1.
Napoleon III
–
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was the only President of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I and he was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. He remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution, during the first years of the Empire, Napoleons government imposed censorship and harsh repressive measures against his opponents. Some six thousand were imprisoned or sent to penal colonies until 1859, thousands more went into voluntary exile abroad, including Victor Hugo. From 1862 onwards, he relaxed government censorship, and his came to be known as the Liberal Empire. Many of his opponents returned to France and became members of the National Assembly, Napoleon III is best known today for his grand reconstruction of Paris, carried out by his prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann. He launched similar public works projects in Marseille, Lyon, Napoleon III modernized the French banking system, greatly expanded and consolidated the French railway system, and made the French merchant marine the second largest in the world. He promoted the building of the Suez Canal and established modern agriculture, Napoleon III negotiated the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier free trade agreement with Britain and similar agreements with Frances other European trading partners. Social reforms included giving French workers the right to strike and the right to organize, womens education greatly expanded, as did the list of required subjects in public schools. In foreign policy, Napoleon III aimed to reassert French influence in Europe and he was a supporter of popular sovereignty and of nationalism. In Europe, he allied with Britain and defeated Russia in the Crimean War and his regime assisted Italian unification and, in doing so, annexed Savoy and the County of Nice to France, at the same time, his forces defended the Papal States against annexation by Italy. Napoleon doubled the area of the French overseas empire in Asia, the Pacific, on the other hand, his armys intervention in Mexico which aimed to create a Second Mexican Empire under French protection ended in failure. Beginning in 1866, Napoleon had to face the power of Prussia. In July 1870, Napoleon entered the Franco-Prussian War without allies, the French army was rapidly defeated and Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan. The French Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris, and Napoleon went into exile in England, charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, later known as Louis Napoleon and then Napoleon III, was born in Paris on the night of 20–21 April 1808. His presumed father was Louis Bonaparte, the brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleons wife Joséphine de Beauharnais, as empress, Joséphine proposed the marriage as a way to produce an heir for the Emperor, who agreed, as Joséphine was by then infertile. Louis married Hortense when he was twenty-four and she was nineteen and they had a difficult relationship, and only lived together for brief periods
2.
Visiting card
–
A visiting card, also known as a calling card, is a small card with ones name printed on it, and often bearing an artistic design. Visiting cards became a tool of etiquette, with sophisticated rules governing their use. The essential convention was one person would not expect to see another person in his own home without first leaving his visiting card for the person at his home. Upon leaving the card, he would not expect to be admitted at first and this would serve as a signal that a personal visit and meeting at home would be welcome. On the other hand, if no card was forthcoming, or if a card was sent in an envelope, a personal visit was thereby discouraged. As an adoption from France, they were called une carte dadresse from 1615 to 1800, visiting cards became common among the aristocracy of Europe, and also in the United States. The whole procedure depended upon there being servants to open the door and receive the cards and it was, therefore, if a card was left with a turned corner it indicated that the card had been left in person rather than by a servant. Next day Paul found Stubbs card on his table, the turned up. Paul went to Hertford to call on Stubbs, but found him out and he left his card, the corner turned up. Some visiting cards included refined engraved ornaments, embossed lettering, however, the standard form visiting card in the 19th century in the United Kingdom was a plain card with nothing more than the bearers name on it. Sometimes the name of a gentlemens club might be added, visiting cards were kept in highly decorated card cases. The visiting card is no longer the feature of upper middle class and upper class life that it once was in Europe. Much more common is the card, in which contact details, including address. This has led to the inclusion of such details even on modern domestic visiting cards, a practice endorsed by modern books of etiquette, such as Debretts New Etiquette
3.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
4.
Albumen print
–
During the mid-19th century, the carte de visite became one of the more popular uses of the albumen method. In the 19th century, E. & H. T. Anthony & Company were the largest makers and distributors of the Albumen photographic prints, a piece of paper, usually 100% cotton, is coated with an emulsion of egg white and salt, then dried. The albumen seals the paper and creates a slightly glossy surface for the sensitizer to rest on, the paper is then dipped in a solution of silver nitrate and water which renders the surface sensitive to UV light. The paper is then dried in the absence of UV light, the dried, prepared paper is placed in a frame in direct contact under a negative. The negative is traditionally a glass negative with collodion emulsion, but this step can be performed with a silver halide negative. The paper with negative is then exposed to light until the image achieves the level of darkness. Though direct sunlight was used long ago, a UV exposure unit is often used contemporarily because it is more predictable, a bath of sodium thiosulfate fixes the print’s exposure, preventing further darkening. Optional gold or selenium toning improves the photograph’s tone and stabilizes against fading, depending on the toner, toning may be performed before or after fixing the print. Because the image emerges as a result of exposure to light, without the aid of a developing solution. The table salt in the emulsion forms silver chloride when in contact with silver nitrate. Silver chloride is unstable when exposed to light, which makes it decompose into silver, the silver ion is reduced to silver by addition of an electron during the development/printing process, and the remaining silver chloride is washed out during fixing. The black parts of the image are formed by metallic silver, photography, the importance of its applications in preserving pictorial records. Containing a practical description of the Talbotype process, george Eastman House Photographic Process 3. Albumen printing, Creating and processing albumen paper, archived from the original on 2009-01-07
5.
Cabinet card
–
The cabinet card was a style of photograph which was widely used for photographic portraiture after 1870. It consisted of a thin photograph mounted on a card typically measuring 108 by 165 mm, the carte de visite was quickly replaced by the larger cabinet card. In the early 1860s, both types of photographs were essentially the same in process and design, however, later into its popularity, other types of papers began to replace the albumen process. Despite the similarity, the cabinet card format was used for landscape views before it was adopted for portraiture. Some cabinet card images from the 1890s have the appearance of a photograph in contrast to the distinctive sepia toning notable in the albumen print process. These photographs have a neutral tone and were most likely produced on a matte collodion. Sometimes images from this period can be identified by a greenish cast, gelatin papers were introduced in the 1870s and started gaining acceptance in the 1880s and 1890s as the gelatin bromide papers became popular. Matte collodion was used in the same period, a true black-and-white image on a cabinet card is likely to have been produced in the 1890s or after 1900. The last cabinet cards were produced in the 1920s, even as late as 1924, the cabinet card was large enough to be easily viewed from across the room when typically displayed on a cabinet, which is probably why they became known as such in the vernacular. However, when the renowned Civil War photographer Mathew Brady first started offering them to his clientele towards the end of 1865, whatever the name, the popular print format joined the photograph album as a fixture in the late 19th-century Victorian parlor. Ironically, early into its introduction, the cabinet card ushered in the demise of the photographic album which had come into existence commercially with the carte de visite. Photographers began employing artists to retouch photographs by altering the negative before making the print to hide facial defects revealed by the new format, small stands and photograph frames for the table top replaced the heavy photograph album. Photo album manufacturers responded by producing albums with pages primarily for cabinet cards with a few pages in the reserved for the old family carte de visite prints. For nearly three decades after the 1860s, the commercial industry was dominated by the carte de visite. In the decade before 1900, the number and variety of card photograph styles expanded in response to declining sales, manufactures of standardized card stock and print materials hoped to stimulate sales and retain public interest in card photographs. First used for views, then eventually adapted for portraits. Although not uncommon in the 1870s, the card did not displace the carte de visite completely until the 1880s. As snapshot and personal photography became commonplace among the public, the popularity of the cabinet card, unmounted paper prints and the scrapbook albums started replacing them
6.
Brownie (camera)
–
Brownie is the name of a long-running popular series of simple and inexpensive cameras made by Eastman Kodak. The Brownie camera, introduced in February 1900, invented low-cost photography by introducing the concept of the snapshot to the masses, the Brownie was a very basic cardboard box camera with a simple meniscus lens that took 2 1/4-inch square pictures on 117 roll film. The Brownie camera was conceived and marketed for sales of Kodak roll films, because of its simple controls and initial price of $1 along with the low price of Kodak roll film and processing, The Brownie camera achieved and surpassed its marketing goal. The Brownie is among the most important cameras in history, the first model of the camera was invented by Frank A. Brownell. The name comes from the brownies in popular Palmer Cox cartoons, consumers responded, and over 150,000 Brownie cameras were shipped in the first year of production. An improved model, called No.2 Brownie came in 1901, in 1908, the Austrian architectural critic Joseph August Lux wrote a book called Künstlerische Kodakgeheimnisse in which he championed the use of the camera for its cultural potential. Brownies were extensively marketed to children, with Kodak using them to popularise photography and they were also taken to war by soldiers. As they were so ubiquitous, many shots were taken on brownies. The cameras continued to be popular, and spawned many varieties, improvements continued, such as in 1940, when Kodak released the Six-20 Flash Brownie. The camera was Kodaks first internally synchronized flash camera, using General electric bulbs, then in 1957, Kodak produced the Brownie Starflash, Kodaks first camera with a built in flash. One of the most popular Brownie models was the Brownie 127, the Brownie 127 was a simple bakelite camera for 127 film which featured a simple meniscus lens and a curved film plane to compensate for the deficiencies of the lens. Another simple camera was the Brownie Cresta which was sold between 1955 and 1958 and it used 120 film and had a fixed-focus lens. The last official Brownie cameras made were anniversary model,110 film models in the early 1980s, the Kodak Brownie Number 2 is a box camera that was manufactured by the Eastman Kodak Company from 1901 to 1935. There were five models, A through F, and it was the first camera to use 120 film and it also came with a viewfinder and a handle. The Brownie Number 2 was made of three materials, cardboard, costing US$2.00, aluminum, costing US$2.75, and it was a very popular and affordable camera, and many are still in use by film photographers. The Beau Brownie range was available from 1930 to 1933, visually, they had a different enameled two-tone front plate in a geometric Art Deco design, the work of American designer Walter Dorwin Teague. They were available in five color combinations, black and burgundy, brown and tan, two-tone blue, two-tone green, the rose and green cameras were produced only in 1930 and 1931, and are therefore rarer than the others. They were encased in a faux-leatherette casing
7.
Snapshot (photography)
–
A snapshot is popularly defined as a photograph that is shot spontaneously and quickly, most often without artistic or journalistic intent. Snapshots are commonly considered to be imperfect or amateurish—out of focus or poorly framed or composed. Common snapshot subjects include the events of life, such as birthday parties and other celebrations, sunsets, children playing, group photos, pets, tourist attractions. The snapshot concept was introduced to the public on a large scale by Eastman Kodak, Kodak encouraged families to use the Brownie to capture moments in time and to shoot photos without being concerned with producing perfect images. Kodak advertising urged consumers to celebrate the moments of your life, expert photographers, who are better able to control the focus point, may use shallow depth of field to achieve more pleasing images by blurring the background and making the subject stand out. Candid photography Snapshot aesthetic Vernacular photography
8.
John Wilkes Booth
–
John Wilkes Booth was an American actor and assassin, who murdered President Abraham Lincoln at Fords Theatre in Washington, D. C. on April 14,1865. Booth was a member of the prominent 19th-century Booth theatrical family from Maryland and and he was also a Confederate sympathizer, vehement in his denunciation of Lincoln, and strongly opposed to the abolition of slavery in the United States. Of the conspirators, only Booth was completely successful in carrying out his part of the plot and he shot Lincoln once in the back of the head, and the President died the next morning. Seward was severely wounded but recovered, and Vice-President Johnson was never attacked at all, following the assassination, Booth fled on horseback to southern Maryland, eventually making his way to a farm in rural northern Virginia 12 days later, where he was tracked down. Booths companion gave himself up, but Booth refused and was shot by Boston Corbett, eight other conspirators or suspects were tried and convicted, and four were hanged shortly thereafter. Booths parents were noted British Shakespearean actor Junius Brutus Booth and his mistress Mary Ann Holmes and they purchased a 150-acre farm near Bel Air, Maryland, where John Wilkes Booth was born in a four-room log house on May 10,1838, the ninth of ten children. He was named after English radical politician John Wilkes, a distant relative, Junius wife Adelaide Delannoy Booth was granted a divorce in 1851 on grounds of adultery, and Holmes legally wed Junius on May 10,1851, the youths 13th birthday. As a boy, Booth was athletic and popular, and he became skilled at horsemanship, each day he rode back and forth from farm to school, taking more interest in what happened along the way than in reaching his classes on time. At the Milton school, students recited classical works by authors as Cicero, Herodotus. Students at St. Timothys wore military uniforms and were subject to a regimen of daily formation drills, Booth left school at 14, after his fathers death. His sister recalled that Booth wrote down the palm-readers prediction, showed it to his family and others, Booth aspired to follow in the footsteps of his father and his actor brothers Edwin and Junius Brutus, Jr. He began practicing elocution daily in the woods around Tudor Hall, the editors introduction of the 1874 memoir of Booths sister Asia Booth Clarke states that no individual church was preeminent in the Booth household during her childhood. Booths mother was Episcopalian, and his father was described as a spirit who was open to the great teachings of all religions. On January 23,1853, the 14-year-old Booth was baptized at St. Timothys Protestant Episcopal Church, the Booth family had traditionally been Episcopalian. Clergyman Charles Chiniquy, however, stated that Booth was really a convert to Roman Catholicism later in life, historian Constance Head also declared that Booth was of this religion. Testimony given at the trial of John Surratt showed that at his death, Booth had a Catholic medal on his person, Court evidence showed his attending a Roman Catholic church service on at least two occasions. Like his sister Asia, he received education at a school established by an official of the Catholic Church, Constance Head states, In any case, it seems certain that Booth did not publicize his conversion during his lifetime. Booth made his debut at age 17 on August 14,1855 in the supporting role of the Earl of Richmond in Richard III at Baltimores Charles Street Theatre
9.
Alexander Gardner (photographer)
–
Alexander Gardner was a Scottish photographer who immigrated to the United States in 1856, where he began to work full-time in that profession. He is best known for his photographs of the American Civil War, U. S. President Abraham Lincoln, Alexander was born in Paisley, Renfrewshire, on 17 October 1821. He became a jeweller at the age of 14, lasting seven years. Gardner had a Church of Scotland upbringing and was influenced by the work of Robert Owen, Welsh socialist, by adulthood he desired to create a cooperative in the United States that would incorporate socialist values. In 1850, Gardner and others purchased land near Monona, Iowa, for this purpose and he stayed there until 1856, becoming owner and editor of the Glasgow Sentinel in 1851. Visiting The Great Exhibition in 1851 in Hyde Park, London, he saw the photography of American Mathew Brady, in 1856, Alex and his family immigrated to the United States. Finding that many friends and family members at the cooperative he had helped to form were dead or dying of tuberculosis and he initiated contact with Brady and came to work for him that year, continuing until 1862. At first, Gardner specialized in making large photographic prints, called Imperial photographs, in 1858, Brady put him in charge of his Washington, D. C. gallery. Abraham Lincoln became the American President in the November 1860 election, Gardner, being in Washington, was well-positioned for these events, and his popularity rose as a portrait photographer, capturing the visages of soldiers leaving for war. Brady had the idea to photograph the Civil War, Gardners relationship with Allan Pinkerton was the key to communicating Bradys ideas to Lincoln. Pinkerton recommended Gardner for the position of chief photographer under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Topographical Engineers, following that short appointment, Gardner became a staff photographer under General George B. McClellan, commander of the Army of the Potomac, at this point, Gardners management of Bradys gallery ended. The honorary rank of captain was bestowed upon Gardner, and he photographed the Battle of Antietam in September 1862, developing photos in his travelling darkroom. Gardner has often had his work misattributed to Brady, and despite his considerable output, Lincoln dismissed McClellan from command of the Army of the Potomac in November 1862, and Gardner’s role as chief army photographer diminished. About this time, Gardner ended his relationship with Brady. That winter, Gardner followed General Ambrose Burnside, photographing the Battle of Fredericksburg, next, he followed General Joseph Hooker. In May 1863, Gardner and his brother James opened their own studio in Washington, D. C, Gardner photographed the Battle of Gettysburg and the Siege of Petersburg during this time. In 1866, Gardner published a work, Gardners Photographic Sketch Book of the Civil War
10.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
11.
Abraham Lincoln
–
Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
12.
Ulysses S. Grant
–
Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term
13.
John Jabez Edwin Mayall
–
John Jabez Edwin Paisley Mayall was an English photographer who in 1860 took the first carte-de-visite photographs of Queen Victoria. Born on 17 September 1813, in Manchester, the county of Lancashire and he was the son of John and Elizabeth Meal. His father was a manufacturing chemist believed to have specialized in the production of dyes for the linen industry, by 1817 John Meal and his family were living at Lingards, near Huddersfield in the cloth manufacturing region of West Yorkshire. In Baines Directory of 1822, Mayalls father, John Meal, is listed as a dyer in Linthwaite, history books which deal with the Linthwaite and Slaithwaite district report that Jabez Meal in his 20s worked in the linen thread trade of West Yorkshire. He carried on Dye Works and studied Chemistry and other sciences in general, young Jabez had taken over the running of his fathers dye works. It is not clear whether Sugden was alluding to the collapse of the Meals dye works or the failure of Jabezs next venture as a proprietor of an inn on the Manchester Road. In 1834, Jabez Meal married Eliza Parkin, the 18-year-old daughter of Joseph Parkin, landlord of the Star Inn on the Manchester Road, near Linthwaite, West Yorkshire. After the death of his father-in-law, Jabez took over the Star Inn where he taught a number of his more promising customers the three Rs, English and Latin, Jabez and Elizas first son Edwin was born in 1835. Their second son, Joseph Parkin, was born in 1839, in 1842 Jabez decided to travel to North America. It was there in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania he became known as John Jabez Edwin Mayall, in an interview with the editor of the Photographic News, Mayall stated that his first handling a Daguerreotype was on 6 January 1840, two years before he embarked for America. From 1843, Mayall produced a number of daguerreotypes, including a set of ten pictures illustrating the Lords Prayer. In 1844, Mayall entered into partnership with Samuel Van Loan, Richard Beard had established a daguerreotype portrait gallery at Ducie Place, Manchester on 18 November 1841. Beard had passed on the Manchester studio to the American daguerreotypist John Johnson in November 1842, Mayall and Van Loan established a studio at 140 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. They were known for the quality of their daguerreotypes. In October 1844, the partnership of Van Loan & Mayall received a medal for work exhibited at the Franklin Institute. At the 1845 Exhibition at the Franklin Institute, daguerreotypes by Van Loan & Mayall were judged superior, in 1846 the partnership between Van Loan and Mayall came to an end. John Mayall then established his own Daguerreotype studio at Fifth and Chestnut Street, during his time in America Mayall gave lectures on the art of photography. In May 1846, he delivered a Memoir on the Daguerreotype to the Philosophical Society of the United States, Mayall also had links with Philadelphias Central High School, where his mentor, Professor Martin Boye held the Chair of Chemistry
14.
Hector Berlioz
–
Hector Berlioz was a French Romantic composer, best known for his compositions Symphonie fantastique and Grande messe des morts. Berlioz made significant contributions to the orchestra with his Treatise on Instrumentation. He specified huge orchestral forces for some of his works, and he also composed around 50 songs. His influence was critical for the development of Romanticism, especially in composers like Richard Wagner, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Franz Liszt, Richard Strauss. Hector Berlioz was born in France at La Côte-Saint-André in the département of Isère, Louis was an agnostic, with a liberal outlook, his mother, Marie-Antoinette, was a devout Roman Catholic. He had five siblings in all, three of whom did not survive to adulthood, the other two, Nanci and Adèle, remained close to Berlioz throughout his life. Berlioz was not a prodigy, unlike some other famous composers of the time, he began studying music at age 12, writing small compositions. As a result of his fathers discouragement, he never learned to play the piano and he became proficient at guitar, flageolet and flute. He learned harmony from textbooks alone—he was not formally trained, the majority of his early compositions were romances and chamber pieces. While yet at age twelve, as recalled in his Mémoires, he experienced his first passion for a woman and he also began to visit the Paris Conservatoire library, seeking out scores of Glucks operas and making personal copies of parts of them. He recalled in his Mémoires his first encounter with Luigi Cherubini, Cherubini attempted to throw the impetuous Berlioz out of the library since he was not a formal music student at that time. Berlioz also heard two operas by Gaspare Spontini, a composer who influenced him through their friendship, and whom he later championed when working as a critic, from then on, he devoted himself to composition. He was encouraged in his endeavors by Jean-François Le Sueur, director of the Royal Chapel, in 1823, he wrote his first article—a letter to the journal Le corsaire defending Spontinis La vestale. Despite his parents disapproval, in 1824 he formally abandoned his studies to pursue a career in music. This work was rehearsed and revised after the rehearsal but not performed until the following year, Berlioz later claimed to have burnt the score, but it was re-discovered in 1991. Later that year or in 1825, he began to compose the opera Les francs-juges, the work survives only in fragments, the overture has been much recorded and is sometimes played in concert. In 1826 he began attending the Conservatoire to study composition under Jean-François Le Sueur and he also submitted a fugue to the Prix de Rome, but was eliminated in the primary round. Winning the prize would become an obsession until he won it in 1830
15.
Sojourner Truth
–
Sojourner Truth was an African-American abolitionist and womens rights activist. Truth was born into slavery in Swartekill, Ulster County, New York, after going to court to recover her son, in 1828 she became the first black woman to win such a case against a white man. She gave herself the name Sojourner Truth in 1843 after she became convinced that God had called her to leave the city and her best-known speech was delivered extemporaneously, in 1851, at the Ohio Womens Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. The speech became known during the Civil War by the title Aint I a Woman. A variation of the original speech re-written by someone using a stereotypical Southern dialect, whereas Sojourner Truth was from New York. During the Civil War, Truth helped recruit troops for the Union Army, after the war. In 2014, Truth was included in Smithsonian magazines list of the 100 Most Significant Americans of All Time, Truth was one of the ten or twelve children born to James and Elizabeth Baumfree. Charles Hardenbergh inherited his fathers estate and continued to enslave people as a part of that estates property, when Charles Hardenbergh died in 1806, nine-year-old Truth, was sold at an auction with a flock of sheep for $100 to John Neely, near Kingston, New York. Until that time, Truth spoke only Dutch and she later described Neely as cruel and harsh, relating how he beat her daily and once even with a bundle of rods. Neely sold her in 1808, for $105, to Martinus Schryver of Port Ewen, a tavern keeper, Schryver sold her in 1810 to John Dumont of West Park, New York. Around 1815, Truth met and fell in love with a slave named Robert from a neighboring farm, roberts owner forbade their relationship, he did not want the people he enslaved to have children with people he was not enslaving, because he would not own the children. One day Robert sneaked over to see Truth, when Catton and his son found him, they savagely beat Robert until Dumont finally intervened, and Truth never saw Robert again. He later died some years later, perhaps as a result of the injuries, Truth eventually married an older slave named Thomas. She bore five children, James, her firstborn, who died in childhood, Diana, fathered by either Robert or John Dumont, and Peter, Elizabeth, and Sophia, all born after she and Thomas united. The state of New York began, in 1799, to legislate the abolition of slavery, Dumont had promised to grant Truth her freedom a year before the state emancipation, if she would do well and be faithful. However, he changed his mind, claiming an injury had made her less productive. She was infuriated but continued working, spinning 100 pounds of wool, late in 1826, Truth escaped to freedom with her infant daughter, Sophia. She had to leave her children behind because they were not legally freed in the emancipation order until they had served as bound servants into their twenties
16.
Mary Seacole
–
Mary Jane Seacole OM was a Jamaican business woman who set up the British Hotel behind the lines during the Crimean War. She described this as a mess-table and comfortable quarters for sick and convalescent officers and she was posthumously awarded the Jamaican Order of Merit in 1991. In 2004 she was voted the greatest black Briton and she acquired knowledge of herbal medicine in the Caribbean. When the Crimean War broke out, she applied to the War Office to assist but was refused and she travelled independently and set up her hotel and assisted battlefield wounded. She became extremely popular among service personnel, who raised money for her when she faced destitution after the war, after her death, she was largely forgotten for almost a century but today is celebrated as a woman who successfully combated racial prejudice. Her autobiography, Wonderful Adventures of Mrs, the erection of a statue of her at St Thomas Hospital, London on 30 June 2016, describing her as a pioneer nurse, has generated controversy. Earlier controversy broke out in the United Kingdom late in 2012 over reports of a proposal to remove her from the UKs National Curriculum. Mary Seacole was born Mary Jane Grant in Kingston, Jamaica, the daughter of James Grant, a Scottish Lieutenant in the British Army, here Seacole acquired her nursing skills. In her autobiography, The Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole, she records her bloodline thus, I am a Creole and my father was a soldier of an old Scottish family. Legally, she was classified as a mulatto, a person with limited political rights. The West Indies were an outpost of the British Empire in the late 18th century, Britains economic interests were protected by a massive military presence, with 69 line infantry regiments serving there between 1793 and 1801, and another 24 between 1803 and 1815. Seacole spent some years in the household of an elderly woman and she was treated as a member of her patronesss family and received a good education. As the educated daughter of a Scottish officer and a black woman with a respectable business. In about 1821, Seacole visited London, staying for a year, although London had a number of black people, she records that a companion, a West Indian with skin darker than her own dusky shades, was taunted by children. Seacole herself was only a little brown, she was nearly white according to Ramdin and she returned to London approximately a year later, bringing a large stock of West Indian pickles and preserves for sale. Her later travels would be as a woman, without a chaperone or sponsor—an unusual practice. Seacole returned to Jamaica in 1825, after returning to Jamaica, Seacole nursed her old indulgent patroness through an illness, finally returning to the family home at Blundell Hall after the death of her patroness a few years later. While doing this she got serious injuries and had skin cancer from an age of 5
17.
Indian club
–
Indian clubs or meels are a type of exercise equipment used for developing strength. They comprise bowling-pin shaped wooden clubs of varying sizes and weights and they can range from a few pounds each, up to special clubs that can weigh as much as 50 pounds. They were used in carefully choreographed routines where the clubs were swung in unison by a group of exercisers, led by an instructor in the front, the routines varied according to the groups ability and the weight of the clubs used. Despite their common English name implying an Indian origin, the so-called Indian clubs were in fact created in the Near East, properly referred to as meels, they are first recorded as being used by wrestlers in ancient Persia, Egypt and the rest of the Middle East. The practice has continued to the present day, notably in the varzesh-e bastani tradition practiced in the zurkaneh of Iran, from Persia, the Mughals brought meels to South Asia where they are still used by pehlwan in South Asia today. British colonists first came across meels in India, and erroneously referred to them as Indian clubs despite their Middle Eastern origin, gymnasia were built just to cater to club exercise groups. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries they became common in Europe, the British Commonwealth. Circa 1913/14 the Bodyguard unit of the British suffragette movement carried Indian clubs as concealed weapons for use against the truncheons of the police, the popularity of meels waned in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s as organized sports became more popular. Regimented exercise routines, like those requiring meels, were relegated to professional athletes and the military, there are current physical fitness enthusiasts who have revived the popularity of meels in the modern day, citing the aerobic exercise and safety advantages over traditional free weight regimens. There are nostalgic replicas of the clubs being manufactured, as well as modern engineering updates to the concept
18.
Gordon (slave)
–
Gordon, or Whipped Peter, was an enslaved African American who escaped from a Louisiana plantation in March 1863, gaining freedom when he reached the Union camp near Baton Rouge. He became known as the subject of photographs documenting the extensive scarring of his back from whippings received in slavery, abolitionists distributed these carte de visite photographs of Gordon throughout the United States and internationally to show the abuses of slavery. In July 1863 these images appeared in an article about Gordon published in Harpers Weekly, the pictures of Gordons scourged back provided Northerners with visual evidence of brutal treatment of slaves and inspired many free blacks to enlist in the Union Army. Gordon joined the United States Colored Troops soon after their founding, Gordon escaped in March 1863 from the 3, 000-acre plantation of John and Bridget Lyons, who owned him and nearly forty other slaves at the time of the 1860 census. The Lyons plantation was located along the west bank of the Atchafalaya River in St. Landry Parish, in order to mask his scent from the bloodhounds that were chasing him, Gordon took onions from his plantation, which he carried in his pockets. After crossing each creek or swamp, he rubbed his body with these onions in order to throw the dogs off his scent and he fled over 40 miles over the course of ten days before reaching Union soldiers of the XIX Corps who were stationed in Baton Rouge. Upon arrival at the Union camp, Gordon underwent an examination on April 2,1863. Itinerant photographers William D. McPherson and his partner Mr. Oliver, during the examination, Gordon is quoted as saying, Ten days from to-day I left the plantation. I was two months in bed sore from the whipping and my master come after I was whipped, he discharged the overseer. I was two months in bed sore from the whipping and my sense began to come – I was sort of crazy and they said so, I did not know. I did not know that I had attempted to shoot everyone, I burned up all my clothes, but I dont remember that. I never was this way before, I dont know what make me come that way. My master come after I was whipped, saw me in bed and they told me I attempted to shoot my wife the first one, I did not shoot any one, I did not harm any one. JOHN LYON, cotton planter, on Atchafalya, near Washington, Gordon joined the Union Army as a guide three months after the Emancipation Proclamation allowed for the enrollment of freed slaves into the military forces. On one expedition, he was prisoner by the Confederates, they tied him up, beat him. He survived and once escaped to Union lines. Gordon soon afterwards enlisted in a U. S and he was said to have fought bravely as a sergeant in the Corps dAfrique during the Siege of Port Hudson in May 1863. It was the first time that African-American soldiers played a role in an assault
19.
Mathew Brady
–
Mathew B. Brady was one of the first American photographers, best known for his scenes of the Civil War. He studied under inventor Samuel F. B, Morse, who pioneered the daguerreotype technique in America. Brady opened his own studio in New York in 1844, and photographed Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams, when the Civil War started, his use of a mobile studio and darkroom enabled vivid battlefield photographs that brought home the reality of war to the public. Thousands of war scenes were captured, as well as portraits of generals, after the war, these pictures went out of fashion, and the government did not purchase the master-copies as he had anticipated. Brady’s fortunes declined sharply, and he died in debt, Brady was born on May 18,1822 in Warren County, New York near Lake George, the youngest of three children of Irish immigrant parents, Andrew and Samantha Julia Brady. He himself originally said that he was born in Ireland, at age 16, Brady moved to Saratoga, New York, where he met portrait painter William Page, and became Pages student. In 1839, the two traveled to Albany, New York, and then to New York City, where Brady continued to study painting with Page, and also with Pages former teacher, Samuel F. B. Morse. Morse had met Louis Jacques Daguerre in France in 1839, at first, Bradys involvement was limited to manufacturing leather cases that held daguerreotypes. But soon he became the center of the New York artistic colony that wished to study photography, Morse opened a studio and offered classes, Brady was one of the first students. In 1849, he opened a studio in Washington, D. C. where he met Juliet Handy, in 1850, Brady produced The Gallery of Illustrious Americans, a portrait collection of prominent contemporary figures. The album, which featured noteworthy images including the elderly Andrew Jackson at the Hermitage, was not financially rewarding but invited increased attention to Brady’s work, in 1856, Brady placed an ad in the New York Herald offering to produce photographs, ambrotypes and daguerreotypes. This inventive ad pioneered, in the USA, the use of typeface and fonts that were distinct from the text of the publication, at first, the effect of the Civil War on Bradys business was a brisk increase in sales of cartes de visite to departing soldiers. However, he was taken with the idea of documenting the war itself. He first applied to an old friend, General Winfield Scott, for permission to travel to the battle sites, Lincoln granted permission in 1861, with the proviso that Brady finance the project himself. His efforts to document the American Civil War on a grand scale by bringing his photographic studio onto the battlefields earned Brady his place in history, despite the dangers, financial risk, and discouragement by his friends, Brady was later quoted as saying I had to go. A spirit in my feet said Go, and I went and his first popular photographs of the conflict were at the First Battle of Bull Run, in which he got so close to the action that he barely avoided capture. While most of the time the battle had ceased before pictures were taken, Brady came under fire at the First Battle of Bull Run, Petersburg. He also employed Alexander Gardner, James Gardner, Timothy H. OSullivan, William Pywell, George N. Barnard, roche, and seventeen other men, each of whom was given a traveling darkroom, to go out and photograph scenes from the Civil War
20.
Seth Kinman
–
Seth Kinman was an early settler of Humboldt County, California, a hunter based in Fort Humboldt, a famous chair maker, and a nationally recognized entertainer. He stood over 6 ft tall and was known for his prowess and his brutality toward bears. Kinman claimed to have shot a total of over 800 grizzly bears and he was also a hotel keeper, saloon keeper, and a musician who performed for President Lincoln on a fiddle made from the skull of a mule. Known for his publicity seeking, Kinman appeared as a mountain man dressed in buckskins on the U. S. east coast and selling cartes de visites of himself. The chairs were made from elkhorns and grizzly bear skins and given to U. S. Presidents, Presidents so honored include James Buchanan, Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, and Rutherford Hayes. He may have had a relationship with President Lincoln, appearing in at least two of Lincolns funeral corteges, and claiming to have witnessed Lincolns assassination. His autobiography, dictated to a scribe in 1876, was first published in 2010 and is noted for putting the entertainment value of a story ahead of the strict facts and his descriptions of events change with his retelling of them. Contemporary journalists and modern writers were aware of the stories contained in the autobiography. James also was a millwright and an inn-keeper, whose forebears were Quakers from Bucks County, seths mother, Eleanor Bower Kinman, was of German descent whose family lived in Reading, Pennsylvania. Seth was born in Uniontown in 1815, while in Pennsylvania, he learned to read and write, I could form good letters with a pen but I never learned to spell well. In 1830 his father took the family and migrated to Tazewell County, in his autobiography, Seth stated that his father fought in the Blackhawk War in Illinois in 1832. He also claimed that his father and Abraham Lincoln fought together in the war, became friends afterward, at about the same time the Kinmans acquired a rifle, known as Old Cotton Bale, that Seth kept throughout his life. The rifle had a 4 ft long barrel and is supposed to have killed Genl Peckenham at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815, Seth spent ten years working in his fathers mill in Illinois, sawing lumber and grinding grain. After his fathers death in 1839 he sold the mill and tried farming and he married Anna Maria Sharpless, of Catawissa, Pennsylvania, in 1840 and they had five children together, James, Carlin, who is sometimes called Calvin, Austin, Ellen, and Roderick. Anna Maria and two of their sons, James and Austin, died during the winter of 1852-53, while Seth was in California, by 1848 Kinman was operating the Eagle Hotel in Pekin, Illinois, on the Illinois River. The hotel was known less for its comforts than for Kinmans rendition of the fiddle tune Arkansas Traveler, a traveler came off a steamboat one day and went to the Eagle Hotel. The stranger, stopping, said to Seth, Are you the proprietor here, Seth, without resting his bow, replied- Wall, I reckon I be, stranger. Of course I do, I keep tavern like h—l, said Seth, fiddling away with all his might, Just pile in, hang your freight on the floor, and make yourself at home
21.
Fridtjof Nansen
–
Fridtjof Nansen was a Norwegian explorer, scientist, diplomat, humanitarian and Nobel Peace Prize laureate. In his youth he was a skier and ice skater. He led the team made the first crossing of the Greenland interior in 1888. He won international fame after reaching a record latitude of 86°14′ during his North Pole expedition of 1893–96. Between 1906 and 1908 he served as the Norwegian representative in London, in the final decade of his life, Nansen devoted himself primarily to the League of Nations, following his appointment in 1921 as the Leagues High Commissioner for Refugees. In 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work on behalf of the victims of the First World War. Among the initiatives he introduced was the Nansen passport for stateless persons and he worked on behalf of refugees until his sudden death in 1930, after which the League established the Nansen International Office for Refugees to ensure that his work continued. This office received the Nobel Peace Prize for 1938, Nansen was honoured by many nations, and his name is commemorated in numerous geographical features, particularly in the polar regions. The Nansen family originated in Denmark, Hans Nansen, a trader, was an early explorer of the White Sea region of the Arctic Ocean. In later life he settled in Copenhagen, becoming the citys borgmester in 1654, later generations of the family lived in Copenhagen until the mid-18th century, when Ancher Antoni Nansen moved to Norway. His son, Hans Leierdahl Nansen, was a magistrate first in the Trondheim district, after Norways separation from Denmark in 1814, he entered national political life as the representative for Stavanger in the first Storting, and became a strong advocate of union with Sweden. After suffering a stroke in 1821 Hans Leierdahl Nansen died, leaving a four-year-old son, Baldur Fridtjof Nansen. Baldur was a lawyer without ambitions for public life, who became Reporter to the Supreme Court of Norway, Baldur and Adelaide settled at Store Frøen, an estate at Aker, a few kilometres north of Norways capital city, Christiania. The couple had three children, the first died in infancy, the second, born 10 October 1861, was Fridtjof Nansen, Store Frøens rural surroundings shaped the nature of Nansens childhood. In the short summers the main activities were swimming and fishing, the long winter months were devoted mainly to skiing, which Nansen began to practice at the age of two, on improvised skis. At the age of 10 he defied his parents and attempted the ski jump at the nearby Huseby installation. This exploit had near-disastrous consequences, as on landing the skis dug deep into the snow, pitching the boy forward, I, head first, hen I came down again I bored into the snow up to my waist. The boys thought I had broken my neck, but as soon as they saw there was life in me, a shout of mocking laughter went up
22.
Lolcat
–
A lolcat is an image macro of one or more cats. The images text is often idiosyncratic and grammatically incorrect, and is known as lolspeak, Lolcat is a compound word of the acronymic abbreviation for LOL and the word cat. A synonym for lolcat is cat macro, since the images are a type of image macro, lolcats are commonly designed for photo sharing imageboards and other Internet forums. British portrait photographer Harry Pointer created a carte de visite series featuring cats posed in various situations in the early 1870s, to these he usually added amusing text intended to further enhance their appeal. Other notable early figures include Harry Whittier Frees and Walter Potter, the first recorded use of the term lolcat is from the anonymous imageboard 4chan. The word Lolcat was in use as early as June 2006, and their popularity was spread through usage on forums such as Something Awful. The News Journal states that some trace the lolcats back to the site 4chan, ikenburg adds that the images have been slinking around the Internet for years under various labels, but they did not become a sensation until early 2007 with the advent of I Can Has Cheezburger. The first image on I CAN HAZ CHEEZBURGER. was posted on January 11,2007, the domain name caturday. com was registered on April 30,2005. Entertainment Weekly put them on its end-of-the-decade, best-of list, saying and we can neber haz enuf of deez capshioned pics of cuddlie kittehs. Lolcat was also a runner-up under the Most Creative category under the American Dialect Society Word of the Year Awards, in December 2014, the word lolcat entered the Oxford English Dictionary, appearing in its online version. Lolcat is a composite of two words, lol and cat, lol stands for Laugh out Loud or Laughing out Loud, hence, lolcats are intended to be funny and to include jokes. Lolcats images comprise a photo of a cat with a large caption characteristically set in a sans serif font such as Impact or Arial Black. The image is, on occasion, digitally edited for effect, the caption generally acts as a speech balloon encompassing a comment from the cat, or as a description of the depicted scene. The text parodies the grammar-poor patois stereotypically attributed to Internet slang, frequently, lolcat captions take the form of phrasal templates. Some phrases have a source, usually a well-known Internet meme, such as All your base are belong to us or Do not want. The language of lolcats has also likened to baby talk, however it draws on a variety of linguistic resources. Common themes include jokes of the form Im in ur, -ing ur, many lolcat images capture cats performing characteristically human actions or appearing to use modern technology, such as computers. There are several well-known lolcat images and single-word captions that have spawned many variations and imitations, others include Fail and I Can Has Cheezburger
23.
Camille Silvy
–
Camille-Léon-Louis Silvy was a French photographer, primarily active in London. He learned photography from his friend, Count Olympe Aguado, in 1857 and he then moved to London and opened a portrait studio at 38 Porchester Terrace, Bayswater, becoming a member of the Photographic Society in 1859. Sitters in Silvys portraits include Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, Queen Emma of Hawaii, Lady Amberley, Harriet Martineau, Adelina Patti and he also photographed many members of the British royal family. The National Portrait Gallery, London, holds his studios daybooks and he closed his studio and returned to France in 1868. He himself believed that his nervous system had been damaged by exposure to cyanide in the darkroom. The last thirty years of his life were spent in a succession of hospitals, sanatoria, review of National Portrait Gallery exhibition by Richard Dorment, Camille Silvy, Photographer of Modern Life at the National Portrait Gallery, The Daily Telegraph,19 July 2010
24.
Business card
–
Business cards are cards bearing business information about a company or individual. They are shared during formal introductions as a convenience and a memory aid, a business card typically includes the givers name, company or business affiliation and contact information such as street addresses, telephone number, fax number, e-mail addresses and website. Before the advent of electronic business cards might also include telex details. Now they may include social media such as Facebook, LinkedIn. Traditionally many cards were simple text on white stock, today a professional business card will sometimes include one or more aspects of striking visual design. Business cards are printed on some form of stock, the visual effect, method of printing, cost and other details varying according to cultural or organizational norms. The common weight of a business card varies some by location, generally, business cards are printed on stock that is 350 g/m2,45 kg, or 12 pt. High quality business cards without full-color photographs are printed using spot colors on sheet-fed offset printing presses. Some companies have gone so far as to trademark their spot colors, if a business card logo is a single color and the type is another color, the process is considered two-color. More spot colors can be added depending on the needs of the card, with the onset of digital printing, and batch printing, it is now cost effective to print business cards in full color. To simulate the effect of printing with engraved plates, a process called thermography was developed that uses the application of a plastic powder. The cards are passed through a heating unit, which melts the plastic onto the card. Spot UV varnish onto matte laminate can also have a similar effect, full color cards, or cards that use many colors, are printed on sheetfed presses as well, however, they use the CMYK four-color printing process. Screens of each color overprinted on one another create a wide gamut of color, the downside to this printing method is that screened colors if examined closely will reveal tiny dots, whereas spot color cards are printed solid in most cases. Spot colors should be used for cards with line art or non-black type that is smaller than 5 points. A business card can also be coated with a UV glossy coat, the coat is applied just like another ink using an additional unit on a sheetfed press. That being said, UV coats can also be applied as a spot coating - meaning areas can be coated, UV Coating is not to be confused with coated stock, which has a gloss or semi gloss finish that is applied before printing. UV coats, and other such as aqueous coatings are used to speed manufacturing of the cards
25.
Postcard
–
A postcard or post card is a rectangular piece of thick paper or thin cardboard intended for writing and mailing without an envelope. Shapes other than rectangular may also be used, there are novelty exceptions, such as wood postcards, made of thin wood, and copper postcards sold in the Copper Country of the U. S. state of Michigan, and coconut postcards from tropical islands. In some places, one can send a postcard for a lower fee than for a letter, stamp collectors distinguish between postcards and postal cards. While a postcard is usually printed by a company, individual or organization. The worlds oldest postcard was sent in 1840 to the writer Theodore Hook from Fulham in London, the study and collecting of postcards is termed deltiology. Cards with messages had been created and posted by individuals since the beginning of postal services. The earliest known picture postcard was a design on card, posted in Fulham in London by the writer Theodore Hook to himself in 1840. He probably created and posted the card to himself as a joke on the postal service, since the image is a caricature of workers in the post office. In 2002 the postcard sold for a record £31,750, in Britain, postcards without images were issued by the Post Office in 1870, and were printed with a stamp as part of the design, which was included in the price of purchase. These cards came in two sizes, the larger size was found to be slightly too large for ease of handling, and was soon withdrawn in favour of cards 13mm shorter. The first known printed picture postcard, with an image on one side, was created in France in 1870 at Camp Conlie by Léon Besnardeau, Conlie was a training camp for soldiers in the Franco-Prussian war. While these are certainly the first known picture postcards, there was no space for stamps, in the following year the first known picture postcard in which the image functioned as a souvenir was sent from Vienna. The first advertising card appeared in 1872 in Great Britain and the first German card appeared in 1874, Cards showing images increased in number during the 1880s. Images of the newly built Eiffel Tower in 1889 and 1890 gave impetus to the postcard, Early postcards often showcased photography of nude women. These were commonly known as French postcards, due to the number of them produced in France. The first American postcard was developed in 1873 by the Morgan Envelope Factory of Springfield and these first postcards depicted the Interstate Industrial Exposition that took place in Chicago. Later in 1873, Post Master John Creswell introduced the first pre-stamped Postal Cards, Postcards were made because people were looking for an easier way to send quick notes. The first postcard to be printed as a souvenir in the United States was created in 1893 to advertise the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, initially, the United States government prohibited private companies from calling their cards postcards, so they were known as souvenir cards
26.
Trading card
–
There is a wide variation of different types of cards. Modern cards even go as far as to include swatches of game worn memorabilia, autographs, trading cards are traditionally associated with sports, baseball cards are especially well-known. Cards dealing with subjects like Pokémon are often considered a separate category from sports cards. These often feature cartoons, comic characters, television series. In the 1990s, cards designed specifically for playing games became popular enough to develop into a distinct category and these tend to use either fantasy subjects or sports as the basis for game play. Trade cards are the ancestors of trading cards, allen and Ginter in the U. S. in 1886, and British company W. D. & H. O. Wills in 1888, were the first tobacco companies to print advertisements, a couple years later, lithograph pictures on the cards with an encyclopedic variety of topics from nature to war to sports — subjects that appealed to men who smoked - began to surface as well. By 1900, there were thousands of card sets manufactured by 300 different companies. Children would stand outside of stores to ask customers who bought cigarettes for the promotional cards, World War II put an end to cigarette card production due to limited paper resources, and after the war cigarette cards never really made a comeback. After that collectors of prizes from retail products took to collecting tea cards in the UK, the first baseball cards were trade cards printed in the late 1860s by a sporting goods company, around the time baseball became a professional sport. Most of the baseball cards around the beginning of the 20th century came in candy and it was during this era that the most valuable baseball card ever printed was produced - the infamous T206 tobacco card featuring Honus Wagner. The T206 Set, distributed by the American Tobacco Company in 1909, is considered by collectors to be the most popular set of all time. In 1933, Goudey Gum Company of Boston issued baseball cards with players biographies on the backs and was the first to put baseball cards in bubble gum, the 1933 Goudey set remains one of the most popular and affordable vintage sets to this day. Bowman Gum of Philadelphia issued its first baseball cards in 1948, Topps Chewing Gum, Inc. now known as The Topps Company, Inc. Topps produced its first baseball trading card set in 1951, with the design resembling that of playing cards. Topps owner and founder Sy Berger created the first true baseball card set, complete with playing record and statistics. This is one of the most popular sets of all time, Topps purchased their chief competitor, Bowman Gum, in 1956. Topps was the leader in the trading industry from 1956 to 1980, not only in sports cards
27.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
28.
Increase A. Lapham
–
Increase Allen Lapham was an author, scientist, and naturalist. Lapham was of entirely English ancestry, all of which had been in what is now the United States since the early 1600s and his ancestors were among the first English colonists to establish Rhode Island. He displayed a talent for scientific observation early on while working on the canals and their locks himself, in July 1836, Lapham moved to Kilbourntown and worked closely with Byron Kilbourn in his business and development endeavors. The two had worked previously on the Miami Canal and Lapham considered him a loyal friend. In 1848, Lapham founded the Wisconsin Natural History Association, a predecessor of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, many of his works and early maps were used for various civil projects such as canal and railroad development. In 1844 Lapham published the first substantial book on the geography of the Wisconsin Territory and his first map of Wisconsin was made in 1846. He published many papers and books through his life, particularly on geology, archaeology and history. In 1850, he discovered the Panther Intaglio Effigy Mound, which is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places, Lapham was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1853. He was buried at Forest Home Cemetery in Milwaukee, when the agency was created through the U. S. Secretary of War, Lapham made the first such accurate Great Lakes storm warning from Chicago. In Madison, Wisconsin, he currently has a school named after him. A genus of North American plants, Laphamia, was named for him by Asa Gray, certain markings found on iron meteors were designated by J. Lawrence Smith as Laphamite markings. A formerly existing glacial lake was provisionally named Lake Lapham, the Wisconsin Archeological Society awards the Lapham Research Medal, first doing so in 1926. The U. S. Navy named a ship SS Increase A. Lapham during World War II, the University of Wisconsin has an Increase A. Lapham Professorship. Lapham was inducted in 1992 into the Wisconsin Conservation Hall of Fame, the centennial of Laphams birth was celebrated in 1911. In 2011, celebration of the bicentennial is planned, including an Increase A. Lapham Day at Aztalan State Park, some works of Increase A. Lapham, Carte de visite Fox–Wisconsin Waterway Lapham Memorial Soldiers Home Reef Lapham, Mary J. Dr. Increase A. Lapham. Increase A. Lapham, A Legacy of Archeological Preservation, online from the Wisconsin Historical Society Report on the Disastrous Effects of the Destruction of Forest Trees. Online from the Wisconsin Historical Society Selected letters on Indian Mounds, 1846–1852 Unpublished manuscripts online from the Wisconsin Historical Society Works by or about Increase A
