduce congestion through economic incentives and disincentives. Congestion can also happen due to non-recurring highway incidents, such as a crash or roadworks, economist Anthony Downs argues that rush hour traffic congestion is inevitable because of the benefits of having a relatively standard work day. In a capitalist economy, goods can be allocated either by pricing or by queueing and they determined that the number of vehicle-kilometers traveled increases in direct proportion to the available lane-kilometers of roadways. The implication is that new roads and widening existing ones only results in additional traffic that continues to rise until peak congestion returns to the previous level
35.
Rush hour
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A rush hour is a part of the day during which traffic congestion on roads and crowding on public transport is at its highest. Normally, this happens twice every weekday—once in the morning and once in the afternoon-evening, the term is often used for a period of peak congestion that may last for more than one hour. By analogy to vehicular traffic, the term Internet rush hour has been used to describe periods of peak data network usage, resulting in delays and slower delivery of data packets. The name is sometimes a misnomer, as the period often lasts more than one hour. Rush hour may be 6–10 am and 4–8 pm, Peak traffic periods may vary from city to city, from region to region, and seasonally. The frequency of public service is usually higher in the rush hour. The resulting crowding may force many passengers to stand, and others may be unable to board, if there is inadequate capacity, this can make public transport less attractive, leading to higher car use and partly shifting the congestion to roads. Transport demand management, such as road pricing or a charge, is designed to induce people to alter their travel timing to minimize congestion. Similarly, public transport fares may be higher during peak periods, season tickets or multi-ride tickets, sold at a discount, are commonly used in rush hours by commuters, and may or may not reflect rush hour fare differentials. Staggered hours have been promoted as a means of spreading demand across a time span, for example in Rush Hour. In Australia, Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne and in New Zealand, Auckland and Christchurch are usually the most congested cities in the morning 6–9am, in Melbourne the Monash Freeway, which connects Melbournes suburban sprawl, to the city is usually heavily congested each morning and evening. In Perth, Mitchell Freeway, Kwinana Freeway and various arterial roads are usually congested between peak hours, making movement between suburbs and the city quite slow, efforts to minimise traffic congestion during peak hour vary on a state by state and city by city basis. In Melbourne, congestion is managed by means including, Inbound transit lanes on busy freeways which are limited to motorcycles, free travel on metropolitan trains before 7am. Passengers must exit the system at their station before 7am. Dedicated bus lanes on major city roads such as Hoddle Street. Introduction of dedicated lanes in the inner city area to encourage cyclists. Prohibition of parking along busy roads during peak periods to create an extra lane for traffic. In São Paulo, Brazil, each vehicle is assigned a day of the week in which it cannot travel the roads during rush hour
36.
Sunk cost
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In economics and business decision-making, a sunk cost is a cost that has already been incurred and cannot be recovered. Sunk costs are sometimes contrasted with prospective costs, which are costs that may be incurred or changed if an action is taken. Both retrospective and prospective costs may be fixed or variable costs. However, many consider it a mistake to classify sunk costs as fixed or variable. For example, if a firm sinks $400 million on a software installation. A fixed cost would be monthly payments made as part of a contract or licensing deal with the company that set up the software. The upfront irretrievable payment for the installation should not be deemed a fixed cost, Sunk costs should be kept separate. The variable costs for this project might include data centre power usage, in traditional microeconomic theory, only prospective costs are relevant to an investment decision. Traditional economics proposes that economic actors should not let sunk costs influence their decisions, doing so would not be rationally assessing a decision exclusively on its own merits. Alternatively, a decision-maker might make rational decisions according to their own incentives and this is considered to be an incentive problem and is distinct from a sunk cost problem. Evidence from behavioral economics suggests this theory fails to predict real-world behavior, Sunk costs do, in fact, influence actors decisions because humans are prone to loss aversion and framing effects. In light of such cognitive quirks, it is unsurprising that people fail to behave in ways that economists deem rational. Sunk costs should not affect the rational decision-makers best choice, however, until a decision-maker irreversibly commits resources, the prospective cost is an avoidable future cost and is properly included in any decision-making processes. For example, if one is considering preordering movie tickets, but has not actually purchased them yet, the sunk cost is distinct from economic loss. For example, when a new car is purchased, it can subsequently be resold, however, the economic loss is the difference. It may also be used as shorthand for an error in due to the sunk cost fallacy, irrational decision-making or, most simply. Economists argue that sunk costs are not taken into account when making rational decisions, in either case, the ticket-buyer has paid the price of the ticket so that part of the decision no longer affects the future. The economist will suggest that, since the second option involves suffering in one way
37.
Smart card
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A smart card, chip card, or integrated circuit card is any pocket-sized card that has embedded integrated circuits. Smart cards are made of plastic, generally polyvinyl chloride, but sometimes polyethylene terephthalate based polyesters, since April 2009, a Japanese company has manufactured reusable financial smart cards made from paper. Smart cards can be either contact or contactless smart card, Smart cards can provide personal identification, authentication, data storage, and application processing. Smart cards may provide strong security authentication for single sign-on within large organizations, in 1968 and 1969 Helmut Gröttrup and Jürgen Dethloff jointly filed patents for the automated chip card. Roland Moreno patented the memory card concept in 1974, an important patent for smart cards with a microprocessor and memory as used today was filed by Jürgen Dethloff in 1976 and granted as USP4105156 in 1978. Three years later, Motorola used this patent in its CP8, at that time, Bull had 1,200 patents related to smart cards. In 2001, Bull sold its CP8 division together with its patents to Schlumberger, in 2006, Axalto and Gemplus, at the time the worlds top two smart card manufacturers, merged and became Gemalto. The first mass use of the cards was as a card for payment in French pay phones. After the Télécarte, microchips were integrated into all French Carte Bleue debit cards in 1992, customers inserted the card into the merchants point of sale terminal, then typed the personal identification number, before the transaction was accepted. Only very limited transactions are processed without a PIN, smart-card-based electronic purse systems store funds on the card so that readers do not need network connectivity. They entered European service in the mid-1990s and they have been common in Germany, Austria, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, UK, Denmark and Portugal. Since the 1990s, smart-cards have been the Subscriber Identity Modules used in European GSM mobile phone equipment, Mobile phones are widely used in Europe, so smart cards have become very common. Europay MasterCard Visa -compliant cards and equipment are widespread, the United States started using the EMV technology in 2014. Historically, in 1993 several international payment companies agreed to develop specifications for debit and credit cards. The original brands were MasterCard, Visa, and Europay, the first version of the EMV system was released in 1994. In 1998 the specifications became stable, eMVcos purpose is to assure the various financial institutions and retailers that the specifications retain backward compatibility with the 1998 version. EMVco upgraded the specifications in 2000 and 2004, EMV compliant cards were first accepted into Malaysia in 2005 and later into United States in 2014. MasterCard was the first company that was allowed to use the technology in the United States, the United States has felt pushed to use the technology because of the increase in identity theft
38.
Uhaul Car Share
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UhaulCarShare is a for-profit carsharing service offered by U-Haul in nearly 40 cities in the United States. Those with a Uhaul Car Share membership may have use of a car, however, use is generally limited to three days at a time. Most often, Uhaul Car Share vehicles are operated in communities with colleges and/or universities nearby, the goal of Car Share is to give people an alternative to owning second and third cars, and to increase the use of public transit. Uhaul Car Shares primary competitor is Zipcar
39.
Shattuck Avenue
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Shattuck Avenue is a major city street running north-south through Berkeley, California and Oakland, California. At its southern end, the branches from Telegraph Avenue in Oaklands Temescal district. Shattuck Avenue is the street of Berkeley, forming the spine of that citys downtown. The street was named for Francis Kittredge Shattuck, a landowner and booster who later served as Mayor of Oakland. Shattuck was largely responsible for the construction of the road as well as for a railroad built along its route. During the Mexican era, a trail or road ran between the homes of the Peralta brothers, Domingo and Vicente, Domingo made his home along Codornices Creek near what is today the intersection of Sacramento and Hopkins Streets in Berkeley. Vicentes home was situated along Temescal Creek near what is today the intersection of 55th Street, the route of this early predecessor road, which came to be called the Temescal Road, is depicted on the first official plat map of the area, Kellersbergers Map. A trace of it today as Racine Avenue in North Oakland. During the 1850s, Francis Shattuck and three others laid claim to four adjoining strips of land in what is now downtown Berkeley. The new road was out from where Strawberry Creek intersected the old Temescal Road, thence along the new alignment. The road became known as Shattucks Road, the creek and Shattucks home were situated along what is now Allston Way. This map proposed names for several streets in a pattern, incorporating the alignment of Shattucks Road. By the time of the incorporation of the Town of Berkeley in 1878, by that time also, it had been extended northward to Rose Street. Additionally, the Central Pacific, at Shattucks urging, had constructed its Berkeley Branch Railroad which merged into Shattuck at Adeline Avenue, in later years, this line was assigned to the Southern Pacific and eventually electrified and extended. Streetcars and transbay trains of the competing Key System also ran on Shattuck in Berkeley, in North Berkeley, Shattuck Avenue is the location of the Gourmet Ghetto, an unofficial district known for its density of restaurants. From there the street south to Downtown Berkeley. Shattuck is an important north-south arterial roadway for northern Alameda County connecting the downtowns of Berkeley, in the early 20th Century the road included commuter train and streetcar tracks. Today BART carries commuters on the second most popular line underneath the pavement
40.
Berkeley, California
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Berkeley is a city on the east shore of San Francisco Bay in northern Alameda County, California. It is named after the 18th-century Anglo-Irish bishop and philosopher George Berkeley and it borders the cities of Oakland and Emeryville to the south and the city of Albany and the unincorporated community of Kensington to the north. Its eastern border with Contra Costa County generally follows the ridge of the Berkeley Hills, the 2010 census recorded a population of 112,580. It also has the Graduate Theological Union, one of the largest religious studies institutions in the world and it is one of the most politically liberal cities in the United States. The site of todays City of Berkeley was the territory of the Chochenyo/Huchiun band of the Ohlone people when the first Europeans arrived, other artifacts were discovered in the 1950s in the downtown area during remodeling of a commercial building, near the upper course of the creek. The first people of European descent arrived with the De Anza Expedition in 1776, today, this is noted by signage on Interstate 80, which runs along the San Francisco Bay shoreline of Berkeley. The De Anza Expedition led to establishment of the Spanish Presidio of San Francisco at the entrance to San Francisco Bay, luis Peralta was among the soldiers at the Presidio. For his services to the King of Spain, he was granted a vast stretch of land on the east shore of San Francisco Bay for a ranch, luis Peralta named his holding Rancho San Antonio. The primary activity of the ranch was raising cattle for meat and hides, eventually, Peralta gave portions of the ranch to each of his four sons. What is now Berkeley lies mostly in the portion that went to Peraltas son Domingo, with a little in the portion that went to another son, no artifact survives of the Domingo or Vicente ranches, but their names survive in Berkeley street names. However, legal title to all land in the City of Berkeley remains based on the original Peralta land grant, the Peraltas Rancho San Antonio continued after Alta California passed from Spanish to Mexican sovereignty after the Mexican War of Independence. The lands of the brothers Domingo and Vicente were quickly reduced to reservations close to their respective ranch homes, the rest of the land was surveyed and parceled out to various American claimants. Politically, the area that became Berkeley was initially part of a vast Contra Costa County, on March 25,1853, Alameda County was created from a division within Contra Costa County, as well as from a small portion of Santa Clara County. The area of Berkeley was at this period mostly a mix of land, farms and ranches. It was not yet Berkeley, but merely the part of the Oakland Township subdivision of Alameda County. In 1866, Oaklands private College of California looked for a new site, according to the Centennial Record of the University of California, In 1866…at Founders Rock, a group of College of California men watched two ships standing out to sea through the Golden Gate. Although the philosophers name is pronounced bark-lee, the pronunciation of the name has evolved to suit American English as burk-lee. The College of Californias College Homestead Association planned to raise funds for the new campus by selling off adjacent parcels of land, to this end, they laid out a plat and street grid that became the basis of Berkeleys modern street plan
41.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
42.
Smart electric drive
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The Smart Fortwo electric drive, or smart ed, is a battery electric vehicle variant of the Smart Fortwo city car, formerly marketed as the Smart Fortwo EV. Field testing began in London with 100 units in 2007, the second generation was introduced in 2009 and was available in 18 markets around the world for leasing or through the Car2Go carsharing service in selected cities, with over 2,300 units delivered. A near production version was unveiled at the September 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show, deliveries of the third-generation Smart began in the U. S. and Europe from May 2013, and Smart plans to mass-produce the electric car with availability in 30 markets worldwide. More than 8,800 units of the second and third generation Smart ED have been sold in North America, the first Smart electric drive vehicles were modified by Zytek Electric Vehicles. It is powered by a motor driving the rear wheels. It runs on 13.2 kilowatt hours of sodium-nickel chloride Zebra batteries, field testing began in London with 100 vehicles in 2007 and was available only for lease to corporate clients for £375 per month. Daimler initially planned to build 1,000 vehicles, but as demand exceeded the company’s expectations, the electric cars were available for leasing or through the Car2Go carsharing service in San Diego, Amsterdam and Vancouver. Production of the second-generation Smart Fortwo electric drive began in November 2009 in Smartville, Hambach, the Smart EDs have a lithium-ion battery provided by Tesla Motors with capacity of 14 kilowatt-hours. The range of a charged battery is up to 135 kilometres under the New European Driving Cycle cycle. As part of a three-phase roll-out program, phase two began with testing in Berlin in December 2009 with 100 units out of 300 that will be deploy in Germany. In October 2010,250 units were available for field testing in several cities in the United States. Testing also was conducted in Canada, and in 2011 in selected markets in Asia, phase three of the program is mass production, which was scheduled to begin with the 2012 model year. In the United States sales were scheduled to begin in 2012 with the 2013 model year, on July 2011 an agreement was reached between Daimler AG and Robert Bosch GmbH to develop and produce innovative traction motors for electric vehicles. Based on this joint venture, Daimler planned to use the improved traction motors with the new generation of Smart electric drive cars scheduled to go on sale in 2012. Power,20 kW continuous, peak power output of 30 kW for approximately 2 minutes Torque,120 newton metres Battery capacity,16 and it can also be charged using a common US household 110 V outlet. The car has a 3.3 kW on-board charger for this level 1 and 2 charging, Smart claims a 0-to-60 kilometres per hour time of 6.5 seconds, the same as for the gasoline version. It has a single fixed-gear ratio transmission and is about 308 lb heavier than a gasoline-powered Fortwo, over 2,300 units of the second generation models were leased between 2009 and October 2012 in 18 markets around the world. Of these,1,721 units were registered in Europe through October 2012, the trial program in the US began in January 2011 with the first customer delivery in Washington, DC
43.
Electric car
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An electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric motors, using electrical energy stored in rechargeable batteries or another energy storage device. Electric motors give electric cars instant torque, creating strong and smooth acceleration and they are also around three times as efficient as cars with an internal combustion engine. The first practical electric cars were produced in the 1880s, Electric cars are significantly quieter than conventional internal combustion engine automobiles. They do not emit tailpipe pollutants, giving a reduction of local air pollution. They also provide for independence from oil, which in several countries is cause for concern about vulnerability to oil price volatility. Recharging can take a time and in many places there is a patchy recharging infrastructure. For long distance driving, many cars support fast charging that can give around 80% charge in half an hour using public rapid chargers, drivers can also sometimes suffer from range anxiety- the fear that the batteries will be depleted before reaching their destination. Cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric vehicles passed the one million milestone in September 2016. About 61% of the stock of 2 million light-duty plug-in electric vehicles by the end of 2016 were pure electric cars. The worlds all-time top selling electric car is the Nissan Leaf, released in December 2010. The Tesla Model S, released in June 2012, ranks second with global sales of over 158,000 units through December 2016, the Model S has been the worlds top selling plug-in car for two years in a row,2015 and 2016. Electric cars are a variety of electric vehicle, the term electric vehicle refers to any vehicle that uses electric motors for propulsion, while electric car generally refers to highway-capable automobiles powered by electricity. Thus, a car that derives its power from an on-board battery pack is a form of battery electric vehicle. Most often, the electric car is used to refer to battery electric vehicles. Thomas Parker built the first practical production electric car in London in 1884, the Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888 by German inventor Andreas Flocken is regarded as the first real electric car of the world. The electric vehicle stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at the turn of the 20th century, advances in internal combustion engines in the first decade of the 20th century lessened the relative advantages of the electric car. These cars were withdrawn from the U. S. market. California electric automaker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on the Tesla Roadster, the Roadster was the first highway legal serial production all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km per charge
44.
Autolib'
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Autolib is an electric car sharing service which was inaugurated in Paris, France, in December 2011. It is operated by the Bolloré industrial group, and complements the citys bike sharing scheme, Velib, the Autolib scheme maintains a fleet of all-electric Bolloré Bluecars for public use on a paid subscription basis, employing a citywide network of parking and charging stations. Since beginning operations in Paris, Autolib has expanded its business to the cities of Lyon, Bolloré has also signed deals to begin operating offshoots of Autolib in London and Indianapolis in 2015. The Autolib system is a follow-up to Paris successful Velib bike sharing scheme, the systems electric cars are supplied by the Bolloré industrial group, as the result of a collaboration with the Italian automotive firm Pininfarina. There are also plans to integrate payment for the bicycle and car hire schemes with the systems for traditional modes of public transport. In May 2012, Vincent Bolloré, the head of the Bolloré group, construction of the Autolib stations began in mid-2011, and 66 of the schemes Bolloré Bluecars were deployed for a two-month preliminary trial period between October and December 2011. At the schemes inception, car availability was a problematic issue, moreover, by early January 2012, up to 40 of the 250 cars in the initial fleet had been temporarily withdrawn from service to repair vandalism or malfunctions. By July 2012,650 parking and charging stations had been deployed around Paris and the 46 communes participating in the scheme, and by February 2013 there were 4,000 charging points. The programs user base grew from 6,000 subscribers at the end of December 2011 to 27,000 in July 2012, over 2,000 Bolloré Bluecars had been registered for Autolib by September 2013. By late September 2012, Autolibs fleet reached the milestone of 500,000 rentals since its launch, by mid-October 2013, the service had provided over 3 million rentals, with an average of 10,000 rentals per day. By July 2014, Autolib had 2,500 operational vehicles and over 150,000 subscribers, in December 2009, the car-rental company Europcar brought the City of Paris to court, arguing that the Autolib name was a plagiarism and unfair competition by the city. Europcar is the owner of the rental car subscription service Autoliberté. The case was dismissed in March 2011 by the High Court of Paris, on 30 June 2012, the Paris Court of Appeal set aside the judgment of the High Court, and ruled that within a month Autolib had to change its name because it breached trademark laws. The ruling implied that the name had to be changed on all 1,800 Autolib cars, docking stations and subscriber cards, after the ruling, the City of Paris and Europcar began negotiating an agreement to solve the brand name conflict. In November 2012, an agreement was reached to keep the Autolib brand name, the agreement was signed for three years. On 14 October 2013, a Bluecar was destroyed by fire while charging at an Autolib kiosk in Paris, a police investigation was subsequently conducted to ascertain the cause of the fire. According to Bolloré, the real-time telemetric monitoring system did not register a thermal runaway problem with the battery when the fire started. The company is attributing the origin of the fire to an external cause, Bolloré reported that a total of 25 Autolib Bluecars have burnt out since the schemes inception, with most of the incidents certified as attributed to vandals
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Mitsubishi i-MiEV
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The Mitsubishi i-MiEV is a five-door hatchback electric car produced by Mitsubishi Motors, and is the electric version of the Mitsubishi i. Rebadged variants of the i-MiEV are also sold in Europe by PSA Peugeot Citroën as the Peugeot iOn, the i-MiEV is the worlds first modern highway-capable mass production electric car. The i-MiEV was launched for customers in Japan in July 2009. International sales to Asia, Australia and Europe started in 2010, with markers in 2011 including Central. Fleet and retail deliveries in the U. S. The American-only version, called i, is larger than the Japanese version and has additional features. According to the manufacturer, the i-MiEV all-electric range is 160 kilometres on the Japanese test cycle, the range for the 2012 model year American version is 62 miles on the United States Environmental Protection Agencys cycle. As of June 2016, about 37,600 i-MiEV family passenger cars have been sold worldwide since 2009. As of early March 2015, and accounting for all variants of the i-MiEV, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, based on the Mitsubishi i kei car, was first exhibited at the 22nd International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium & Exposition in Yokohama. Mitsubishi eschews the in-wheel motors in favour of a more conventional array of batteries, motor and inverter to replace the rear midship engine and fuel tank of the conventional car. Mitsubishi Motors provided three companies with vehicles in 2006 and 2007 in order to conduct joint research to evaluate how fast-charge infrastructure may be developed for EVs. Fleet testing by five companies was conducted in 2007. The car had a range of 130 kilometres for the 16 kW•h lithium-ion battery pack and 160 kilometres for the 20 kW•h pack, top speed was 130 kilometres per hour. Plans were announced in 2008 to sell the i-MiEV in European markets as the Peugeot iOn, Mitsubishi began supplying the electric cars to PSA Peugeot Citroën since 2010, and PSA has a contractual commitment to buy 100,000 i-MiEVs over a period that remained confidential. The production version of the 2009 i-MiEV has a permanent magnet synchronous motor mounted on the rear axle with a power output of 47 kW. The motor is cooled, there is a conventional automobile radiator in the front of the car with an electric fan. The coolant level is monitored via a tank under the rear load platform on the hand side of the vehicle. The vehicle uses a reduction gear transmission driving the rear wheels and has a 16 kWh lithium-ion battery pack
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Bilbao
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Bilbao is a city in northern Spain, the largest city in the province of Biscay and in the Basque Country as a whole. Bilbao is the tenth largest city in Spain, with a population of 345,141 As of 2015, Bilbao is also the main urban area in what is defined as the Greater Basque region. Bilbao is situated in the part of Spain, some 16 kilometres south of the Bay of Biscay, where the economic social development is located. Its main urban core is surrounded by two mountain ranges with an average elevation of 400 metres. This was due to its port activity based on the export of iron extracted from the Biscayan quarries, at the same time an extraordinary population explosion prompted the annexation of several adjacent municipalities. The official name of the town is Bilbao, as known in most languages of the world, there is no consensus among historians about the origin of the name. Generally accepted accounts state that prior to the 12th century the independent rulers of the territory, the symbols of their patrimony are the tower and church used in the shield of Bilbao to this day. One possible origin was suggested by the engineer Evaristo de Churruca and he said that it was a Basque custom to name a place after its location. For Bilbao this would be the result of the union of the Basque words for river and cove, the historian José Tussel Gómez argues that it is just a natural evolution of the Spanish words bello vado, beautiful river crossing. On the other hand, according to the writer Esteban Calle Iturrino, the first, where the present Casco Viejo is located, would be called billa, which means stacking in Basque, after the configuration of the buildings. The second, on the bank, where now Bilbao La Vieja is located, would be called vaho. From the union of these two derives the name Bilbao, which was written as Bilvao and Biluao, as documented in its municipal charter. An -ao ending is present in nearby Sestao and Ugao. Titles Bilbao holds the historic category of borough, with the titles of «Very noble and very loyal and it was the Catholic Monarchs who awarded the title «Noble borough» on 20 September 1475. Philip III of Spain, via a letter in 1603 awarded the borough the titles of «Very noble, after the Siege of Bilbao, during the First Carlist War, on 25 December 1836, the title of «Unbeaten» was added. Remains of an ancient settlement were found on the top of Mount Malmasín, burial sites were also found on Mounts Avril and Artxanda, dated 6,000 years old. Some authors identify the old settlement of Bilbao as Amanun Portus, cited by Pliny the Elder, or with Flaviobriga, ancient walls, which date from around the 11th century, have been discovered below the Church of San Antón. On 21 June 1511, Queen Joanna of Castile ordered the creation of the Consulate of Bilbao and this would become the most influential institution of the borough for centuries, and would claim jurisdiction over the estuary, improving its infrastructure
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