1.
Napoleon III
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Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was the only President of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I and he was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. He remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution, during the first years of the Empire, Napoleons government imposed censorship and harsh repressive measures against his opponents. Some six thousand were imprisoned or sent to penal colonies until 1859, thousands more went into voluntary exile abroad, including Victor Hugo. From 1862 onwards, he relaxed government censorship, and his came to be known as the Liberal Empire. Many of his opponents returned to France and became members of the National Assembly, Napoleon III is best known today for his grand reconstruction of Paris, carried out by his prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann. He launched similar public works projects in Marseille, Lyon, Napoleon III modernized the French banking system, greatly expanded and consolidated the French railway system, and made the French merchant marine the second largest in the world. He promoted the building of the Suez Canal and established modern agriculture, Napoleon III negotiated the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier free trade agreement with Britain and similar agreements with Frances other European trading partners. Social reforms included giving French workers the right to strike and the right to organize, womens education greatly expanded, as did the list of required subjects in public schools. In foreign policy, Napoleon III aimed to reassert French influence in Europe and he was a supporter of popular sovereignty and of nationalism. In Europe, he allied with Britain and defeated Russia in the Crimean War and his regime assisted Italian unification and, in doing so, annexed Savoy and the County of Nice to France, at the same time, his forces defended the Papal States against annexation by Italy. Napoleon doubled the area of the French overseas empire in Asia, the Pacific, on the other hand, his armys intervention in Mexico which aimed to create a Second Mexican Empire under French protection ended in failure. Beginning in 1866, Napoleon had to face the power of Prussia. In July 1870, Napoleon entered the Franco-Prussian War without allies, the French army was rapidly defeated and Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan. The French Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris, and Napoleon went into exile in England, charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, later known as Louis Napoleon and then Napoleon III, was born in Paris on the night of 20–21 April 1808. His presumed father was Louis Bonaparte, the brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleons wife Joséphine de Beauharnais, as empress, Joséphine proposed the marriage as a way to produce an heir for the Emperor, who agreed, as Joséphine was by then infertile. Louis married Hortense when he was twenty-four and she was nineteen and they had a difficult relationship, and only lived together for brief periods
2.
Visiting card
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A visiting card, also known as a calling card, is a small card with ones name printed on it, and often bearing an artistic design. Visiting cards became a tool of etiquette, with sophisticated rules governing their use. The essential convention was one person would not expect to see another person in his own home without first leaving his visiting card for the person at his home. Upon leaving the card, he would not expect to be admitted at first and this would serve as a signal that a personal visit and meeting at home would be welcome. On the other hand, if no card was forthcoming, or if a card was sent in an envelope, a personal visit was thereby discouraged. As an adoption from France, they were called une carte dadresse from 1615 to 1800, visiting cards became common among the aristocracy of Europe, and also in the United States. The whole procedure depended upon there being servants to open the door and receive the cards and it was, therefore, if a card was left with a turned corner it indicated that the card had been left in person rather than by a servant. Next day Paul found Stubbs card on his table, the turned up. Paul went to Hertford to call on Stubbs, but found him out and he left his card, the corner turned up. Some visiting cards included refined engraved ornaments, embossed lettering, however, the standard form visiting card in the 19th century in the United Kingdom was a plain card with nothing more than the bearers name on it. Sometimes the name of a gentlemens club might be added, visiting cards were kept in highly decorated card cases. The visiting card is no longer the feature of upper middle class and upper class life that it once was in Europe. Much more common is the card, in which contact details, including address. This has led to the inclusion of such details even on modern domestic visiting cards, a practice endorsed by modern books of etiquette, such as Debretts New Etiquette
3.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
4.
Albumen print
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During the mid-19th century, the carte de visite became one of the more popular uses of the albumen method. In the 19th century, E. & H. T. Anthony & Company were the largest makers and distributors of the Albumen photographic prints, a piece of paper, usually 100% cotton, is coated with an emulsion of egg white and salt, then dried. The albumen seals the paper and creates a slightly glossy surface for the sensitizer to rest on, the paper is then dipped in a solution of silver nitrate and water which renders the surface sensitive to UV light. The paper is then dried in the absence of UV light, the dried, prepared paper is placed in a frame in direct contact under a negative. The negative is traditionally a glass negative with collodion emulsion, but this step can be performed with a silver halide negative. The paper with negative is then exposed to light until the image achieves the level of darkness. Though direct sunlight was used long ago, a UV exposure unit is often used contemporarily because it is more predictable, a bath of sodium thiosulfate fixes the print’s exposure, preventing further darkening. Optional gold or selenium toning improves the photograph’s tone and stabilizes against fading, depending on the toner, toning may be performed before or after fixing the print. Because the image emerges as a result of exposure to light, without the aid of a developing solution. The table salt in the emulsion forms silver chloride when in contact with silver nitrate. Silver chloride is unstable when exposed to light, which makes it decompose into silver, the silver ion is reduced to silver by addition of an electron during the development/printing process, and the remaining silver chloride is washed out during fixing. The black parts of the image are formed by metallic silver, photography, the importance of its applications in preserving pictorial records. Containing a practical description of the Talbotype process, george Eastman House Photographic Process 3. Albumen printing, Creating and processing albumen paper, archived from the original on 2009-01-07
5.
Cabinet card
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The cabinet card was a style of photograph which was widely used for photographic portraiture after 1870. It consisted of a thin photograph mounted on a card typically measuring 108 by 165 mm, the carte de visite was quickly replaced by the larger cabinet card. In the early 1860s, both types of photographs were essentially the same in process and design, however, later into its popularity, other types of papers began to replace the albumen process. Despite the similarity, the cabinet card format was used for landscape views before it was adopted for portraiture. Some cabinet card images from the 1890s have the appearance of a photograph in contrast to the distinctive sepia toning notable in the albumen print process. These photographs have a neutral tone and were most likely produced on a matte collodion. Sometimes images from this period can be identified by a greenish cast, gelatin papers were introduced in the 1870s and started gaining acceptance in the 1880s and 1890s as the gelatin bromide papers became popular. Matte collodion was used in the same period, a true black-and-white image on a cabinet card is likely to have been produced in the 1890s or after 1900. The last cabinet cards were produced in the 1920s, even as late as 1924, the cabinet card was large enough to be easily viewed from across the room when typically displayed on a cabinet, which is probably why they became known as such in the vernacular. However, when the renowned Civil War photographer Mathew Brady first started offering them to his clientele towards the end of 1865, whatever the name, the popular print format joined the photograph album as a fixture in the late 19th-century Victorian parlor. Ironically, early into its introduction, the cabinet card ushered in the demise of the photographic album which had come into existence commercially with the carte de visite. Photographers began employing artists to retouch photographs by altering the negative before making the print to hide facial defects revealed by the new format, small stands and photograph frames for the table top replaced the heavy photograph album. Photo album manufacturers responded by producing albums with pages primarily for cabinet cards with a few pages in the reserved for the old family carte de visite prints. For nearly three decades after the 1860s, the commercial industry was dominated by the carte de visite. In the decade before 1900, the number and variety of card photograph styles expanded in response to declining sales, manufactures of standardized card stock and print materials hoped to stimulate sales and retain public interest in card photographs. First used for views, then eventually adapted for portraits. Although not uncommon in the 1870s, the card did not displace the carte de visite completely until the 1880s. As snapshot and personal photography became commonplace among the public, the popularity of the cabinet card, unmounted paper prints and the scrapbook albums started replacing them
6.
Brownie (camera)
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Brownie is the name of a long-running popular series of simple and inexpensive cameras made by Eastman Kodak. The Brownie camera, introduced in February 1900, invented low-cost photography by introducing the concept of the snapshot to the masses, the Brownie was a very basic cardboard box camera with a simple meniscus lens that took 2 1/4-inch square pictures on 117 roll film. The Brownie camera was conceived and marketed for sales of Kodak roll films, because of its simple controls and initial price of $1 along with the low price of Kodak roll film and processing, The Brownie camera achieved and surpassed its marketing goal. The Brownie is among the most important cameras in history, the first model of the camera was invented by Frank A. Brownell. The name comes from the brownies in popular Palmer Cox cartoons, consumers responded, and over 150,000 Brownie cameras were shipped in the first year of production. An improved model, called No.2 Brownie came in 1901, in 1908, the Austrian architectural critic Joseph August Lux wrote a book called Künstlerische Kodakgeheimnisse in which he championed the use of the camera for its cultural potential. Brownies were extensively marketed to children, with Kodak using them to popularise photography and they were also taken to war by soldiers. As they were so ubiquitous, many shots were taken on brownies. The cameras continued to be popular, and spawned many varieties, improvements continued, such as in 1940, when Kodak released the Six-20 Flash Brownie. The camera was Kodaks first internally synchronized flash camera, using General electric bulbs, then in 1957, Kodak produced the Brownie Starflash, Kodaks first camera with a built in flash. One of the most popular Brownie models was the Brownie 127, the Brownie 127 was a simple bakelite camera for 127 film which featured a simple meniscus lens and a curved film plane to compensate for the deficiencies of the lens. Another simple camera was the Brownie Cresta which was sold between 1955 and 1958 and it used 120 film and had a fixed-focus lens. The last official Brownie cameras made were anniversary model,110 film models in the early 1980s, the Kodak Brownie Number 2 is a box camera that was manufactured by the Eastman Kodak Company from 1901 to 1935. There were five models, A through F, and it was the first camera to use 120 film and it also came with a viewfinder and a handle. The Brownie Number 2 was made of three materials, cardboard, costing US$2.00, aluminum, costing US$2.75, and it was a very popular and affordable camera, and many are still in use by film photographers. The Beau Brownie range was available from 1930 to 1933, visually, they had a different enameled two-tone front plate in a geometric Art Deco design, the work of American designer Walter Dorwin Teague. They were available in five color combinations, black and burgundy, brown and tan, two-tone blue, two-tone green, the rose and green cameras were produced only in 1930 and 1931, and are therefore rarer than the others. They were encased in a faux-leatherette casing
7.
Snapshot (photography)
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A snapshot is popularly defined as a photograph that is shot spontaneously and quickly, most often without artistic or journalistic intent. Snapshots are commonly considered to be imperfect or amateurish—out of focus or poorly framed or composed. Common snapshot subjects include the events of life, such as birthday parties and other celebrations, sunsets, children playing, group photos, pets, tourist attractions. The snapshot concept was introduced to the public on a large scale by Eastman Kodak, Kodak encouraged families to use the Brownie to capture moments in time and to shoot photos without being concerned with producing perfect images. Kodak advertising urged consumers to celebrate the moments of your life, expert photographers, who are better able to control the focus point, may use shallow depth of field to achieve more pleasing images by blurring the background and making the subject stand out. Candid photography Snapshot aesthetic Vernacular photography
8.
John Wilkes Booth
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John Wilkes Booth was an American actor and assassin, who murdered President Abraham Lincoln at Fords Theatre in Washington, D. C. on April 14,1865. Booth was a member of the prominent 19th-century Booth theatrical family from Maryland and and he was also a Confederate sympathizer, vehement in his denunciation of Lincoln, and strongly opposed to the abolition of slavery in the United States. Of the conspirators, only Booth was completely successful in carrying out his part of the plot and he shot Lincoln once in the back of the head, and the President died the next morning. Seward was severely wounded but recovered, and Vice-President Johnson was never attacked at all, following the assassination, Booth fled on horseback to southern Maryland, eventually making his way to a farm in rural northern Virginia 12 days later, where he was tracked down. Booths companion gave himself up, but Booth refused and was shot by Boston Corbett, eight other conspirators or suspects were tried and convicted, and four were hanged shortly thereafter. Booths parents were noted British Shakespearean actor Junius Brutus Booth and his mistress Mary Ann Holmes and they purchased a 150-acre farm near Bel Air, Maryland, where John Wilkes Booth was born in a four-room log house on May 10,1838, the ninth of ten children. He was named after English radical politician John Wilkes, a distant relative, Junius wife Adelaide Delannoy Booth was granted a divorce in 1851 on grounds of adultery, and Holmes legally wed Junius on May 10,1851, the youths 13th birthday. As a boy, Booth was athletic and popular, and he became skilled at horsemanship, each day he rode back and forth from farm to school, taking more interest in what happened along the way than in reaching his classes on time. At the Milton school, students recited classical works by authors as Cicero, Herodotus. Students at St. Timothys wore military uniforms and were subject to a regimen of daily formation drills, Booth left school at 14, after his fathers death. His sister recalled that Booth wrote down the palm-readers prediction, showed it to his family and others, Booth aspired to follow in the footsteps of his father and his actor brothers Edwin and Junius Brutus, Jr. He began practicing elocution daily in the woods around Tudor Hall, the editors introduction of the 1874 memoir of Booths sister Asia Booth Clarke states that no individual church was preeminent in the Booth household during her childhood. Booths mother was Episcopalian, and his father was described as a spirit who was open to the great teachings of all religions. On January 23,1853, the 14-year-old Booth was baptized at St. Timothys Protestant Episcopal Church, the Booth family had traditionally been Episcopalian. Clergyman Charles Chiniquy, however, stated that Booth was really a convert to Roman Catholicism later in life, historian Constance Head also declared that Booth was of this religion. Testimony given at the trial of John Surratt showed that at his death, Booth had a Catholic medal on his person, Court evidence showed his attending a Roman Catholic church service on at least two occasions. Like his sister Asia, he received education at a school established by an official of the Catholic Church, Constance Head states, In any case, it seems certain that Booth did not publicize his conversion during his lifetime. Booth made his debut at age 17 on August 14,1855 in the supporting role of the Earl of Richmond in Richard III at Baltimores Charles Street Theatre
