1.
Plaza de Mayo
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The Plaza de Mayo is the main square in the Monserrat barrio of central Buenos Aires, Argentina. It is flanked by Hipólito Yrigoyen, Balcarce, Rivadavia and Bolívar streets, since being the scene of the 25 May 1810 revolution that led to independence, the plaza has been a hub of political life in Argentina. The modern plaza took form in 1884 when the colonnade separating the Plaza de la Victoria and its origins, however, can be traced back to Juan de Garays foundation of Buenos Aires itself, in 1580. Newly arrived to the dusty riverbank settlement, Jesuit clergymen in 1608 secured a title to much of the 2 hectares lot, completed in 1804, the Romanesque structure became the plazas market and the lot to the west of the colonnade became the Plaza de la Victoria. That year, however, Mayor Torcuato de Alvear ordered the space modernized, resulting in the demolition of the colonnade, the Plaza de Mayo has always been the focal point of political life in Buenos Aires. Its current name commemorates the May Revolution of 1810, which started the process towards the independence from Spain in 1816. Many other presidents, both democratic and military, have also saluted people in the Plaza from the balcony of the Casa Rosada. In an attempt to overthrow President Perón, the plaza was bombed during one of the populist leaders many rallies there on 16 June 1955, killing 364. Peróns final appearance at the plaza, on 12 June, was marked by a break with the far left. People perceived to be supportive of subversive activities would be detained, subject to abuse and torture. The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo took advantage of the importance of the Plaza to open the publics eyes to what the military regime was doing. Today, Plaza de Mayo continues to be an indispensable tourist attraction for those who visit Buenos Aires, the Buenos Aires financial district, affectionately known as la City also lies besides the Plaza. Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo Grandmothers of the Plaza Tourism Buenos Aires Casa Rosada
2.
President of Argentina
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The President of the Argentine Nation, usually known as the President of Argentina, is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the executive of the federal government. Through Argentine history, the office of the Head of State has undergone many changes, current President Mauricio Macri was sworn into office on 10 December 2015. The Constitution of Argentina, along with constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office. The origins of Argentina as a nation can be traced to 1776, the Head of State continued to be the King, but he was represented locally by the Viceroy. These Viceroys were seldom natives of the country, by the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the first Argentine autonomous government, known as the Primera Junta, was formed in Buenos Aires. It was later known as the Junta Grande when representatives from the provinces joined and this power was vested in one man when the position of Supreme Director was created by the 1813 National Assembly. The Supreme Directors became Heads of State after Independence was declared on 9 July 1816, in 1819, Congress declared Independence and composed a Constitution. This established a figure, named Supreme Director, who was vested with presidential powers. This constitution gave the Supreme Director the power of appointing Governors of the provinces, due to political circumstances, this constitution never came into force, and the central power was dissolved, leaving the country as a federation of provinces. A new constitution was drafted in 1826 and this constitution was the first to create a President, although this office retained the powers described in the 1819 constitution. This constitution did come into force, resulting in the election of the first President, because of the Cisplatine War, Rivadavia resigned after a short time, and the office was dissolved shortly after. A civil war between unitarios and federales ensued in the following decades, in this time, there was no central authority, and the closest to that was the Chairman of Foreign Relations, typically the Governor of the Province of Buenos Aires. The last to bear this title was Juan Manuel de Rosas, in 1852, Rosas was deposed, and a constitutional convention was summoned. This constitution, still in force, established a federal government. The term was fixed as six years, with no possibility of reelection, the first elected President under the constitution was Justo José de Urquiza, but Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation as the State of Buenos Aires. Bartolomé Mitre was the first president of the country, when Buenos Aires rejoined the Confederation. In 1930, and again in 1943,1955,1962,1966 and 1976, in 1966 and 1976, federal government was undertaken by a military junta, where power was shared by the chiefs of the armed forces
3.
Italianate architecture
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The Italianate style of architecture was a distinct 19th-century phase in the history of Classical architecture. The style of architecture that was created, though also characterised as Neo-Renaissance, was essentially of its own time. The Italianate style was first developed in Britain about 1802 by John Nash and this small country house is generally accepted to be the first Italianate villa in England, from which is derived the Italianate architecture of the late Regency and early Victorian eras. The Italianate style was developed and popularised by the architect Sir Charles Barry in the 1830s. Barrys Italianate style drew heavily for its motifs on the buildings of the Italian Renaissance, the style was not confined to England and was employed in varying forms, long after its decline in popularity in Britain, throughout Northern Europe and the British Empire. From the late 1840s to 1890 it achieved popularity in the United States. A late intimation of Nashs development of the Italianate style was his 1805 design of Sandridge Park at Stoke Gabriel in Devon. Later examples of the Italianate style in England tend to take the form of Palladian-style building often enhanced by a belvedere complete with Renaissance-type balustrading at the roof level. Sir Charles Barry, most notable for his works on the Tudor, unlike Nash he found his inspiration in Italy itself. Barry drew heavily on the designs of the original Renaissance villas of Rome, the Lazio and his most defining work in this style was the large Neo-Renaissance mansion Cliveden. Thomas Cubitt, a London building contractor, incorporated simple classical lines of the Italianate style as defined by Sir Charles Barry into many of his London terraces. Following the completion of Osborne House in 1851, the became a popular choice of design for the small mansions built by the new. These were mostly built in cities surrounded by large but not extensive gardens, on occasions very similar, if not identical, designs to these Italianate villas would be topped by mansard roofs, and then termed chateauesque. However, after a modest spate of Italianate villas, and French chateaux by 1855 the most favoured style of an English country house was Gothic, the Italianate style came to the small town of Newton Abbot in Devon, with Isambard Brunels atmospheric railway pumping houses. An example that is not very known, but a clear example of Italianate architecture, is St. Christophers Anglican church in Hinchley Wood, Surrey. When the Ottomans exiled Fakhreddine to Tuscany in 1613, he entered an alliance with the Medicis, upon his return to Lebanon in 1618, he began modernising Lebanon. He developed an industry, upgraded olive-oil production, and brought with him numerous Italian engineers who began the construction of mansions. The cities of Beirut and Sidon were especially built in the Italianate style, the influence of these buildings, such as the ones in Deir el Qamar, influenced building in Lebanon for many centuries and continues to the present time
4.
Eclecticism in architecture
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Eclecticism came into practice during the late 19th century, as architects sought after a style that would allow them to retain previous historic precedent, but create unseen designs. From a complete catalogue of past styles, the ability to mix and combine styles allowed for more expressive freedom and provided an endless source of inspiration. Teachers at the École were some of the architects in France, and this new method of teaching was so successful. Many of the went on to become pioneers of the movement. The end of the 19th century saw a shift in American Architecture. At a time of increasing prosperity and commercial pride, many buildings were commissioned in large cities around the country. In the case of Hunt and many other architects, his typically eclectic viewpoint enabled him to make stylistic choices based on whatever suited the particular project or the client. This flexibility to adapt, and to blend freely between styles gave eclectic designers more appeal to clients, while some of these buildings have since been demolished, projects that remain from this era are still valued as some of the most important structures in America. Some of the most extreme examples of eclectic design could be seen onboard ocean liners, the lavish interiors were crafted with a mix of traditional styles—in an attempt to ease the discomfort of months abroad and to create the illusion of established grandeur. At a similar time, such vessels were being used to transport colonists to undeveloped areas of the world, the colonisation of such areas, further spread the Eclectic architecture of the western world, as newly settled colonists built structures commonly featuring Roman classicism and gothic motifs. As a style that offered so much freedom, and no guiding rules. Projects that failed to blend the different styles were subject to criticism from professionals. Enthusiasm for historical imitation began to decline in the 1930s and eclecticism was phased out in the curriculums of design schools, the shift towards Modernism was significant as it was seen by many as avant-garde and the new technology and materials being produced at the time allowed for greater innovation. Despite the move away from eclecticism, the era still remains significant as it re-opened the doors to innovation. This resulted in the emergence of Interior Decoration as a regarded profession, prominent Interior Decorators in this era include Elsie De Wolfe, Rose Cumming, Nancy McClelland, Elsie Cobb Wilson, Francis Elkins, Surie Maugham and Dorothy Draper. Aesthetic preferences varied from region to region across America, with Spanish styles being favoured in California, and elements of ‘colonialism’ being popular in New England
5.
Buenos Aires
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Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
6.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Government of Argentina
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The government of Argentina, within the framework of a federal system, is a presidential representative democratic republic. The President of Argentina is both head of state and head of government, Executive power is exercised by the President. Legislative power is vested in both the Executive and the National Congress, the Judiciary is independent from the Executive and from the Legislature. The President is also the Chief of the Argentine Armed Forces, the President and the Vice President are elected through universal suffrage by the nation considered as a whole. In any other case, the two leading tickets get to face a second round whose victor will be decided by a simple majority. This mechanism was not necessary in the 1995 election, when it could have first come into use, nor in the 1999 one, however, it was instrumental in the selection of Néstor Kirchner in 2003. The cabinet of ministers is appointed by the president, but is not technically part of the Executive Power, the vice-president, Gabriela Michetti, belongs to the legislative branch, since she is also the president of the Senate. President Mauricio Macri has held office since December 10,2015, the Congress consists of the Senate, presided by the Vice-President of the Nation, and the Chamber of Deputies, currently presided by Julián Domínguez, deputy for Buenos Aires province. Senators stay in office for six years, and deputies, for four, each of the Provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires elect deputies and senators directly. Deputies are representatives of the people of the Nation, while Senators represent their districts. Each district elects a number of deputies roughly proportional to their population by proportional representation. Members of both chambers are allowed indefinite re-elections, every two years, each of the 24 electoral districts elects one half of their lower chamber representatives. Districts with an odd number of Deputies elect one more or one fewer of them on each election, as for the Senators, the twenty-four districts are divided into three groups consisting of eight districts. Every two years all eight districts of one of those groups elect all their three senators, assigning two of them from the party obtains the majority, and one from the first minority party. Six years later, the group of districts will hold its next senatorial elections. Following the June 28th,2009 mid-term elections, half the Chamber of Deputies seats, among Justicialists representatives, a further 17 seats went to anti-Kirchnerites, gaining just one seat from the previous situation. The conservative Republican Proposal secured 26 seats, gaining 12 from the previous election, a further 24 seats went to smaller parties, mostly provincially oriented, but also from the center-left spectrum. Smaller, provincial parties were left with 4 seats in all and that controversial law cost the FPV16 Congressmen and 4 Senators by way of defections
9.
National Historic Monument of Argentina
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The National Historic Monuments of Argentina are buildings, sites and features in Argentina listed by national decree as historic sites. This designation encourages greater protection under the oversight of the Comisión Nacional de Museos, Monumentos y Lugares Históricos, in addition, provinces also have local lists of historic monuments. There are approximately 400 buildings or sites on the list, most are buildings or sites from the pre-Hispanic or Colonial periods and some are battlefields and other locations associated with the independence of the country. In recent years the government has been making efforts to include sites on the list that reflect the countrys industrial and immigrant heritage. The Commission has been criticised for not doing enough to preserve the buildings on the list, and only declaring sites as monuments after they have been altered or partly demolished
10.
Official residence
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An official residence is the residence at which a nations head of state, head of government, governor or other senior figure officially resides. It may or may not be the location where the individual conducts work-related functions or lives. This has occurred in the 21st century in Detroit and New York City, in the case of Denver, no mayor has ever lived in the official residence, the city instead makes it available to certain non-profit groups for special functions. The President uses own private residence, - Its address is 1 Cheongwadae-ro, Jongro-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea. It is located next to Gyeongbokgung, the palace during the Joseon Dynasty. Cheong Nam Dae - Cheong Nam Dae used to be one of the two residences for the President of Republic of Korea. It was returned to public in 2003, - It is located in Cheongwon-gun, North Chungcheong Province. Cheong Hae Dae - Cheong Hae Dae used to be one of the two residences for the President of Republic of Korea. Although the president no longer uses this facility this compound is still under the administration of the Republic of Korea Navy, - It is located on one of the islands of Geoje-shi, South Gyeongsang Province. Chongri Gonggwan - This is the residence for the Prime Minister of Republic of Korea. The Prime Minister, however, does not work here, - Its address is 111-2 Samcheongdong-gil, Jongro-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea. It is located close to Cheong Wa Dae, gukhoeuijang Gonggwan - This is the official residence for the Speaker of the National Assembly of Republic of Korea. The Speaker, also, does not work here, - It is located in Hannam-dong, Yongsan-gu, Seoul, where many foreign missions to Korea are located. Daebeobwonjang Gonggwan - This is the residence for the Chief Justice of Republic of Korea. The Chief Justice, also, does not work here, - It is also located in Hannam-dong, Yongsan-gu, Seoul. Most ministers of state and heads of administrative regions also have official residences, although they are not listed here. S
11.
Quinta de Olivos
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The Quinta de Olivos is an architectural landmark in the north side Buenos Aires suburb of Olivos and the official residence of the President of Argentina. It is one of the Presidents official residences, shortly after the 2nd foundation of Buenos Aires by Captain Juan de Garay in 1580, among the first 400 land lots apportioned was that of a 180-hectare parcel 20 kilometers north of the city. The land, situated on a bluff overlooking the Río de la Plata, was awarded to Rodrigo de Ibarola, a prime section of the property was purchased in 1774 by Manuel de Basavilbaso, the Postmaster General of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. His daughter, Justa Rufina, married Miguel de Azcuénaga, an officer who would later take part in the May Revolution of 1810. He also established one of the areas first apiaries on the grounds, Azcuénaga inherited the land on the death of his wife in 1829, and their son, Miguel José, in turn inherited it in 1833. He converted the property into an estate, though the rise of Buenos Aires Province Governor. Azcuénaga ultimately returned and, in 1851, commissioned a graduate of the École Polytechnique, Prilidiano Pueyrredón, Azcuénaga landscaped the sprawling property with a selection of palm trees, among them Butia, Phoenix canariensis, and Chamaerops humilis. He also had vast extensions planted with Araucaria bidwillii, cedars, cryptomerias, cypresses, tipas and pines planted, Azcuénaga, who had no legitimate offspring, bequeathed the property to his nephew, Antonio Justo Olaguer Feliú. The blind Olaguer, who had no use for the view of the waterfront, sold the easternmost portion of the land before his death in 1903 and bequeathed it to his nephew, Carlos Villate Olaguer. Villates death in 1913 made the 35-hectare property available to the government, uriburus successor, Agustín P. Justo, planned a vacation resort at the site in 1933. S. President Franklin Roosevelt, remarked during his drive at seeing the falling blooms that its raining blue, the estates use as a year-round residence triggered a lawsuit in 1940 by Villates heirs, alleging that it violated the terms of the will. The suit was struck down by the Argentine Supreme Court, however and its relatively distant location from the downtown Buenos Aires presidential offices at the Casa Rosada made it of only occasional use in subsequent years. The scandal helped precipitate Peróns overthrow in 1955, and General Pedro Aramburu became the first president to reside habitually at the Quinta de Olivos, the quinta was the site of Juan Peróns death on July 1,1974. The compounds opulence prompted a number of Argentine presidents over the years to forego residing there, notably Dr. Héctor Cámpora, General Leopoldo Galtieri, later additions include a heliport, a chapel, and a miniature golf course installed by President Carlos Menem in 1991. The residence hosted the Olivos Pact, an agreement signed on November 14,1993
12.
Olivos, Buenos Aires
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Olivos is an Argentine city in Vicente López Partido in the Province of Buenos Aires and a suburb within the Greater Buenos Aires metro area. Olivos is the site of the residence of the President of Argentina. The city is bordered on the east by the shores of the Río de la Plata, a 1905 edict subdivided San Isidro Partido in two, creating the modern Partido de Vicente López and designating Olivos as the seat. The opening of National Route 9 in the mid-1930s, west of the city, the complementing structures for the compound were built in variations on Baroque architecture. The residence hosted the Olivos Pact, an agreement signed on 14 November 1993 between then-President Carlos Menem and former President Raúl Alfonsín. The pact secured support for reforms allowing for the re-election of the President well as for the popular election of the Mayor of Buenos Aires. The city was witness to the Kheyvis nightclub fire, the deadliest such tragedy in Argentina up to that point. Olivos was selected as a stop along the Tren de la Costa tourist railway upon the opening in 1994. Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, Argentina
13.
Greater Buenos Aires
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Greater Buenos Aires is the urban agglomeration comprising the autonomous city of Buenos Aires and the adjacent 24 partidos over the Province of Buenos Aires. Thus, it does not constitute an administrative unit. The conurbation spreads south, west and north of Buenos Aires city, to the east, the River Plate serves as a natural boundary. The term is related to other expressions that are not necessarily well-defined, the Buenos Aires conurbation, the Greater Buenos Aires Agglomeration. The National Institute of Statistics and Censuses has defined Greater Buenos Aires, there are three main groups within the Buenos Aires Conurbation. The first two groups comprise the traditional conurbation, or the conurbation proper, the third group of six partidos is in process of becoming fully integrated with the rest. D. and Marcos, M. The social map of Greater Buenos Aires as empirical evidence of urban models, volume 11 Number 1, pp. 67–78, DOI10. 1353/lag.2012.0012 Keeling, D. Buenos Aires, Global Dreams, Local Crisis
14.
Juan de Garay
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Juan de Garay was a Spanish conquistador. Some say it was in the Castile city of Junta de Villalba de Losa, theres no birth certification whatsoever, though Juan De Garay regarded himself as somebody from Biscay. He served under the Crown of Castille, in the Viceroyalty of Peru and he was governor of Asunción and founded a number of cities in present-day Argentina, many near the Paraná River area, including the second foundation of Buenos Aires, in 1580. In 1543 he sailed to Peru with his uncle Pedro de Zárate in Viceroy Blasco Núñez Velas first expedition, in 1561 he took part in the foundation of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. In 1568 he moved to Asunción where he attained political stature, the governor of Asunción sent him in April 1573, with a company of eighty men, on an expedition to the Paraná River, during which he founded the city of Santa Fe de la Vera Cruz. In 1576 he was appointed governor of Asunción, as governor, he attempted to avoid bloodshed by bringing justice and civilization to the natives. To achieve these goals, he founded Indian villages and established local governments, Garay founded Buenos Aires a second time on June 11 in the year 1580. He landed on the riverbank in the location of Plaza de Mayo, calling the city Ciudad de la Trinidad, Buenos Aires would become the main city in the Paraná basin and its most important port. Later, he went on an expedition in search for the legendary City of the Caesars, the group was ambushed by Querandíes natives who killed Garay, the priest, a woman, and twelve of the soldiers. Garay had a daughter, Jerónima de Contreras, who married Hernando Arias de Saavedra, in the oldest part of the town of Garay in Biscay is located a palace-baserri named Garatikua and built by Juan de Garay. In the 19th century, it was called Garay-Goitia, according to García Carraffa, the Garays coat of arms indicates an origin from the noble Garay Family of Tudela, already mentioned in the thirteenth century. Juan de Garay as a Biscayan had the title of knight, the family had a certain economic and cultural level, it should be kept in mind that his uncle was appointed Judge and Alcalde Mayor of Segovia and his cousin attended the University of Salamanca. It is interesting that the three children bear different surnames, only the firstborn retains that of the father, while the others adopt the mothers surname and he also had a family relationship with Juan Ortiz de Zárate, third Adelantado of the Rio de la Plata. On his doubtful birth place Biography Fundación Vasco Argentina Biografía
15.
Bernardino Rivadavia
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Bernardino de la Trinidad González Rivadavia y Rivadavia was the first president of Argentina, then called the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, from February 8,1826 to June 27,1827. He was educated at the Royal College of San Carlos, during the British Invasions he served as Third Lieutenant of the Galicia Volunteers. He participated in the open Cabildo on May 22,1810 voting for the deposition of the viceroy and he had a strong influence on the First Triumvirate and shortly after he served as Minister of Government and Foreign Affairs of the Province of Buenos Aires. Argentinas Constitution of 1826 was promulgated later, but was rejected by the provinces, strongly contested by his political party, Rivadavia resigned and was succeeded by Vicente López y Planes. Rivadavia retired to Spain, where he died in 1845 and his remains were repatriated to Argentina in 1857, receiving honors as Captain General. Today his remains rest in a located in Plaza Miserere, adjacent to Rivadavia Avenue. His military appointment was rejected by Mariano Moreno, Rivadavia was active in both the Argentine resistance to the British invasion of 1806 and in the May Revolution movement for Argentine Independence in 1810. In 1811, Rivadavia became the member of the governing triumvirate as Secretary of the Treasury and Secretary of War. Until its fall in October 1812, this government focused on creating a central government, moderating relations with Spain. By 1814 the Spanish King Ferdinand VII had returned to the throne and started the Absolutist Restauration, manuel Belgrano and Rivadavia were sent to Europe to seek support for the United Provinces from both Spain and Britain. They sought to promote the crowning of Francisco de Paula, son of Charles IV of Spain, as regent of the United Provinces, the diplomatic mission was a failure, both in Spain and in Britain. He visited France as well, and returned to Buenos Aires in 1821, during his stay in Britain, Rivadavia saw the growing development of the Industrial Revolution, and the rise of Romanticism. He sought to promote a development in Buenos Aires. He convinced Aimé Bonpland to visit the country, but few other invitations were accepted, in June 1821, he was named minister of government to Buenos Aires by governor Martín Rodríguez. Over the next five years, he exerted a strong influence, to make the former look more European, Rivadavia constructed large avenues, schools, paved and lighted streets. He founded the University of Buenos Aires, as well as the Theater, Geology, and Medicine Academies and he persuaded the legislature to authorize a one-million pound loan for public works that were never undertaken. The provincial bonds were sold in London through the Baring Brothers Bank, local, the borrowed money was in turn lent to these businessmen, who never repaid it. Of the original million pounds the Buenos Aires government received only £552,700, the provinces foreign debt was transferred to the nation in 1825, its final repayment being made in 1904
16.
Neoclassical architecture
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Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century. In its purest form, it is a style derived from the architecture of classical antiquity, the Vitruvian principles. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro, Neoclassical architecture is still designed today, but may be labelled New Classical Architecture for contemporary buildings. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is referred to as Classicism. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée, the many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullées ideas and Edmund Burkes conception of the sublime, the baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. The most popular was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell, the book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book featured the work of Inigo Jones. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain, at the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic architect earl, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, in 1729, he and William Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of Palladios Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and this severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of Englands finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk, the main block of this house followed Palladios dictates quite closely, but Palladios low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicising vein was also detectable, to a degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for S, by the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s, in France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden. A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire, in France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire or Empire. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg, indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved an audience in the 1760s
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English Argentines
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English Argentines are citizens of Argentina, or the children of Argentine citizens brought up in Argentina, who can claim ancestry originating in England. The English settlement in Argentina, took place in the period after Argentinas independence from Spain through the 19th century, the United Kingdom had a strong economic influence in Argentina during the Victorian period. As the 19th century progressed more English families arrived, and many bought land to develop the potential of the Argentine pampas for the growing of crops. The English founded banks, developed the trade in crops and animal products. As well as those who went to Argentina as industrialists and major landowners, others went as railway engineers, civil engineers and to work in banking, others went to become whalers, missionaries and simply to seek out a future. English families sent second and younger sons, or what were described as the sheep of the family, to Argentina to make their fortunes in cattle. English settlers introduced football to Argentina, some English families owned sugar plantations. In a treaty of 1825, the United Kingdom became one of the first countries to recognise the independence of Argentina, at one point in the 19th century, ten per cent of British foreign investment was in Argentina, despite not being a colony. In 1939, 39% of investment in Argentina was British, English culture, or a version of it as perceived from outside, had a noted effect on the culture of Argentina, mainly in the middle classes. In 1888 local Anglo-Argentines established the Hurlingham Club, based on its namesake in London, the city of Hurlingham, Buenos Aires and Hurlingham Partido in Buenos Aires Province later grew up around the club and took their names from it. The Córdoba Athletic Club, one of the oldest sports clubs in Argentina, was founded in 1882 by English men that lived in Córdoba working in the railroads, in 1912 Harrods opened a department store in Buenos Aires, the only Harrods ever opened outside London. Harrods Buenos Aires became independent of Harrods in the 1940s but still traded under the Harrods name, the Richmond café on Florida Street is a notable tea venue near the Harrods department store, now turned into an exhibition hall. Belgrano R, within the Belgrano district, is another train station known for the British neighbourhood around it originated by the railway, an Anglican church from 1896 and the Buenos Aires English High School founded by Alexander Watson Hutton in 1884 are both located in this area. Also important are the railway terminals Retiro in the homonymous neighbourhood, there are numerous countryside stations in the Pampas. Around 100,000 Anglo-Argentines are the descendants of English immigrants to Argentina and they are one of the most successful immigrant groups of Argentina, gaining prominence in commerce, industry, and the professions. Many are noted by their ability to speak English in family circles with an undistinguishable English accent, an English-language newspaper, the Buenos Aires Herald, continues to be published daily in Buenos Aires. Anglo-Argentines have traditionally differed from their fellow Argentines by largely retaining strong ties with their country, including education. Many of the schools in Argentina are bilingual offering both English language and Spanish language, including Northlands School, St, marks College, Balmoral College, St. Albans College, St. Georges College, Belgrano Day School and Washington School
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Domingo Faustino Sarmiento
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Domingo Faustino Sarmiento was an Argentine activist, intellectual, writer, statesman and the seventh President of Argentina. His writing spanned a range of genres and topics, from journalism to autobiography, to political philosophy. He was a member of a group of intellectuals, known as the Generation of 1837 and he was particularly concerned with educational issues and was also an important influence on the regions literature. Sarmiento grew up in a poor but politically active family that paved the way for much of his future accomplishments, between 1843 and 1850 he was frequently in exile, and wrote in both Chile and in Argentina. His greatest literary achievement was Facundo, a critique of Juan Manuel de Rosas, while president of Argentina from 1868 to 1874, Sarmiento championed intelligent thought—including education for children and women—and democracy for Latin America. He also took advantage of the opportunity to modernize and develop systems, a postal system. He spent many years in ministerial roles on the federal and state levels where he travelled abroad, Sarmiento died in Asunción, Paraguay, at the age of 77 from a heart attack. He was buried in Buenos Aires, today, he is respected as a political innovator and writer. Sarmiento was born in Carrascal, a suburb of San Juan. His father, José Clemente Quiroga Sarmiento y Funes, had served in the military during the wars of independence, returning prisoners of war to San Juan. His mother, Doña Paula Zoila de Albarracín e Irrázabal, was a pious woman. As a result, she took to selling her weaving in order to afford to build a house of her own, on September 21,1801, José and Paula were married. They had 15 children,9 of whom died, Domingo was the son to survive to adulthood. In Sarmientos own words, I was born in a family that lived long years in mediocrity bordering on destitution, and my father is a good man whose life has nothing remarkable except having served in subordinate positions in the War of Independence. My mother is the figure of Christianity in its purest sense, with her. At the age of four, Sarmiento was taught to read by his father and his uncle, José Eufrasio Quiroga Sarmiento, who later became Bishop of Cuyo. Another uncle who influenced him in his youth was Domingo de Oro, though Sarmiento did not follow de Oros political and religious leanings, he learned the value of intellectual integrity and honesty. He developed scholarly and oratorical skills, qualities which de Oro was famous for, in 1816, at the age of five, Sarmiento began attending the primary school La Escuela de la Patria
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Unitarian Party
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Unitarianists or Unitarians were the proponents of the concept of a unitary state in Buenos Aires during the civil wars which shortly followed the Declaration of Independence of Argentina in 1816. They were opposed to the Argentine Federalists, who wanted a federation of independent provinces and these were evident at least as early as the declaration of Argentine independence in 1816. The Unitarianists lost their power after the Battle of Cepeda. However, the Unitarianists were forced to sign a treaty with other provinces and this did not solve the conflicts between the Federalists and the Unitarians. Under President Bernardino Rivadavia, the Unitarianists gained control for a period of time. ”However, the constitution was rejected by provincial caudillos, military leaders. Forced to resign, the Government of Buenos Aires and the Foreign relations of the country were taken over by Federalist Manuel Dorrego. In 1829, Juan Manuel de Rosas, the leader of a troop of Federalists, became the Governor of Buenos Aires after defeating General Juan Lavalle, although Rosas was a Federalist, his following of the principles of Federalism has often been questioned. In 1830, the Unitarian League was created by General José María Paz in order to defeat the Federalists, the Federalists faced Paz and his troops on May 31,1831 and the Unitarianists were defeated after the Gauchos captured the Unitarianist commander. The Provinces of the Unitarian League gradually joining into the Federal Pact, although the Unitarians exiled in neighboring countries, the Civil War would continue for another two decades, the Unitarians being led by Lavalle, Paz, Lamadrid, and many others. With support from Corrientes Province and the Brazilian Empire, Justo José de Urquiza, Federalist caudillo of Entre Ríos Province, on May, the San Nicolás Agreement was signed by the provincial governors. The pact reinstated the 1831 Federal Pact original provisions for a constitutional convention, in 1859 Buenos Aires was forced to accept the federal constitution of 1853 after six years of secession, after Mitre was defeated at the 1859 Battle of Cepeda by Urquiza. However, the constitution was amended to allow Buenos Aires greater influence after the ensuing 1861 Battle of Pavón. Mitre was then chosen as President of a new national government, opposition to the Unitarianists continued until 1890 under the Córdoba League. History of Argentina United Provinces of South America Bernardino Rivadavia unitario Encyclopædia Britannica, crow, John A. he Epic of Latin America
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Humidity
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Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor is the state of water and is invisible. Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog, higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin. This effect is calculated in an index table or humidex. The amount of vapor that is needed to achieve saturation increases as the temperature increases. As the temperature of a parcel of water becomes lower it will not reach the point of saturation without adding or losing water mass. The differences in the amount of vapor in a parcel of air can be quite large. For example, a parcel of air that is near saturation may contain 28 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 30 °C, there are three main measurements of humidity, absolute, relative and specific. Absolute humidity is the content of air expressed in gram per cubic meter. Relative humidity, expressed as a percent, measures the current absolute humidity relative to the maximum for that temperature, specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the moist air parcel. Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapor present in a given volume of air. It does not take temperature into consideration, absolute humidity in the atmosphere ranges from near zero to roughly 30 grams per cubic meter when the air is saturated at 30 °C. Absolute humidity is the mass of the vapor, divided by the volume of the air and water vapor mixture. The absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure changes and this makes it unsuitable for chemical engineering calculations, e. g. for clothes dryers, where temperature can vary considerably. Mass of water per unit volume as in the equation above is defined as volumetric humidity. Because of the confusion, British Standard BS1339 suggests avoiding the term absolute humidity. Units should always be carefully checked, many humidity charts are given in g/kg or kg/kg, but any mass units may be used. The field concerned with the study of physical and thermodynamic properties of mixtures is named psychrometrics
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Swedish Argentine
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Swedish settlement in Argentina took place principally in the mid to late 19th century, when Swedish people arrived in Argentina. Many Swedes came to Argentina for economic reasons and in order to start a new life, Swedes also helped build Argentina, in particular helping to build Argentinas railroads in the mid 19th century. The first Swedes to arrive in Argentina were registered as new converts by Jesuits in Córdoba in 1763, many of the Swedes who showed up during the first half of the 19th century were adventurers who fought in the civil war between the Unitarians and Federalists. A good number of them were sons of prominent families who were fleeing a debt or had some reason to make themselves scarce. They became the black sheep of the Pampas, back home in northern Sweden, they had hunted moose. In Misiones Provinces subtropical rainforest, they hunted tapir, Argentina is home to the largest Swedish community in Latin America. Azul y oro – blue and yellow/gold – are Swedens national colours, in Brazil, the new arrivals soon discovered that the recruitment officers propaganda was nothing more than empty promises. Two contingents of emigrants made the voyage south, in 1890–91, most of the 2000 were workers and families from the crisis-ridden industries in Stockholm and Sundsvall. In 1909–11, most of the 700 were miners from the far north who left after the failure of a nationwide strike, in 1914 ten men cleared a 20-kilometre path through the jungle between the first Swedish settlement, Villa Svea and a German colony. The road is known as the Picada Sueca. Around 500 Swedes were estimated to have settled in the area by the 1920s and they organized a school, an ethnic-based association, in September many Swedish descendants still participate in the Oberá Immigrants Festival. Henrik Åberg and Carl August Kihlberg were the designers of the Presidential Palace of Argentina, among the first Swedes to step ashore in Argentina were Daniel Solander and Anders Sparrman. They were disciples of botanist Carl von Linné and accompanied Captain Cook on his expeditions to pick exotic flowers. Several other Nordic scientists were drawn to this area at the beginning of the century, most remembered among them all is the geologist and polar explorer Otto Nordenskjöld who, along with his crew, survived two winters in Antarctica after a shipwreck. The Argentine government pulled off a rescue expedition in 1903. Thousands of people in Buenos Aires celebrated the return of the marine officials, today the vessel used in the rescue, the corvette Uruguay, is a floating museum in Dock 1 of Puerto Madero. Gustaf de Laval patented the milk separator that separated cream from milk in 1878, when former sea captain Erik Adde started marketing the Separadora in Argentina, less than one percent of the cows were being milked. Cattle was synonymous with meat and hides and Argentina imported dairy products like butter and cheese from Denmark, the Swedish inventor spurred the birth of an Argentine dairy industry and the first salted butter to be exported to England was called La Escandinava and was produced by three Swedes
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Second Empire (architecture)
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Second Empire is an architectural style, most popular in the latter half of the 19th century and early years of the 20th century. It was so named for the elements in vogue during the era of the Second French Empire. The style quickly spread and evolved as Baroque Revival architecture throughout Europe and its suitability for super-scaling allowed it to be widely used in the design of municipal and corporate buildings. In the United States, where one of the architects working in the style was Alfred B. Mullett, buildings in the style were often closer to their 17th-century roots than examples of the found in Europe
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Julio Argentino Roca
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Alejo Julio Argentino Roca Paz was an army general who served as President of Argentina from 12 October 1880 to 12 October 1886 and again from 12 October 1898 to 12 October 1904. Julio Roca was born in the city of San Miguel de Tucumán in 1843 into a prominent local family. He graduated from the National College in Concepción del Uruguay, Entre Ríos, before he was 15, Roca joined the army of the Argentine Confederation, on 19 March 1858. He also fought in the War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay between 1865 and 1870, Roca rose to the rank of colonel serving in the war to suppress the revolt of Ricardo López Jordán in Entre Ríos. President Nicolás Avellaneda later promoted him to General after his victory over rebel general José M. Arredondo in the battle of Santa Rosa, leading the loyalist forces. The Indians frequently assaulted frontier settlements and stole horses and cattle, and this land conquest would also strengthen Argentinas strategic position against Chile. The April 11 elections for president, which came a sweeping victory for the voters of Roca, on June 13 the Electoral College met and elected President General Roca and Vice President Francisco Bernabé Madero. But in Buenos Aires it was brewing a revolution against the triumph of Roca, four days later the fighting began, which ended on June 25 with an agreement between the province and the nation, the revolution of 1880 had cost 3,000 dead. Shortly before the presidential inauguration Roca was passed in Congress federalization of Buenos Aires, under his mandate the so-called laicist laws were passed, which nationalized a series of functions that previously were under the control of the Church. He also created the so-called Registro Civil, an index of all births, deaths, President Roca also made primary education free of charge by nationalizing education institutions run by the Church. This led to a break in relations with the Vatican, however, financial speculation and government corruption marred his administration. In May 1886 Roca was the subject of an assassination attempt. Roca did not participate in the 1890 revolution, which was instigated by Leandro N. Alem, however, he was pleased in the resulting weakness of Miguel Juárez Celman. Roca himself had put forward Juárez Celman as his successor, who happened to be his brother-in-law. However, Celman distanced himself from Roca and reprivatized large sectors of the economy in a corrupt fashion, after his first presidency Roca became a senator and Minister of the Interior under Carlos Pellegrini. After President Luis Sáenz Peña resigned in January 1895, José Evaristo Uriburu took over the presidency, because of this, Roca again assumed the duties of President between 28 October 1895 and 8 February 1896, when Uriburu was ill. In the middle of 1897 the Partido Autonomista Nacional party put forward Roca as a candidate once more. Unopposed, he was able to begin a regular time in office on 12 October 1898
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Argentina Bicentennial
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The Argentina Bicentennial was a series of ceremonies, festivals, and observances celebrated on May 25,2010 and throughout the year. Celebrations for the bicentennial started early in 2010 and continued through the year and these events were not related solely to the May Revolution, but also to many factors pertaining to the history and culture of Argentina. It started on January 20 with the Cosquín Festival, a folk music event which lasts for 12 days. The armies of Argentina and Chile recreated the crossing of the Andes, led in 1817 by José de San Martín, Bernardo OHiggins, and the Army of the Andes, on January 28. Many historical events of Argentina were performed on a stage in Mar del Plata on February 10, with more than 600 actors, at the beginning of May, President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner signed a decree declaring May 24 a holiday, but only during 2010. The 9 de Julio Avenue was closed to the traffic between Corrientes and Belgrano avenues during the festivity days, and was used to host the main celebrations, celebrations started on May 21, with a concert of Argentine rock bands. Litto Nebbia acted as host, and performers included Fito Páez, a number of military parades of modern and historical regiments and units, including the Regiment of Patricians and the Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers, were staged on May 22. They were followed by parades representing the provinces of Argentina and their cultures, for instance, Jujuy included llamas. The city of Córdoba prepared the Expo 200 Bicentenario fair, held at the Complejo Ferial Córdoba, it opened on May 22 and featured more than 300 stands from the productive, industrial, touristic, cultural, and technological sectors of the province. The convention included many scheduled events, seminars, parades, conferences, and musical, cultural, the city of Villa María prepared the largest dish of locro in the world, served for free to 10,000 people. The city of Rosario started the celebrations on May 22 at the National Flag Memorial and it made an opera concert under the slogan of founding the second Argentina, and the tenor Darío Volonté invited the people to sing Aurora. There were also works to restore the Libertador San Martín theater, the government of San Luis prepared a replica of the May Square, the Buenos Aires Cabildo, and the May Pyramid, in their 1810 designs. The replica would differ from the Cabildos present appearance, as development in the twentieth century led to the removal of several outside columns to make room for avenues. The project is planned for the town of La Punta, the celebrations led to a number of disputes among politicians. Macri accused Néstor Kirchner and President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner of being behind Oyarbides action, on May 23, Macri expressed his disgust towards the Kirchners, stating to the media that if she is coming with her husband, the consort, I will have to sit there. Two days before, Macri also referred pejoratively to the President as la señora de ahí enfrente, on May 21, President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner canceled her earlier acceptance of Macris invitation to the Teatro Colóns May 24 reopening gala. Macri requested that the President reconsider her decision, though without offering apologies for his remark, ultimately. The administration scheduled an honor luncheon at the White Room of the Casa Rosada during the night of May 25 and it included nearly 200 guests, among them notable people from the Church, industry, media, culture and sports
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May Revolution
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The May Revolution was a week-long series of events that took place from May 18 to 25,1810, in Buenos Aires, capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. This Spanish colony included roughly the territories of present-day Argentina, Bolivia, the result was the removal of Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros and the establishment of a local government, the Primera Junta, on May 25. It was the first successful revolution in South American Independence process, the May Revolution was a direct reaction to Spains Peninsular War. In 1808, King Ferdinand VII of Spain abdicated in favor of Napoleon, on February 1,1810, French troops took Seville and gained control of most of Andalusia. The Supreme Junta retreated to Cadiz and dissolved itself, and the Council of Regency of Spain, news of these events arrived in Buenos Aires on May 18, brought by British ships. Viceroy Cisneros tried to maintain the status quo, but a group of criollo lawyers. Delegates denied recognition to the Council of Regency in Spain and established a junta to govern in place of Cisneros, to maintain a sense of continuity, Cisneros was initially appointed president of the Junta. However, this caused much popular unrest, so he resigned under pressure on May 25, the newly formed government, the Primera Junta, included only representatives from Buenos Aires and invited other cities of the Viceroyalty to send delegates to join them. This resulted in the outbreak of war between the regions that accepted the outcome of the events at Buenos Aires and those that did not. As similar events occurred in other cities of the continent. A formal declaration of independence was issued at the Congress of Tucumán on July 9,1816. The United States declaration of independence from Great Britain in 1776 led criollos to believe that revolution, the fact that Spain aided the colonies in their struggle against Britain weakened the idea that it would be a crime to end ones allegiance to the parent state. The ideals of the French Revolution of 1789 spread across Europe, the overthrow and execution of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette ended centuries of monarchy and removed the privileges of the nobility. Liberal ideals in the political and economic fields developed and spread through the Atlantic Revolutions across most of the Western world, however, the spread of such ideas was forbidden in the Spanish territories, as was the sale of related books or their unauthorized possession. Spain instituted those bans when it declared war on France after the execution of Louis XVI, news of the events of 1789 and copies of the publications of the French Revolution spread around Spain despite efforts to keep them at bay. Many enlightened criollos came into contact with authors and their works during their university studies. Books from the United States found their way into the Spanish colonies through Caracas, owing to the proximity of Venezuela to the United States, the Industrial Revolution started in Britain, with the use of plateways, canals and steam power. This led to increases in the productive capabilities of Britain
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Pedro de Mendoza
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Pedro de Mendoza y Luján was a Spanish conquistador, soldier and explorer, and the first adelantado of New Andalusia. Pedro de Mendoza, also known as Don Pedro de Mendoza, was from a family in the Granadin town of Guadix. He was also a nobleman in the Spanish court, in 1524, he was dubbed a Knight of Alcántara and later received the Order of Santiago. In 1529, he offered to explore South America at his own expense, thanks to the efforts of his mother María de Mendoza, in 1534 his offer was accepted, he was made adelantado governor, captain general, and chief justice over New Andalusia. This grant allowed him authority over as much land as he could conquer, although this was measured along the Pacific coast, it was understood his efforts would be directed towards the Río de la Plata on the Atlantic. The Emperor gave Mendoza 2000 men and 13 ships on the condition that two years Mendoza should transport 1000 colonists, build roads into the interior, and construct three forts. He was to have half the treasure of the chiefs killed, the office of Governor was also, in theory, made hereditary. That year, he set sail with a fleet, but a terrible storm scattered it off the coast of Brazil. Here his lieutenant, Juan de Osorio, was assassinated, according to authorities by the orders of Mendoza himself because of suspected disloyalty. Mendoza sailed up the Río de la Plata in 1535 and founded Buenos Aires on February 3,1536, although Mendoza is said to be the founder of Rio de la Plata, he was not a very effective leader because he was debilitated by a severe case of syphilis. He spent half of his time ill in bed, but he put as much effort as he could into the expedition, no notable campaigns occurred in the River Plate during this time, and the only chronicler was a German soldier named Ulderico Schmidt. Schmidt came over to the River Plate with Don Pedro and stayed there for eighteen years and his account of this early history of the River Plate region is the most important document from that time period. Angered by the hostility, Mendoza sent his brother to lead a force against the natives. Even though hundreds of natives were killed, Mendozas brother was slain as well, along with thirty of his men, the natives were driven off after that bloody battle and their provisions were taken, but the fight was very costly to the Spaniards. The colonists city was surrounded by a hastily made 1 metre thick wall made of mud. Every time it rained the wall partially dissolved, along with this occasionally deteriorating wall, the colonists had to deal with another problem, famine. Food eventually became scarce, and the residents had to resort to eating rats, mice, snakes, lizards, rawhide boots, in addition to these difficulties, a coalition of the natives formed. They attacked the city again and again, many leaving the city almost completely burned to the ground
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Matanza River
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The Matanza River is known by several names, including, in Spanish, Río de la Matanza, Río Matanza, Río Mataderos, Río de la Manzana or simply Riachuelo. It is a 64-kilometre stream in Argentina that originates in the Buenos Aires Province and it empties into the Río de la Plata between Tandanor and Dock Sud. The La Boca neighbourhood and the Boca Juniors football club are located near the Riachuelos mouth, the Spanish word boca means mouth. The rivers course has been canalized and channelized in places, especially along its lower course, from its source down to La Noria Bridge on Avenida General Paz, the river is usually referred to as Río La Matanza, and from that point onwards as Riachuelo. Approximately 3.5 million people live in its basin of 2,240 km2. The south-easterly storm wind, known as Sudestada, hinders the waters of the Riachuelo from reaching the Río de la Plata, producing frequent flooding in low-lying areas like La Boca, since 1995 a number of flood control projects have been carried out to prevent such occurrences. The Matanzas main tributaries are the Cañuelas, Chacón, and Morales streams in the Province of Buenos Aires, the Matanza receives large amounts of industrial waste from the numerous factories along the river, especially tanneries, which makes the Matanza/Riachuelo a polluted river. Among the most dangerous contaminants are heavy metals and waste water from the saturated layers. In 1993, President Carlos Menems Secretary of Environment, María Julia Alsogaray, presented a 3-year project to clean up the Riachuelo that was approved, the former civil servant, daughter of conservative policy maker Álvaro Alsogaray, was prosecuted for misappropriation of those public funds. Critics have also noted that this cleanup was in vain, as all that was done was to remove sunken ship hulls, environmental cleanup efforts have been supplemented by urban renewal proposals for the area. As of December 2013, no cleanup has been done, the river contains industrial waste with high levels of arsenic, chromium, copper, zinc, and lead
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English architecture
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The architecture of England refers to the architecture practiced in the territory of the present-day country of England, and in the historic Kingdom of England. Each of these foreign modes became assimilated within English architectural culture and gave rise to variation and innovation. Among the most characteristic styles originating in England are the Perpendicular Gothic of the late Middle Ages, High Victorian Gothic, the earliest known examples of architecture in England are the megalithic tombs of the Neolithic, such as those at Waylands Smithy and the West Kennet Long Barrow. These cromlechi are common over much of Atlantic Europe, present day Spain, Brittany, Great Britain, the Neolithic henges of Avebury and Stonehenge are two of the largest and most famous megalithic monuments in the world. The structure is a calendar, but the reason for the massive size is unknown with any certainty, suggestions include agriculture, ceremonial use. With other nearby sites, including Silbury Hill, Beckhampton Avenue, numerous examples of Bronze Age and Iron Age architecture can be seen in England. Megalithic burial monuments, either individual barrows or occasionally cists covered by cairns, are one form, the other is the defensive earthworks known as hill forts, such as Maiden Castle and Cadbury Castle. Archaeological evidence suggests that British Iron Age domestic architecture had a tendency towards circular dwellings, the Roman period brought the construction of the first large-scale buildings in Britain, but very little survives above ground besides fortifications. These include sections of Hadrians Wall, Chester city walls and coastal forts such as those at Portchester, Pevensey and Burgh Castle, other structures still standing include a lighthouse at Dover Castle, now part of a church. In most cases, only foundations, floors and the bases of walls attest to the structure of former buildings, some of these were on a grand scale, such as the palace at Fishbourne and the baths at Bath. Architecture of the Anglo-Saxon period exists only in the form of churches, the earliest examples date from the 7th century, notably at Bradwell-on-Sea and Escomb, but the majority from the 10th and 11th centuries. Due to the destruction and replacement of English cathedrals and monasteries by the Normans, no major Anglo-Saxon churches survive. The main material is ashlar masonry, sometimes accompanied by details in reused Roman brick, Anglo-Saxon churches are typically high and narrow and consist of a nave and a narrower chancel, these are often accompanied by a west tower. Some feature porticus to the west or to the north and south, characteristic features include quoins in long-and-short work and small windows with rounded or triangular tops, deeply splayed or in groups of two or three divided by squat columns. The most common form of decoration is lesene strips, typically combined with blind arcading. Notable examples of this exist at Earls Barton, Bradford-on-Avon and Barton-upon-Humber, the Normans destroyed a large proportion of Englands churches and built Romanesque replacements, a process which encompassed all of Englands cathedrals. Even Durham displays significant transitional features leading towards the emergence of Gothic, Romanesque churches are characterised by rounded arches, arcades supported by massive cylindrical piers, groin vaults and low-relief sculptural decoration. Distinctively Norman features include decorative chevron patterns, in the wake of the invasion William I and his lords built numerous wooden motte-and-bailey castles to impose their control on the native population
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Renaissance Revival architecture
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The divergent forms of Renaissance architecture in different parts of Europe, particularly in France and Italy, has added to the difficulty of defining and recognizing Neo-Renaissance architecture. The movement grew from scientific observations of nature, in human anatomy. Neo-Renaissance architecture is formed by not only the original Italian architecture, in England the Renaissance tended to manifest itself in large square tall houses such as Longleat House. Often these buildings had symmetrical towers which hint at the evolution from medieval fortified architecture and this is particularly evident at Hatfield House built between 1607 and 1611, where medieval towers jostle with a large Italian cupola. If this were not confusing enough, the new Neo-Renaissance then frequently borrowed architectural elements from the succeeding Mannerist period, mannerism and Baroque being two very opposing styles of architecture. Mannerism was exemplified by the Palazzo del Te and Baroque by the Wurzburg Residenz, as a consequence a self-consciously Neo-Renaissance manner first began to appear circa 1840. By 1890 this movement was already in decline, the Hagues Peace Palace completed in 1913, in a heavy French Neo-Renaissance manner was one of the last notable buildings in this style. Charles Barry introduced the Neo-Renaissance to England with his design of the Travellers Club, the style is characterized by original Renaissance motifs, taken from such Quattrocento architects as Alberti. These motifs included rusticated masonry and quoins, windows framed by architraves and doors crowned by pediments, if a building were of several floors the uppermost floor usually had small square windows representing the minor mezzanine floor of the original Renaissance designs. However, the Neo-renaissance style later came to incorporate Romanesque and Baroque features not found in the original Renaissance architecture which was more severe in its design. Like all architectural styles the Neo-Renaissance did not appear overnight fully formed but evolved slowly, one of the very first signs of its emergence was the Würzburg Womens Prison, which was erected in 1809 designed by Peter Speeth. This building foreshadows similar effects in the work of the American architect Henry Hobson Richardson whose work in the Neo-Renaissance style was popular in the USA during the 1880s, richardsons style at the end or the revival era was a severe mix of both Romanesque and Renaissance features. This was exemplified by his Marshall Field Warehouse in Chicago, however, while the beginning of Neo-Renaissance period can be defined by its simplicity and severity, what came between was far more ornate in its design. This period can be defined by some of the opera houses of the Europe, such as Gottfried Sempers Burgtheater in Vienna. This ornate form of the Neo-Renaissance, originating from France, is known as the Second Empire style. By 1875 it had become the style in Europe for all public and bureaucratic buildings. In England, where Sir George Gilbert Scott designed the London Foreign Office in this style between 1860 and 1875, it also incorporated certain Palladian features. In Austria, it was pioneered by such names as Rudolf Eitelberger
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French architecture
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French architecture ranks high among Frances many accomplishments. A crucial factor in development, coined the Roman Architectural Revolution, was the invention of concrete. Social elements such as wealth and high densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new solutions of their own. Notable examples in France during the period are Alyscamps in Arles, the Alyscamps is a large Roman necropolis, which is a short distance outside the walls of the old town of Arles. It was one of the most famous necropolises of the ancient world, the name is a corruption of the Latin Elisii Campi. They were famous in the Middle Ages and are referred to by Ariosto in Orlando Furioso, the Alyscamps continued to be used well into medieval times, although the removal of Saint Trophimus relics to the cathedral in 1152 reduced its prestige. Plans often continued the Roman basilica tradition, but also influences from as far away as Syria and Armenia. In the East, most structures were in timber, but stone was more common for significant buildings in the West, most major churches have been rebuilt, usually more than once, but many Merovingian plans have been reconstructed from archaeology. There are no Roman precedents for this Frankish innovation, a number of other buildings, now lost, including the Merovingian foundations of Saint-Denis, St. Gereon in Cologne, and the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés in Paris, are described as similarly ornate. Architecture of a Romanesque style developed simultaneously in parts of France in the 10th century, the style, sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque, is characterised by thick walls, lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band. The Angoulême Cathedral is one of several instances in which the Byzantine churches of Constantinople seem to have been influential in the design in which the spaces are roofed by domes. This structure has necessitated the use of thick walls. There are radiating chapels around the apse, which is a typically French feature and was to evolve into the chevette, notre-Dame in Domfront, Normandy is a cruciform church with a short apsidal east end. The nave has lost its aisle, and has some of its length. The crossing has a tower rises in two differentiated stages and is surmounted by a pyramidical spire of a type seen widely in France and Germany. The Abbey of Fongombault in France shows the influence of the Abbey of Cluny, the cruciform plan is clearly visible. There is a chevette of chapels surrounding the chance apse, the crossing is surmounted by a tower. Begun in the 1060s, it was a prototype for Gothic facades, the spires and the pinnacles, which appear to rise inevitably from the towers, are of the early 13th century
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Arch
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An arch is a curved structure that spans a space and may or may not support weight above it. Arch may be synonymous with vault, but a vault may be distinguished as a continuous arch forming a roof, an arch is a pure compression form. It can span an area by resolving forces into compressive stresses and. This is sometimes referred to as arch action, as the forces in the arch are carried to the ground, the arch will push outward at the base, called thrust. As the rise, or height of the arch decreases, the outward thrust increases, in order to maintain arch action and prevent the arch from collapsing, the thrust needs to be restrained, either with internal ties or external bracing, such as abutments. The most common true arch configurations are the arch, the two-hinged arch. The fixed arch is most often used in reinforced concrete bridge and tunnel construction, because it is subject to additional internal stress caused by thermal expansion and contraction, this type of arch is considered to be statically indeterminate. The two-hinged arch is most often used to long spans. This type of arch has pinned connections at the base, unlike the fixed arch, the pinned base is able to rotate, allowing the structure to move freely and compensate for the thermal expansion and contraction caused by changes in outdoor temperature. However, this can result in additional stresses, so the two-hinged arch is also statically indeterminate, the three-hinged arch is not only hinged at its base, like the two-hinged arch, but at the mid-span as well. The additional connection at the mid-span allows the arch to move in two opposite directions and compensate for any expansion and contraction. This type of arch is not subject to additional stress caused by thermal change. The three-hinged arch is said to be statically determinate. It is most often used for structures, such as large building roofs. Another advantage of the arch is that the pinned bases are more easily developed than fixed ones, allowing for shallow. Arches have many forms, but all fall into three categories, circular, pointed, and parabolic. Arches can also be configured to produce vaults and arcades, Arches with a circular form, also referred to as rounded arches, were commonly employed by the builders of ancient, heavy masonry arches. Ancient Roman builders relied heavily on the arch to span large
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Facade
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A façade is generally one exterior side of a building, usually, but not always, the front. It is a loan word from the French façade, which means frontage or face. In architecture, the façade of a building is often the most important aspect from a design standpoint, from the engineering perspective of a building, the façade is also of great importance due to its impact on energy efficiency. For historical façades, many local zoning regulations or other laws restrict or even forbid their alteration. The word comes from the French foreign loan word façade, which in turn comes from the Italian facciata, from faccia meaning face, the earliest usage recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is 1656. It was quite common in the Georgian period for existing houses in English towns to be given a fashionable new façade, in modern highrise building, the exterior walls are often suspended from the concrete floor slabs. Examples include curtain walls and precast concrete walls, the façade can at times be required to have a fire-resistance rating, for instance, if two buildings are very close together, to lower the likelihood of fire spreading from one building to another. In general, the systems that are suspended or attached to the precast concrete slabs will be made from aluminium or stainless steel. In recent years more lavish materials such as titanium have sometimes been used, whether rated or not, fire protection is always a design consideration. The melting point of aluminium,660 °C, is reached within minutes of the start of a fire. Firestops for such building joints can be qualified, too, putting fire sprinkler systems on each floor has a profoundly positive effect on the fire safety of buildings with curtain walls. Some building codes also limit the percentage of area in exterior walls. When the exterior wall is not rated, the slab edge becomes a junction where rated slabs are abutting an unrated wall. For rated walls, one may also choose rated windows and fire doors, on a film set and within most themed attractions, many of the buildings are only façades, which are far cheaper than actual buildings, and not subject to building codes. In film sets, they are held up with supports from behind. Within theme parks, they are usually decoration for the interior ride/attraction/restaurant, by Ulrich Knaack, Tillmann Klein, Marcel Bilow and Thomas Auer. ISBN 978-3-7643-7961-2 ISBN 978-3-7643-7962-9 Giving buildings an illusion of grandeur Poole, the article outlines the development of the façade in ecclesiastical architecture from the early Christian period to the Renaissance
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Skylight
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Skylights are light transmitting fenestration forming all, or a portion of, the roof of a buildings space for daylighting purposes. Open skylights were used in Ancient Roman architecture, such as the oculus of the Pantheon, glazed closed skylights have been in use since the Industrial Revolution made advances in glass production manufacturing. Mass production units since the century have brought skylights to many uses. Uses include, daylighting elements used to allow direct and/or indirect sunlight, providing a visual connection to the outdoor environment to interior occupants. Sustainable building — passive solar heating, and with units, ventilation for passive cooling. Fixed unit skylight A fixed skylight consists of a perimeter frame supporting glazing infill. A fixed skylight is non-operable, meaning there is no ventilation, operable skylight An operable unit skylight uses a hinged sash attached to and supported by the frame. When within reach of the occupants, this type is called a roof window. Retractable skylight A retractable skylight rolls - on a set of tracks - off the frame, so that the interior of the facility is open to the outdoors. The terms retractable skylight and retractable roof are used interchangeably. Tubular daylight device Active daylighting uses a tubular daylight device—TDD and it is a roof-mounted fixed unit skylight element, condensing sunlight, distributed by a light conveying optic conduit to a light diffusing element. Being small in diameter, they can be used for daylighting smaller spaces such as hallways, TDDs harvest daylight through a roof-mounted dome with diameters ranging from about 10 inches for residential applications to 22 inches for commercial buildings. Made from acrylic or polycarbonate formulated to block ultraviolet rays, the dome captures, image, Skylight on the roof terrace of Liverpool Central Library. Skylights are widely used in designing daylighting for residential, public, increased daylighting can result in less electrical lighting use and smaller sized window glazing, saving energy, lowering costs, and reducing environmental impacts. Daylighting can cut lighting energy use in buildings by up to 80%. Modern transparent and/or translucent glazing can be utilized to avoid glare, aid in capturing sunlight at low angles, even on overcast days, toplighting from skylights is three to ten times more efficient than sidelighting. Many recent advances in glass and plastic infill systems have greatly benefited all skylight types. Contemporary skylights using glass infill typically use sealed insulating glass units made with two panes of glass and these types of products are NFRC-ratable for visible transmittance
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Juan Manuel de Rosas
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Juan Manuel de Rosas, nicknamed Restorer of the Laws, was a politician and army officer who ruled Buenos Aires Province and briefly the Argentine Confederation. Although born into a family, Rosas independently amassed a personal fortune. Rosas enlisted his workers in a militia, as was common for rural proprietors. Victorious in warfare, personally influential, and with vast landholdings and he eventually reached the rank of brigadier general, the highest in the Argentine army, and became the undisputed leader of the Federalist Party. In December 1829, Rosas became governor of the province of Buenos Aires, in 1831, he signed the Federal Pact, recognising provincial autonomy and creating the Argentine Confederation. When his term of office ended in 1832, Rosas departed to the frontier to wage war on the indigenous peoples, after his supporters launched a coup in Buenos Aires, Rosas was asked to return and once again took office as governor. Rosas reestablished his dictatorship and formed the repressive Mazorca, an armed parapolice that killed thousands of citizens, elections became a farce, and the legislature and judiciary became docile instruments of his will. Rosas created a cult of personality and his regime became totalitarian in nature, Rosas faced many threats to his power during the late 1830s and early 1840s. Rosas persevered and extended his influence in the provinces, exercising control over them through direct and indirect means. By 1848, he had extended his power beyond the borders of Buenos Aires and was ruler of all of Argentina, Rosas also attempted to annex the neighbouring nations of Uruguay and Paraguay. When the Empire of Brazil began aiding Uruguay in its struggle against Argentina, Rosas declared war in August 1851 and this short conflict ended with the defeat of Rosas and his flight to Britain. His last years were spent in living as a tenant farmer until his death in 1877. Rosas garnered a public perception among Argentines as a brutal tyrant. In 1989, his remains were repatriated by the government in an attempt to promote unity, seeking forgiveness for him. Rosas remains a figure in Argentina in the 21st century. Juan Manuel José Domingo Ortiz de Rosas was born on 30 March 1793 at his familys house in Buenos Aires. He was the first child of León Ortiz de Rosas and Agustina López de Osornio, León Ortiz was the son of an immigrant from the Spanish Province of Burgos. A military officer with a career, León Ortiz had married into a wealthy Criollo family
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Christopher Columbus
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Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator, colonizer, and citizen of the Republic of Genoa. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean and those voyages and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola initiated the European colonization of the New World. Western imperialism and economic competition were emerging among European kingdoms through the establishment of routes and colonies. During his first voyage in 1492, he reached the New World instead of arriving at Japan as he had intended, landing on an island in the Bahamas archipelago that he named San Salvador. Over the course of three voyages, he visited the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America. These voyages had, therefore, an impact in the historical development of the modern Western world. He spearheaded the transatlantic trade and has been accused by several historians of initiating the genocide of the Hispaniola natives. Columbus himself saw his accomplishments primarily in the light of spreading the Christian religion, Columbus never admitted that he had reached a continent previously unknown to Europeans, rather than the East Indies for which he had set course. He called the inhabitants of the lands that he visited indios, the name Christopher Columbus is the Anglicisation of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. His name in Italian is Cristoforo Colombo and, in Spanish and he was born before 31 October 1451 in the territory of the Republic of Genoa, though the exact location remains disputed. His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who worked both in Genoa and Savona and who also owned a cheese stand at which young Christopher worked as a helper. Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo were his brothers, Bartolomeo worked in a cartography workshop in Lisbon for at least part of his adulthood. He also had a sister named Bianchinetta, Columbus never wrote in his native language, which is presumed to have been a Genoese variety of Ligurian. In one of his writings, he says he went to sea at the age of 10, in 1470, the Columbus family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. In the same year, Christopher was on a Genoese ship hired in the service of René of Anjou to support his attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. Some modern historians have argued that he was not from Genoa but, instead and these competing hypotheses have generally been discounted by mainstream scholars. In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the important Centurione, Di Negro, later, he allegedly made a trip to Chios, an Aegean island then ruled by Genoa. In May 1476, he took part in a convoy sent by Genoa to carry valuable cargo to northern Europe
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