1.
Argentine Declaration of Independence
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What today is commonly referred as the Independence of Argentina was declared on July 9,1816 by the Congress of Tucumán. In reality, the congressmen who were assembled in Tucumán declared the independence of the United Provinces of South America, the Federal League Provinces, at war with the United Provinces, were not allowed into the Congress. At the same time, several provinces from the Upper Peru that would become part of present-day Bolivia, were represented at the Congress. The 1810 May Revolution followed the deposition of the Spanish king Ferdinand VII by the Napoleonic French, the revolution ended the authority of the Viceroy Cisneros and replaced it with the Primera Junta. When the Spanish monarchy resumed its functions in 1819, Spain was determined to control over its colonies in the Americas. Moreover, the royalists from Peru had been victorious at the battles of Sipe-Sipe, Huaqui, Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, in Upper Peru, on April 15,1815 a revolution ended the mandate of Carlos María de Alvear as Supreme Director and demanded that a General Congress be summoned. Delegate deputies, each representing 14,000 inhabitants, were sent from all the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata to the sessions, however, the Federal League Provinces did not send delegates, the Argentine littoral Provinces, and the Eastern Province. The Congress was inaugurated in the city of Tucumán, with 33 deputies, the presidency of the Congress would be rotated monthly. Because the Congress had the freedom to choose topics to debate, the voting finally ended on July 9 with a declaration of independence. This was a concept that was also invoked by the other Spanish American declarations of independence, such as Venezuelas and Mexicos. The president of the Congress at the time was Francisco Narciso de Laprida, subsequent discussions centered on what form of government the emerging state should adopt. The house where the declaration was adopted has been rebuilt and is now a museum and monument, the House of Tucumán
2.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
3.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
4.
Colonial Argentina
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Colonial Argentina is designated as the period of the History of Argentina when it was an overseas colony of the Spanish Empire. It begins in the age of the indigenous peoples of Argentina. However, most of the geography of the Americas was still unknown, the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan continued towards the south, passed the Strait of Magellan and eventually completed the first circumnavigation of the world. There were land expeditions coming from the north as well, from Lima, the first European to disembark in what is now present day Argentina was Juan Díaz de Solís, who discovered the Río de la Plata. Solís was killed by Charrúas, along with sailors. The sailor Francisco del Puerto, part of Solís voyage, was spared by the Charruas because of his young age, Francisco del Puerto was rescued by the Venetian Sebastian Cabot, and told him about myths of sources of silver in the area. This promoted further explorations in the area, there was no silver, nor any other precious metal, but those initial myths influenced the modern name of Argentina. The voyage of Cabot, expecting to conquer the lands of the inexistent White King, established the fortification of Sancti Spiritu, next to the Paraná River. The voyage was a failure, they did not get any metals, Sancti Spiritu was destroyed by the native people. The new ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the events of the Peninsular War started the Argentine Wars of Independence, Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata topics Spanish colonization of the Americas Media related to Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Argentine War of Independence
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On July 9,1816, an assembly met in San Miguel de Tucumán, declared full independence with provisions for a national constitution. The territory of modern Argentina was part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, with its city in Buenos Aires. Modern Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia were also part of the viceroyalty, the vast area of the territory and slow communications led most populated areas to become isolated from each other. The wealthiest regions of the viceroyalty were in Upper Peru, Salta and Córdoba had closer ties with Upper Peru than with Buenos Aires. Similarly, Mendoza in the west had closer ties with the Captaincy General of Chile, Paraguay was isolated from all other regions. This created a rivalry between the Criollos, people born in America, and the peninsulares, people arrived from Europe. The ideas of the American and French Revolutions, and the Age of Enlightenment, the full prohibition imposed by Spain to trade with other nations was also seen as damaging to the viceroyaltys economy. The population of Buenos Aires was highly militarized during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata, Buenos Aires was captured in 1806, and then liberated by Santiago de Liniers with forces from Montevideo. Fearing a counter-attack, all the population of Buenos Aires capable of bearing arms was arranged in military bodies, a new British attack in 1807 captured Montevideo, but was defeated in Buenos Aires, and forced to leave the viceroyalty. The transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil generated military concern and it was feared that the British would launch a third attack, this time allied with Portugal. However, no military conflict took place, as when the Peninsular War started Britain, Javier de Elío created a Junta in Montevideo and Martín de Álzaga sought to make a similar move by organizing a mutiny in Buenos Aires, but the local military forces intervened and thwarted it. Spain appointed a new viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, and Liniers handed the government to him without resistance, the military conflict in Spain worsened by 1810. The city of Seville had been invaded by French armies, which were already dominating most of the Iberian Peninsula, the Junta of Seville was disestablished, and several members fled to Cádiz, the last portion of Spain still resisting. They established a Council of Regency, with political tendencies closer to absolutism than the former Junta and this began the May Revolution in Buenos Aires, as soon as the news was known. The military gave their support to the request, forcing Cisneros to accept, the discussion ruled the removal of viceroy Cisneros and his replacement with a government junta, but the cabildo attempted to keep Cisneros in power by appointing him president of such junta. Further demonstrations ensued, and the Junta was forced to resign immediately and it was replaced by a new one, the Primera Junta. Buenos Aires requested the other cities in the viceroyalty to acknowledge the new Junta, the precise purpose of these deputies, join the Junta or create a congress, was unclear at the time and generated political disputes later. The Junta was initially resisted by all the locations around Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Montevideo, Paraguay
6.
Spanish Colonial architecture
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These two visible aspects of the city are connected and complementary. The 16th century Laws of the Indies included provisions for the layout of new settlements in the Americas. The new churches and mission stations, for example, aimed for maximum effect in terms of their imposition and domination of the buildings or countryside. In order for that to be achievable, they had to be strategically located - at the center of a square or at a higher point in the landscape. The Spanish Colonial style of architecture dominated in the early Spanish colonies of North and South America and it is sometimes marked by the contrast between the simple, solid construction demanded by the new environment and the Baroque ornamentation exported from Spain. Mexico, as the center of New Spain - and the richest province of Spains colonial empire - has some of the most renowned buildings built in this style. With twenty-nine sites, Mexico has more sites on the UNESCO World Heritage list than any country in the Americas. Some of the most famous cities in Mexico built in the Colonial style are Puebla, Zacatecas, Querétaro, Guanajuato, the historic center of Mexico City is a mixture of architectural styles from the 16th century to the present. The Metropolitan Cathedral – built from 1563 to 1813 in a variety of including the Renaissance, Baroque. The rich interior is mostly Baroque, during the late 17th century to 1750, one of Mexicos most popular architectural styles was Mexican Churrigueresque. These buildings were built in an ultra-Baroque, fantastically extravagant and visually frenetic style, Antigua Guatemala in Guatemala is also known for its well preserved Spanish colonial style architecture. The city of Antigua is famous for its well-preserved Spanish Mudéjar-influenced Baroque architecture as well as a number of ruins of colonial churches dating from the 16th century. It has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Ciudad Colonial of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, founded in 1498, is the oldest city in the New World and a prime example of this architectural style. San Juan was founded by the Spaniards in 1521, where Spanish colonial architecture can be found like the Historic Hotel El Convento, also, Old San Juan with its walled city and buildings are very good examples, and in excellent condition. According to UNESCO, Quito, Ecuador has the largest, best-preserved and it was the first city that was inscribed onto the UNESCO World Heritage List, along with Kraków, Poland in 1978. The historic district of city is the sole largest and best preserved area of Spanish Colonial architecture in the world. The idea of laying out a city in a pattern is not unique to the Spanish. In fact, it never started out with the Spanish colonizers and it has been traced back to some ancient civilizations especially the ancient cities of the Aztec and Maya, and also Ancient Greeks
7.
Plaza
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A plaza /ˈplɑːzə/ is an open urban public space, such as a city square. The plaza might be enough to serve as a military parade ground. At times of crisis or fiesta, it was the space where a large crowd might gather, like the Italian piazza, the plaza remains a center of community life that is only equaled by the market-place. A plaza de toros is a bullring, in modern usage, a plaza can be any gathering place on a street or between buildings, a street intersection with a statue, etc. Todays metropolitan landscapes often incorporate the plaza as an element, or as an outcome of zoning regulations, building budgetary constraints. Sociologist William H. Plaza is a Spanish word, cognate to Italian piazza, Portuguese praça, Galician praza, Catalan plaça, Romanian piața, German Platz, the origin of all these words is, via Latin platea, from Greek πλατεῖα plateia, meaning broad. The first purpose-built shopping center in the United States, opened in Kansas City, Missouri in 1922, knowingly took the name of Country Club Plaza and adopted Spanish architectural details. More recently plaza has been used to describe a complex, similar to a shopping mall. Examples, Pantip Plaza, Bintang Plaza, Kuching Plaza, Plaza Las Américas, Plaza de las Estrellas, Central Plaza, Schiphol Plaza, Plazas del Centro Comercial Santafé, The Plaza, and Cityplaza. Central Plaza, in Hong Kong, was for four years the tallest building in Asia, at 78 storeys,374 m
8.
Army of the North
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The Army of the North, contemporaneously called Army of Peru, was one of the armies deployed by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata in the Spanish American wars of independence. Its objective was freeing the Argentine Northwest and the Upper Peru from the royalist troops of the Spanish Empire. It was headed by Hipólito Vieytes, Juan José Castelli, Juan Martín de Pueyrredón, Manuel Belgrano, José de San Martín, José Rondeau, Manuel Belgrano and Francisco Fernández de la Cruz. In 1820 the Army of the North was summoned to intervene in the strife between the central government in Buenos Aires and the Federal League provincial caudillo leaders. Shortly after, the Arequito Revolt led by the independentist veterans who refused to fight a war instead of an independence war. During the War of the Confederation, between Chile, Argentina and the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, a new military corps received the name of Army of the North under the command of Alejandro Heredia. The Army would disband itself without conducting any major operations after the known as North Coalition. The war ended in 1839 with a decisive Chilean victory at the Yungay, the lack of trained military was one of the most pressing difficulties of the revolutionary government in Buenos Aires. Until 1812, with the arrival of veterans from the Napoleonic Wars, that would join as officers, most of the commanders were civilians or junior officers, put in charge more for their political leanings, status in society or charisma than for their military capacity. The Juntas order followed its creation documents from 25 May of the same year and it was also in response to the Junta decree that created the Argentine Army on 29 May, five days after its formation. After receiving their orders they took the road to Córdoba to confront Liniers, the military command was subject to the political representative and he to the Junta through the Secretary of War Mariano Moreno. Vieytes carried instructions to arrange in each province for elections so the people could designate their representative to the new Junta, the artillery was formed by a group of 60 men with 4 pieces and 40 veteran artillery men. They were accompanied by two surgeons and two chaplains, the cavalry was divided into 50 dragoons,50 hussars and 100 blandengues. On 14 July the force arrived in Luján, continuing through Salto, on 8 August they arrived in Córdoba. On 31 July the royalist commanders in Córdoba had fled to Upper Peru after the dissolution of their regiments, Domingo French, gave the coup de grâce to the French officer. By order of the Junta, González Balcarce replaced Ortiz de Ocampo as troop commander, Juan José Castelli occupied the post of political representative and Bernardo de Monteagudo the comptroller. French and Rodríguez Peña became part of the new political committee, with Córdoba occupied on 8 August, they replaced their cabildo and Juan Martín de Pueyrredón was named governor, assuming the post that same month. Later they continued their march towards Upper Peru, where the Spanish general José de Córdoba y Rojas was commander of the royalist troops, the spontaneous joining of several cabildos augmented Balcarces troops
9.
United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata
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It comprised most of the former Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata dependencies and had Buenos Aires as its capital. It is best known in Spanish-language literature as Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata, the Argentine National Anthem refers to the state as the United Provinces of the South. The Constitution of Argentina recognises Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata as one of the names of the country. The United Provinces of South America were bordered on the south by the populated territories of the Pampas and Patagonia, home to the Mapuche, Ranquel. To the north, the Gran Chaco was populated by the Guaycuru nations, to the northwest, across the Upper Peru, lay the Spanish Viceroyalty of Perú. Across the Andes, to the west, was the Spanish-controlled Captaincy General of Chile, to the northeast was Colonial Brazil, a part of the Portuguese Empire, later the Empire of Brazil in 1821. The change from the Viceroyalty into the United Provinces was not merely a change of governors, the main influences in this were the Enlightenment in Spain, promoting new ideas, and the Peninsular War that left Spain without a legitimate king after the Abdications of Bayonne. The concept of separation of powers became a tool to prevent despotism. The new political situation generated great political conflict between the cities for two reasons, first, the vacatio regis removed the sovereignty from the King of Spain, but there was no clear view about who and how would be able to claim such sovereignty. The vertical organization of the absolutist monarchy was compromised as well, the other source of conflict was the nature of the new governments, which declared themselves to be provisional during the Kings absence but were making strong changes in the political organization. As it faced resistance in some quarters, the revolution soon turned to be a War of Independence. These conflicts involved coups détat, mutinies, politically motivated trials, banishments and imprisonments, ever since the revolution, there were serious conflicts among diverging views regarding the political organization of the provinces. As the latter gained the upper hand, the Primera Junta grew to incorporate delegates from the provinces in 1811. However, as it became evident that such an arrangement was not effective enough to lead the war efforts, infuriated by the passivity of Buenos Aires, Artigas declared war on Buenos Aires while he was losing to the Portuguese. Similarly, the Federal League effectively came to an end when its constituent provinces rejoined the United Provinces, Artigas, defeated by the Portuguese, retreated to Entre Ríos. From there, he denounced the Treaty of Pilar and entered into conflict with his former ally governor Ramírez, the former Protector of the Free Peoples was exiled in Paraguay until his death. The Eastern Province was annexed by Portugal to its Brazilian dependences in 1821, the result of the wars was the independence of the provinces. Misiones Orientales was de jure recognized as Brazilian, following the outcome of the Cisplatine War, pachecos partner Luis Vernet established a toehold in the islands in 1826 and a fledgling colony in 1828
10.
National Congress of Argentina
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The Congress of the Argentine Nation is the legislative branch of the government of Argentina. Its composition is bicameral, constituted by a 72-seat Senate and a 257-seat Chamber of Deputies, the Congressional Palace is located in Buenos Aires, at the western end of Avenida de Mayo. The Kilometre Zero for all Argentine National Highways is marked on a milestone at the Congressional Plaza, the Argentine National Congress is bicameral, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The ordinary sessions span is from March 1 to November 30, senators and deputies enjoy parliamentary immunity during their mandates, which may be revoked by their peers if a senator or deputy is caught in flagrante, in the midst of committing a crime. The Congress is in charge of setting taxes and customs, which must be uniform across the country and it rules the Central Bank of Argentina, manages internal and external debt payment, and the value of national currency. It rules the legal codes on Civil, Commercial, Penal, Minery, Work and Social Welfare affairs, any changes on national or provincial limits, or the creation of new provinces, ought to be allowed by the Congress. The Congress is entitled to approve or reject every international treaty that Argentina signs with other states or international organizations, when approved, the treaties acquire priority over ordinary legislation. Declarations of war and the signing of peace, as well as the mobilization of the national troops, from 1976 to 1983, the Congressional Palace of Argentina housed the CAL, a group of officers from the three Armed Forces. Commissioned to review and discuss laws before they were issued by the Executive Branch, in practice, this became a mechanism to detect and discuss the differences between the three commanders-in-chief of the Army, Navy, and Air Force regarding a specific project. The CAL was established by the Acta del Proceso de Reorganización Nacional, the official website of Congress Satellite picture by Google Maps
11.
Domingo Faustino Sarmiento
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Domingo Faustino Sarmiento was an Argentine activist, intellectual, writer, statesman and the seventh President of Argentina. His writing spanned a range of genres and topics, from journalism to autobiography, to political philosophy. He was a member of a group of intellectuals, known as the Generation of 1837 and he was particularly concerned with educational issues and was also an important influence on the regions literature. Sarmiento grew up in a poor but politically active family that paved the way for much of his future accomplishments, between 1843 and 1850 he was frequently in exile, and wrote in both Chile and in Argentina. His greatest literary achievement was Facundo, a critique of Juan Manuel de Rosas, while president of Argentina from 1868 to 1874, Sarmiento championed intelligent thought—including education for children and women—and democracy for Latin America. He also took advantage of the opportunity to modernize and develop systems, a postal system. He spent many years in ministerial roles on the federal and state levels where he travelled abroad, Sarmiento died in Asunción, Paraguay, at the age of 77 from a heart attack. He was buried in Buenos Aires, today, he is respected as a political innovator and writer. Sarmiento was born in Carrascal, a suburb of San Juan. His father, José Clemente Quiroga Sarmiento y Funes, had served in the military during the wars of independence, returning prisoners of war to San Juan. His mother, Doña Paula Zoila de Albarracín e Irrázabal, was a pious woman. As a result, she took to selling her weaving in order to afford to build a house of her own, on September 21,1801, José and Paula were married. They had 15 children,9 of whom died, Domingo was the son to survive to adulthood. In Sarmientos own words, I was born in a family that lived long years in mediocrity bordering on destitution, and my father is a good man whose life has nothing remarkable except having served in subordinate positions in the War of Independence. My mother is the figure of Christianity in its purest sense, with her. At the age of four, Sarmiento was taught to read by his father and his uncle, José Eufrasio Quiroga Sarmiento, who later became Bishop of Cuyo. Another uncle who influenced him in his youth was Domingo de Oro, though Sarmiento did not follow de Oros political and religious leanings, he learned the value of intellectual integrity and honesty. He developed scholarly and oratorical skills, qualities which de Oro was famous for, in 1816, at the age of five, Sarmiento began attending the primary school La Escuela de la Patria
12.
Julio Argentino Roca
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Alejo Julio Argentino Roca Paz was an army general who served as President of Argentina from 12 October 1880 to 12 October 1886 and again from 12 October 1898 to 12 October 1904. Julio Roca was born in the city of San Miguel de Tucumán in 1843 into a prominent local family. He graduated from the National College in Concepción del Uruguay, Entre Ríos, before he was 15, Roca joined the army of the Argentine Confederation, on 19 March 1858. He also fought in the War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay between 1865 and 1870, Roca rose to the rank of colonel serving in the war to suppress the revolt of Ricardo López Jordán in Entre Ríos. President Nicolás Avellaneda later promoted him to General after his victory over rebel general José M. Arredondo in the battle of Santa Rosa, leading the loyalist forces. The Indians frequently assaulted frontier settlements and stole horses and cattle, and this land conquest would also strengthen Argentinas strategic position against Chile. The April 11 elections for president, which came a sweeping victory for the voters of Roca, on June 13 the Electoral College met and elected President General Roca and Vice President Francisco Bernabé Madero. But in Buenos Aires it was brewing a revolution against the triumph of Roca, four days later the fighting began, which ended on June 25 with an agreement between the province and the nation, the revolution of 1880 had cost 3,000 dead. Shortly before the presidential inauguration Roca was passed in Congress federalization of Buenos Aires, under his mandate the so-called laicist laws were passed, which nationalized a series of functions that previously were under the control of the Church. He also created the so-called Registro Civil, an index of all births, deaths, President Roca also made primary education free of charge by nationalizing education institutions run by the Church. This led to a break in relations with the Vatican, however, financial speculation and government corruption marred his administration. In May 1886 Roca was the subject of an assassination attempt. Roca did not participate in the 1890 revolution, which was instigated by Leandro N. Alem, however, he was pleased in the resulting weakness of Miguel Juárez Celman. Roca himself had put forward Juárez Celman as his successor, who happened to be his brother-in-law. However, Celman distanced himself from Roca and reprivatized large sectors of the economy in a corrupt fashion, after his first presidency Roca became a senator and Minister of the Interior under Carlos Pellegrini. After President Luis Sáenz Peña resigned in January 1895, José Evaristo Uriburu took over the presidency, because of this, Roca again assumed the duties of President between 28 October 1895 and 8 February 1896, when Uriburu was ill. In the middle of 1897 the Partido Autonomista Nacional party put forward Roca as a candidate once more. Unopposed, he was able to begin a regular time in office on 12 October 1898
13.
Lola Mora
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Dolores Candelaria Mora Vega known professionally as Lola Mora, was a sculptor born in El Tala, Tucumán Province in Argentina. She is known today as a rebel and a pioneer of women in her artistic field, dolores was the daughter of Romualdo Alejandro Mora, a prosperous landowner of Tucumán Province of Spanish origin and Regina Vega. She was the born of seven children, three boys and four girls. Her parents decided that the girls will have too, the best education possible, in 1885, within two days both her parents died. Her older sister Paula Mora Vega married the engineer Guillermo Rucker, at 20 years of age she began painting portraits, but soon turned to sculpting marble and granite. She studied art in her province and then, with a scholarship, in Rome, Italy, studying under Costantino Barbella. In 1900 she returned to Argentina and, with government connections, was commissioned to create two bas-reliefs for the Historical House of Tucumán, as her career developed, her sensual style and her status as a female artist made her controversial. In 1903 her Nereids Fountain, created for the city of Buenos Aires, met bureaucratic problems at the citys Deliberative Council, near the end of her life, she did some extravagant business, and then retired with only a pension to support herself. After her death in Buenos Aires, in poverty and obscurity, friends of hers burned her letters, mementos, one included a system to project films without a screen, as well as systems for mining
14.
May Revolution
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The May Revolution was a week-long series of events that took place from May 18 to 25,1810, in Buenos Aires, capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. This Spanish colony included roughly the territories of present-day Argentina, Bolivia, the result was the removal of Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros and the establishment of a local government, the Primera Junta, on May 25. It was the first successful revolution in South American Independence process, the May Revolution was a direct reaction to Spains Peninsular War. In 1808, King Ferdinand VII of Spain abdicated in favor of Napoleon, on February 1,1810, French troops took Seville and gained control of most of Andalusia. The Supreme Junta retreated to Cadiz and dissolved itself, and the Council of Regency of Spain, news of these events arrived in Buenos Aires on May 18, brought by British ships. Viceroy Cisneros tried to maintain the status quo, but a group of criollo lawyers. Delegates denied recognition to the Council of Regency in Spain and established a junta to govern in place of Cisneros, to maintain a sense of continuity, Cisneros was initially appointed president of the Junta. However, this caused much popular unrest, so he resigned under pressure on May 25, the newly formed government, the Primera Junta, included only representatives from Buenos Aires and invited other cities of the Viceroyalty to send delegates to join them. This resulted in the outbreak of war between the regions that accepted the outcome of the events at Buenos Aires and those that did not. As similar events occurred in other cities of the continent. A formal declaration of independence was issued at the Congress of Tucumán on July 9,1816. The United States declaration of independence from Great Britain in 1776 led criollos to believe that revolution, the fact that Spain aided the colonies in their struggle against Britain weakened the idea that it would be a crime to end ones allegiance to the parent state. The ideals of the French Revolution of 1789 spread across Europe, the overthrow and execution of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette ended centuries of monarchy and removed the privileges of the nobility. Liberal ideals in the political and economic fields developed and spread through the Atlantic Revolutions across most of the Western world, however, the spread of such ideas was forbidden in the Spanish territories, as was the sale of related books or their unauthorized possession. Spain instituted those bans when it declared war on France after the execution of Louis XVI, news of the events of 1789 and copies of the publications of the French Revolution spread around Spain despite efforts to keep them at bay. Many enlightened criollos came into contact with authors and their works during their university studies. Books from the United States found their way into the Spanish colonies through Caracas, owing to the proximity of Venezuela to the United States, the Industrial Revolution started in Britain, with the use of plateways, canals and steam power. This led to increases in the productive capabilities of Britain
15.
External debt
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External debt is the total debt a country owes to foreign creditors, complemented by internal debt owed to domestic lenders. The debtors can be the government, corporations or citizens of that country, the debt includes money owed to private commercial banks, other governments, or international financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. Note that the use of gross liability figures greatly distorts the ratio for countries which contain major money centers such as the United Kingdom due to Londons role as a financial capital, contrast with net international investment position. In this definition, the IMF defines the key elements as follows, Outstanding, principal and interest When the cost of borrowing is paid periodically, as commonly occurs, it is known as an interest payment. All other payments of economic value by the debtor to the creditor that reduce the amount outstanding are known as principal payments. However, the definition of external debt does not distinguish between principal payments or interest payments, or payments for both, also, the definition does not specify that the timing of the future payments of principal and/or interest need be known for a liability to be classified as debt. Residence To qualify as external debt, the debt liabilities must be owed by a resident to a nonresident, residence is determined by where the debtor and creditor have their centers of economic interest—typically, where they are ordinarily located—and not by their nationality. Current and not contingent Contingent liabilities are not included in the definition of external debt and these are defined as arrangements under which one or more conditions must be fulfilled before a financial transaction takes place. Generally, external debt is classified into four heads, public and publicly guaranteed debt, private non-guaranteed credits, central bank deposits, however, the exact treatment varies from country to country. External-debt-sustainability analysis is conducted in the context of medium-term scenarios. In these analysis, macroeconomic uncertainties, such as the outlook for the current account, high external debt is believed to be harmful for the economy. There are various indicators for determining a sustainable level of external debt, while each has its own advantage and peculiarity to deal with particular situations, there is no unanimous opinion amongst economists as to a sole indicator. These indicators are primarily in the nature of ratios—i. e, comparison between two heads and the relation thereon and thus facilitate the policy makers in their external debt management exercise. Examples of debt burden indicators include the Debt-to-GDP ratio, foreign debt to exports ratio and this set of indicators also covers the structure of the outstanding debt, including, Share of foreign debt, Short-term debt, and Concessional debt in the total debt stock. A second set of indicators focuses on the short-term liquidity requirements of the country with respect to its service obligations. These indicators are not only useful early-warning signs of service problems. The dynamic ratios show how the debt-burden ratios would change in the absence of repayments or new disbursements, an example of a dynamic ratio is the ratio of the average interest rate on outstanding debt to the growth rate of nominal GDP
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Montoneros
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Montoneros was an Argentine leftist urban guerrilla group, active during the 1960s and 1970s. The name is an allusion to the 19th century cavalry militias, called Montoneras, the group was completely destroyed during the Dirty War. Their attacks sought to force the governments to give up such pretensions and operate openly as fascist governments, the projected class struggle never took place. Montoneros did not think about their armed violence as a response to a threat to society, once democracy was restored, they declined the chance to achieve their goals by peaceful means. In 1973 they killed the unionist José Ignacio Rucci and declared war on Isabel Perón when, as vice president, the military style was the basis of the actions, structure and hierarchy of the Montoneros. They used salutes, uniforms and military slang, even in circumstances where these were inappropriate, the internal structure of the Montoneros was completely top-down, with the strategies outlined by its leaders and ordered to the others. Some believed that Perón supported the Montoneros projects, Perón expelled the group from Plaza de Mayo and outlined the governments counter-insurgency that decimated the guerrillas. Some surviving Montoneros still acknowledge Perón as their leader, the Montoneros formed around 1970 out of a confluence of Roman Catholic groups, university students in social sciences, and leftist supporters of Juan Domingo Perón. The Montoneros took their name from the term used by the 19th-century elite to discredit the mounted followers of the popular caudillos. Montonera referred to the raiding parties composed by indigenous peoples in Argentina, and their best-known leader was Mario Firmenich. The Montoneros hoped that Perón would return from exile in Francoist Spain, the Montoneros initiated a campaign to destabilise by force what they deemed a pro-American regime. These included unionists, politicians, diplomats, and businessmen, in November 1971, in solidarity with militant car workers, Montoneros took over a car manufacturing plant in Caseros, sprayed 38 Fiats with petrol, and set them afire. In July 1972, they set off explosives in the Plaza de San Isidro in Buenos Aires, the Montoneros and the Revolutionary Armed Forces later claimed responsibility for the attack. The Montoneros financed their operations by kidnapping and collecting ransoms for businessmen or executives, on 11 March 1973, Argentina held general elections for the first time in ten years. Perón loyalist Héctor Cámpora became president and Perón returned from Spain, in a controversial move, he released all left-wing guerrillas held captive at the time in Argentina. Cámpora resigned in July to allow Perón to win the new elections held in October, however, a feud developed between right-wing Peronists and the Montoneros. The right wing of the Peronist party, the unions, right-wingers and Montoneros clashed at Peróns homecoming ceremony, leading to the 20 June 1973 Ezeiza massacre, which resulted in 13 dead and more than 300 wounded. Perón supported the unions, the led by Balbín
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President of Argentina
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The President of the Argentine Nation, usually known as the President of Argentina, is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the executive of the federal government. Through Argentine history, the office of the Head of State has undergone many changes, current President Mauricio Macri was sworn into office on 10 December 2015. The Constitution of Argentina, along with constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office. The origins of Argentina as a nation can be traced to 1776, the Head of State continued to be the King, but he was represented locally by the Viceroy. These Viceroys were seldom natives of the country, by the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the first Argentine autonomous government, known as the Primera Junta, was formed in Buenos Aires. It was later known as the Junta Grande when representatives from the provinces joined and this power was vested in one man when the position of Supreme Director was created by the 1813 National Assembly. The Supreme Directors became Heads of State after Independence was declared on 9 July 1816, in 1819, Congress declared Independence and composed a Constitution. This established a figure, named Supreme Director, who was vested with presidential powers. This constitution gave the Supreme Director the power of appointing Governors of the provinces, due to political circumstances, this constitution never came into force, and the central power was dissolved, leaving the country as a federation of provinces. A new constitution was drafted in 1826 and this constitution was the first to create a President, although this office retained the powers described in the 1819 constitution. This constitution did come into force, resulting in the election of the first President, because of the Cisplatine War, Rivadavia resigned after a short time, and the office was dissolved shortly after. A civil war between unitarios and federales ensued in the following decades, in this time, there was no central authority, and the closest to that was the Chairman of Foreign Relations, typically the Governor of the Province of Buenos Aires. The last to bear this title was Juan Manuel de Rosas, in 1852, Rosas was deposed, and a constitutional convention was summoned. This constitution, still in force, established a federal government. The term was fixed as six years, with no possibility of reelection, the first elected President under the constitution was Justo José de Urquiza, but Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation as the State of Buenos Aires. Bartolomé Mitre was the first president of the country, when Buenos Aires rejoined the Confederation. In 1930, and again in 1943,1955,1962,1966 and 1976, in 1966 and 1976, federal government was undertaken by a military junta, where power was shared by the chiefs of the armed forces
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
