1.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
2.
Caste
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Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in Indias ancient history and persisting until today. However, the significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization. The term is applied to non-human populations like ants and bees. The English word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese casta, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a clan or lineage. The use of the caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested to in English in 1613. Modern Indias caste system is based on the social groupings called jāti, the system of varnas appears in Hindu texts dating back to 1000 BCE and envisages the society divided into four classes, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The texts do not mention any separate, untouchable category in varna classification, scholars believe that the system of varnas was a theoretical classification envisioned by the Brahmins, but never truly operational in the society. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of jātis, which are not based on any specific principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations. The jātis have been endogamous groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle, starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand, upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes, Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature, in 2001, Dalits were 16. 2% of Indias population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes, independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. Indias National Crime Records Bureau records crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes – the most disadvantaged groups - in a separate category, the socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of Indias middle-class population, some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. The co-existence of the middle-class and traditional members in the CPCC has created intersectionality between caste and class, there is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties, political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. It is not politics that gets caste-ridden, it is caste that gets politicized, the Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian jāti system with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed for a rough equivalence
3.
Brahmin
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Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising as priests of sacred learning across generations. However, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were often agriculturalists in medieval India, the Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a Brahmin to learn and teach the Vedas. The text forbids a Brahmin from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines, the Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for Brahmins, but in the times of adversity he may do so. The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances, human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits. The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a Brahmin, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity. The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states, Except during a time of adversity and he should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. –4. 2–4.3 He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood, one who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. –4. 11–4.12 The Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmins occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others. It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a Brahmin, teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts, of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a Brahmin with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts. The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six, in the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade. Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10. 83–10, the term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class. Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define Brahmin not in terms of family of birth and these virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the class from which most ascetics came. The earliest inferred reference to Brahmin as a social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once. Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests, the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the functions associated with the priests were, The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. The Adhvaryu is the assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground. The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music drawn from the Samaveda, the udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. The Brahmin recites from the Atharvaveda, the Ritvij is the chief operating priest
4.
Newar people
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The Newar or Newah are the historical inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley and its surrounding areas in Nepal, and the creators of its historic heritage and civilization. Newars form a linguistic and cultural community of primarily Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman ethnicities following Hinduism and Buddhism with Nepal Bhasa as their common language, Newars have developed a division of labour and a sophisticated urban civilization not seen elsewhere in the Himalayan foothills. Newars have continued their traditions and practices, and pride themselves as the true custodians of the religion, culture. The valley and surrounding territories constituted the former Newar kingdom of the Nepal Mandala, Indo-Aryan immigrants like the Licchavis and Mallas that arrived at different periods eventually merged with the local population by adopting their language and customs. Newar rule in Nepal Mandala ended with its conquest by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1768, Newars are known for their contributions to culture, art and literature, trade, agriculture and cuisine. Today, Newars consistently rank as the most economically, politically and socially advanced community of Nepal, nepals 2011 census ranks Newars as the nations sixth-largest ethnicity/community, with 1,321,933 Newars throughout the country. The terms Nepāl, Newār, Newāl and Nepār are phonetically different forms of the same word, Nepal is the learned form and Newar is the colloquial form. The term Newar referring to inhabitant of Nepal appeared for the first time in an inscription dated 1654 in Kathmandu, italian Jesuit priest Ippolito Desideri who traveled to Nepal in 1721 has written that the natives of Nepal are called Newars. It has been suggested that Nepal may be a sanskritization of Newar, according to another explanation, the words Newar and Newari are vulgarisms arising from the mutation of P to V, and L to R. As a result of the process of dropping the last consonant and lengthening the vowel, Newā for Newār or Newāl. For about a thousand years, the Newar civilization in Central Nepal preserved a microcosm of classical North Indian culture in which Brahmanic, snellgrove and Richardson speak of the direct heritage of pre-Islamic India. The different divisions of Newars had different historical developments, the common identity of Newar was formed in the Kathmandu Valley. Until the conquest of the valley by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1769, so, the history of Newar correlates to the history of the Kathmandu Valley prior to the establishment of the modern state of Nepal. The earliest known history of Newar and the Kathmandu Valley blends with mythology recorded in historical chronicles, one such text, which recounts the creation of the valley, is the Swayambhu Purana. According to this Buddhist scripture, the Kathmandu Valley was a giant lake until the Bodhisattva Manjusri, with the aid of a sword, cut a gap in the surrounding hills. This apocryphal legend is supported by evidence of an ancient lakebed. According to the Swayambhu Purana, Manjusri then established a city called Manjupattan, now called Manjipā, a shrine dedicated to Manjusri is still present in Majipā. No historical documents have been found after this era till the advent of the Gopal era, a genealogy of kings is recorded in a chronicle called Gopalarajavamsavali
5.
Rajput
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Rajput is a member of the patrilineal clans of the Indian subcontinent. They rose to prominence from the late 6th century AD and had a significant role in regions of central. The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread across India where they are spread in north, west, in Pakistan they are found on the eastern parts of the country. These areas include Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, the origin of the Rajputs is the subject of debate. Writers such as M. S. Naravane and V. P, one theory espouses that with the collapse of the Gupta empire from the late 6th century, the invading Hephthalites were probably integrated within Indian society. At the same time, some tribes were ranked as Rajput, examples of which are the Bhatis, Bundelas, Chandelas. Actually vary greatly in status, from princely lineages, such as the Guhilot and Kachwaha, aydogdy Kurbanov says that the assimilation was specifically between the Hephthalites, Gurjars, and people from northwestern India, forming the Rajput community. Pradeep Barua also believes that Rajputs have foreign origins, he says their practice of asserting Kshatriya status was followed by other Indian groups thereby establishing themselves as Rajputs. Thereafter, in the late 12th century Muhammad of Ghor attempted to invade Gujarat but was defeated by the Chaulukya dynasty of Rajputs. The Rajput kingdoms were disparate, loyalty to a clan was more important than allegiance to the wider Rajput social grouping, meaning that one clan would fight another. This and the jostling for position that took place when a clan leader died meant that Rajput politics were fluid. Even after the Muslim conquest of the regions in Punjab and the Ganges River valley, the Rajputs maintained their independence in Rajasthan and the forests of central India. Later, Sultan Alauddin Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate took the two Rajput forts of Chittor and Ranthambhor in eastern Rajasthan in the 14th century but could not hold them for long. In the 15th century, the Muslim sultans of Malwa Sultanate, accordingly, Rana Sanga came to be the most distinguished indigenous contender for supremacy but was defeated by the Mughal invader Babur at Battle of Khanwa in 1527. From as early as the 16th century, Purbiya Rajput soldiers from the regions of Bihar and Awadh, were recruited as mercenaries for Rajputs in the west. After the mid-16th century, many Rajput rulers formed close relationships with the Mughal emperors and it was due to the support of the Rajputs that Akbar was able to lay the foundations of the Mughal empire in India. Some Rajput nobles gave away their daughters in marriage to Mughal emperors, for example, Akbar accomplished 40 marriages for him, his sons and grandsons, out of which 17 were Rajput-Mughal alliances. Akbars successors as Mogul emperors, his son Jahangir and grandson Shah Jahan had Rajput mothers, the ruling Sisodia Rajput family of Mewar made it a point of honour not to engage in matrimonial relationships with mughals and thus claimed to stand apart from those Rajput clans who did so
6.
Yadava
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The Yadavas were an ancient Indian people who believed themselves to be descended from Yadu, a mythical king. The community was formed of four clans, being the Abhira, Andhaka, Vrishni, and Satvatas. They are listed in ancient Indian literature as the segments of the lineage of Yadu, the Mahabharata and the Puranas mention that the Yadus or Yadavas, a confederacy comprising numerous clans were the rulers of the Mathura region. These five clans are Vitihotra, Sharyata, Bhoja, Avanti, the five Haihaya clans called themselves the Talajanghas According to the Puranas, Haihaya was the grandson of Sahasrajit, son of Yadu. Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra mentioned about the Haihayas, in the Puranas, Arjuna Kartavirya was mentioned as the most significant Haihaya king. He was called a Samrat and Chakravartin and his name is found in the Rig Veda. He conquered Mahishmati from Karkotaka Naga and made it his capital, later, the Haihayas were also known by the name of the most dominant clan amongst them — the Vitihotras. According to the Puranas, Vitihotra was the great-grandson of Arjuna Kartavirya, ripunjaya, the last Vitihotra ruler of Ujjayini was overthrown by his amatya Pulika, who placed his son, Pradyota on the throne. The Mahagovindasuttanta of the Dighanikaya mentions about an Avanti king Vessabhu, probably he was a Vitihotra ruler. In the Balakanda of the Ramayana, the Shashabindus are mentioned along with the Haihayas, the Shashabindus or Shashabindavas are believed as the descendants of Shashabindu, a Chakravartin and son of Chitraratha, great-great-grandson of Kroshtu. The Chedis or Chaidyas were an ancient Yadava clan, whose territory was conquered by a Kuru king Vasu, According to the Puranas, the Chedis were descendants of Chidi, son of Kaishika, grandson of Vidarbha, a descendant of Kroshta. The Rigveda mentions a king named Kashu Chaidya, According to the Puranas, the Vidarbhas or Vaidarbhas were descendants of Vidarbha, son of Jyamagha, a descendant of Kroshtu. Most well known Vidarbha king was Bhishmaka, father of Rukmin, in the Matsya Purana and the Vayu Purana, the Vaidarbhas are described as the inhabitants of Deccan. According to the Aitareya Brahmana, the Satvatas were a southern people held in subjection by the Bhojas, the Satapatha Brahmana mentions that Bharata seized the sacrificial horse of the Satvatas. According to a tradition, found in the Harivamsa, Satvata was a descendant of the Yadava king Madhu, Bhima recovered the city of Mathura from the Ikshvakus after the death of Rama and his brothers. Andhaka, son of Bhima Satvata was contemporary with Kusha, son of Rama and he succeeded his father to the throne of Mathura. The Andhakas, the Vrishnis, the Kukuras, the Bhojas and the Shainyas are believed to have descended from Satvata and these clans were also known as the Satvata clans. According to the Ashtadhyayi of Panini, the Andhakas were of the Kshatriya gotra, having a form of government In the Drona Parva of the Mahabharata
7.
Kurmi
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The Kurmi are a Hindu agricultural caste in India and Nepal. There are several theories regarding the etymology of the term Kurmi and it may be derived from an Indian tribal language, or may be a Sanskrit compound term krishi karmi, agriculturalist. Another theory holds that it was derived from kṛṣmi, meaning ploughman, many new rulers of the 18th century came from such nomadic backgrounds. The effect of this interaction on Indias social organization lasted well into the colonial period, the Kurmi were famed as cultivators and market gardeners. In western and northern Awadh, for example, for much of the eighteenth century, once the land had been brought stably under the plough, however, the land rent was usually raised to 30 to 80 per cent above the going rate. A network of ganjs and Kurmi or Kacchi settlements could transform a local economy within a year or two, Hindu tillers worshipped at Muslim shrines in the small towns founded by their Muslim overlords. The Hindu Kurmis of Chunar and Jaunpur, for instance, took up the Muslim custom of marrying first cousins, and bemoaned the loss of agricultural revenue in part due to, this unfavourable mutation amongst the cultivators. In the first half of the century, economic pressures on the large landowning classes increased noticeably. The prices of agricultural lands fell at the time that the East India Company, after acquiring the Ceded and Conquered Provinces in 1805. The annexation of Awadh in 1856 created more fear and discontent among the landed elite, economic pressures also opened marginal areas to intensive agriculture and turned the fortunes of the non-elite peasants, such as the Kurmi, who worked them. According to historical anthropologist Susan Bayly, In some instances these were attempts to stave off decline by reinvigorating or intensifying existing froms of customary service. Elsewhere these were wholly novel demands, many being imposed on clean tillers and cattle-keepers like the Ram- and Krishna-loving Koeris, Kurmis, in either case, these calls were buttressed with appeals to Sanskritic varna theory and Brahmanical caste convention. The elite landowning classes, such as Rajputs and Bhumihars, now sought to present themselves as flagbearers of the ancient Hindu tradition. The second half of the century also largely overlapped with the coming of age of ethnology—interpreted then as the science of race—in the study of societies the world over. Although later to be discredited, the methods of discipline were eagerly absorbed and adopted in British India. According to Susan Bayly, Those like Hunter, as well as the key figures of H. H. A. H. Blunt. Seeing caste as a force in Indian life, Risley, especially. Risley is best known for the now discounted attribution of all differences in caste to varying proportions of seven racial types which included Dravidian, Aryo-Dravidian, the Kurmi fell into two such categories
8.
Dhobi
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Dhobi is a caste group of India and a tribe in Pakistan. Their traditional occupation was washing clothes, the word dhobi is derived from the Hindi word dhona, which means to wash. They are found throughout North India, Gujarat, Maharashtra as well as the Punjab province of Pakistan, most Dhobis follow the customs and traditions of the region they live, so for example those in North India speak Hindi, while those in Maharashtra speak Marathi. The Dhobi rank themselves highest among the Scheduled Castes, the Census of 2001 returned Dhobis representing six per cent of the total Scheduled Caste population. In Andhra Pradesh, the Rajakas form 12% of the total population, the Dhobi Community in Bihar is about 6% of total population. Dhobi have maximum concentration in Purnia and East Champaran districts respectively, the Dhobi community in bihar is in Scheduled Caste Status. Among the numerically larger castes of SC, Dhobi have registered the highest over all literacy rate, the Dhobi of Haryana are said to have originated from Punjab and Rajasthan. They are scattered throughout the state, like other Hindu communities, they are divided into clans called gotras. Some of the major gotras are the hathwal~ Chauhan, Shukravar, Rajoria, Tonwar, Panwar, Badera, Satmase, Akhasriya, Mahavar and these clan names are also used as surnames. Their main occupation remains washing of and drying of clothes. A small number of Dhobi are marginal farmers. They are classified as OBCs, in Karnataka, there are Muslim Dhobis, they are also called as Agasa, Dhobi, Pakzade & Parit. Their population is spread over Karnataka, mainly in Bagalkot, Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwar, Haveri, Davangere & Gadag Kumta, Sirsi, Ankola, Karwar, Mysore Banglore Gulbarga Ramnagar Districts. And their secondary language is Kannada & Urdu, there are also Hindu dhobis, called Madivala and their population is concentrated mainly in Davanagere, Chitradurga, Raichur and Shimoga districts. In Maharashtra, the Dhobi are found throughout the state, and are known as Parit. They claim to have belonged to the Rajput community. The Dhobi have been listed as Other Backward Class and they speak Marathi among themselves, and Hindi with outsiders. The community are endogamous, and practice clan exogamy, marriage within the clan is prohibited. The Dhobi of Mumbai wash their linen in the Mahalaxmi area known as Dhobi Ghat and this area is strangely popular with foreign tourists looking for a piece of quintessential Indian-ness. Another region in South Mumbai, Dhobitalao, used to be a lake where British soldiers used to have their uniforms washed about 120 years ago
9.
Nepal Mandala
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Nepal Mandala is an ancient confederation marked by cultural, religious and political boundaries which lies in present-day central Nepal. It consists of the Kathmandu Valley and surrounding areas, the rule of the indigenous Newars in Nepal Mandala ended with its conquest by the Gorkha Kingdom and the rise of the Shah dynasty in 1768. ref>Outline History of Nepal. Bhaktapur was the capital of Nepal Mandala until the 15th century when three capitals, including Kathmandu and Lalitpur, were established, the extent of Nepal Mandala has been traditionally defined by the locations of 64 Hindu and 24 Buddhist pilgrimage sites. The Hindu shrines consist of 64 Shiva lingas scattered from Brahmeswar in Nuwakot district in the west to Bhimeswar in Dolakha District in the east, the 24 Buddhist pilgrimage sites are spread from the Trishuli River in the west to Dolalghat in the east. When seen as a pattern, they form the picture of the mandala of Chakrasamvara. Nepal Mandala was conceived on the basis of the Chakrasamvara Mandala, the term mandala also means a country, and it has been used to represent traditional political formations such as federation of kingdoms. The area comprising Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur and Dolakha during the Malla period is known as Nepal Mandala. According to the Outline History of Nepal, Nepal Mandala was situated between the Khas and Simraungarh kingdoms, the Khas kingdom extended from Garhwal in the west to the Trishuli River in the east, and from Lake Mansarovar in the north to the Terai in the south. Karnatak, also called Simraungarh, was situated in the Terai, in 1661, Jesuit Fathers Johann Grueber and Albert dOrville travelled from Tibet to India through Nepal. They mentioned in their report that they passed through Cuthi, the first town in the kingdom of Necbal, and arrived in Cadmendu, from Cadmendu, a journey of five days brings one to Hedouda, a market town in the kingdom of Maranga. The town of Hedouda is known as Hetauda today, the oldest inhabitants of Nepal Mandala are Kirat, Newars who are of multiple racial strains that combined over millennia. Newar civilization is a blend of different cultures that came together in Nepal Mandala, according to sociologists, the people of Nepal gradually became known as Newar. The Buddhist text Manjushrimula Kalpa has mentioned Manadeva as being the king of Nepal Mandala, the term Nepal Mandala also appears in the popular Buddhist text Swayambhu Purana. It occurs in an inscription at Gyaneswar, Kathmandu dating from the eighth century during the reign of Licchavi king Jayadeva II. The term Nepal Mandala has been used through the centuries in stone and copper inscriptions and it is also referred to during important Buddhist ceremonies. Nepal Mandala, A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, Princeton University Press 1982, Kathmandu Valley - The Preservation of Physical Environment and Cultural Heritage - A Protective Inventory, Vol.2, Wien 1975
10.
Chhetri
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Chhetri, synonymous with Kshetri and Khatri are a caste among Nepali speaking peoples, which are a part of Khas people, along with some Brahmins, and Thakuris. According to 1854 Legal Code of Nepal, Chhetris are the group among the sacred thread bearers. Chhetris claim to be of the Kshatriya varna and they make up 16. 6% of Nepals population according to the census of 2011, making them the most populous caste or ethnic community in Nepal. The majority of Chhetris speak Nepali, an Indo-Aryan language as mother tongue Chhetris are primarily Hindu and those Chhetri who follow Hinduism may also follow Buddhism. The ancient religion of the Chhetri is Masto which uses nature worship and can still be seen in western Nepals Karnali district, in Nepals hill districts the Chhetri population rises to 41% compared to 31% Brahmin and 27% other castes. This greatly exceeds the Kshatriya portion in most regions with predominantly Hindu populations and they are thought to be connected to the Khasas mentioned in the ancient Indian literature and the medieval Khasa kingdom. The Chhetris first settled in Sinja Valley of Karnali in Nepal, the ancient name of this Himalayan region was Khas-des. There are several recognized ways to enter the Chhetri caste apart from Jharra Chettri, Having nothing, the child of a Chhetri father and a woman from lower but clean castes is still Chhetri. An arbitrary community can start following Chhetri caste rules, hiring Brahmin to conduct certain rituals, over generations these claims of Chhetri affinity become plausible to broader audiences. In the early history of Nepal, Chhetris played a key role in the unification of the country. During the monarchy, Chhetris continued to dominate the ranks of the Nepalese Army, police, Nepalese government administration and that marginalized the monarchy, and the Chhetri presence in the armed forces, police, and Government of Nepal. In traditional and administrative professions, Chhetris were given favorable treatment by the royal government, Chhetri had dominated high military positions and monopolized the military force at the times of Chhetri autocratic administrators like PM Bhimsen Thapa and PM Jung Bahadur Rana. Rana dynasty of Chhetri ruler Jung Bahadur Rana have marital ties with Maratha royal Gaekwad dynasty, asha Laxmi, the granddaughter of Chandra Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana was married to royals of Baroda. Also, the Scindia Dynasty was maritally linked to Rana dynasty of Nepal by Usha Raje Scindia, Madhavrao Scindia royal of Gwalior was also linked to Ranas by his mother Vijaya Raje Scindia. Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindias mother was daughter of General Yuvaraj SJB Rana, similarly, Dr. Karan Singh was married to Yasho Rajya Laxmi, daughter of General Sharada Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana. Gautama SJB Ranas son, Varun Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana was married to Padmaja Jadeja of Gujarat Jamnagar Royalty, as per 2011 census, almost all Chhetris are Hindu. Chhetri religion began with shamanism and nature worship, Thapa Politics in Nepal, With Special Reference to Bhim Sen Thapa, 1806–1839, New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company, p.278, ISBN9788180698132 Debra Skinner et. al. Selves in time and place, Identities, Experience and History in Nepal. Roman & Littlefield Publishers, Nepalese Language, Folklore and Practices for Foreigners
11.
Kayastha
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Kayastha is a caste or community of Hindus originating in India. Kayasthas are considered to be members of the caste, and have traditionally acted as keepers of public records and accounts, writers. In modern times, Kayasthas have attained success in politics, as well as in the arts, Kayasthas have therefore also been mentioned as a mixed caste, combining Brahman-Shudra and sometimes Kshatriya as well. Originally the professions of Kayastha and Vaidya were not restricted and could be followed by people of different varnas including the brahmanas. So there is every probability that a number of families were mixed up with members of other varnas in forming the present Kayastha. Brahmanical religious texts refer to Kayasthas as a responsible for writing secular documents. According to the chronicle known as the Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana in the 12th century AD, Kayasthas served as prime ministers. Prior to the 13th century AD, during the rule of Hindu kings and they may also have been described as Karanas, since the two groups performed similar functions. According to Abu al-Fazl, Emperor Akbars prime minister, Kayasthas were rulers of the Pala Empire, after the Muslim conquest of India, Kayasthas mastered Persian, which became the official language of the Mughal courts. Some converted to Islam and formed the Muslim Kayasth community in northern India and he also translated the Bhagavata Purana from Sanskrit into Persian. In Bengal, Kayasthas had been the dominant landholding caste prior to the Muslim conquest, indeed, Muslim rulers had from a very early time confirmed the Kayasthas in their ancient role as landholders and political intermediaries. Bengali Kayasthas served as governors, prime ministers and treasury officials under Mughal rule, as a result of their exalted status amongst Muslim sultans, many Bengali Kayasthas became zamindars and jagirdars. According to Abu al-Fazl, most of the Hindu zamindars in Bengal were Kayasthas, maharaja Pratapaditya, the King of Jessore who declared independence from Mughal rule in the early 17th century, was a Kayastha. During the British Raj, Kayasthas continued to proliferate in public administration, qualifying for the highest executive, Bengali Kayasthas took on the role occupied by merchant castes in other parts of India and profited from business contacts with the British. In 1911, for example, Kayasthas and Brahmins owned 40% of all the Indian-owned mills, the Kayastha are found mostly in central, eastern and northern India, and particularly in Bengal. Today, there are an estimated 800,000 Kayasthas in India, Kayasthas that have risen to prominence since independence include the countrys first president, Rajendra Prasad, and its second prime minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri. Kayastha presently feel isolated in aligning themselves with different political parties to political and economical advantages and are now demanding 33 percent reservation in Government jobs. The exact varna status of Kayasthas has been a subject of debate, according to multiple accounts, they are a literate and educated class of Kshatriyas, and have been referred to as a twice-born caste
