1.
Rivoli, Piedmont
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Rivoli, is a comune established around the 1st century CE, in the Province of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, about 14 kilometres west of Turin. As of 2009, it had a population of 50,115, Rivoli borders the following municipalities, Turin, Pianezza, Caselette, Alpignano, Collegno, Rosta, Grugliasco, Villarbasse, Rivalta di Torino, Orbassano. The Romans conquered the area in 221 BC, the first findings are from the 1st and 2nd century CE, belonging to Roman sepultures. The Castle of Rivoli, a residence of the Royal House of Savoy
2.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
3.
Metropolitan City of Turin
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The Metropolitan City of Turin is a metropolitan city in the Piedmont region, Italy. Its capital is the city of Turin and it replaced the Province of Turin and comprises the city of Turin and 315 other municipalities. It was first created by the reform of local authorities and then established by the Law 56/2014 and it has been officially operative since 1 January 2015. The Metropolitan City of Turin is headed by the metropolitan mayor, since 1 January 2015 Piero Fassino, as mayor of the capital city, has been the first mayor of the metropolitan city. It has an area of 6,830 km2, and a population of 2,306,676. There are 315 comuni in the metropolitan area – the most of any province or metropolitan city in Italy, the second province with the highest number of comuni is that of Cuneo, with 250. The territory consists of an area to the west and north along the border with France and with the Valle dAosta. The mountainous part is home to part of the Hautes Alpes, the highest point in the Metropolitan City of Turin is the Roc, located in the Gran Paradiso massif on the border with Valle dAosta. Several wildlife reserves are located in the province, including the Sacro Monte Natural Reserve in Belmonte, the Residences of the House of Savoy, located in Turin and several other towns in the province, as well as the Sacro Monte of Belmonte are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Metropolitan City currently has a number of rail and road work sites. Although this activity has increased as a result of the 2006 Winter Olympics, one is the Spina Centrale project which includes the doubling of a major railway crossing the city, the Turin-Milan railway locally known as Passante Ferroviario di Torino. The railroad previously ran in a trench, which will now be covered by a boulevard running from North to South of Turin, in a central position along the city. Porta Susa, on this section, will become Turins main station to substitute the terminus of Porta Nuova with a through station. Other important stations are Stura, Rebaudengo, Lingotto and Madonna di Campagna railway stations, the other major project is the construction of a subway line based on the VAL system, known as Metrotorino. The first leg of the system linked the nearby town of Collegno with Porta Susa in Turins city centre. On 4 October 2007 the line was extended to Porta Nuova and then, in March 2011, to Lingotto. A new extension of the so-called Linea 1 is expected in the near future, furthermore, an alleged Linea 2 is in the pipeline and it is supposed to cross Turin from North to South. As of 2010 also a bicycle sharing system, the ToBike, is operational, the metropolitan area is served by Turin metropolitan railway service
4.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
5.
Emperor
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An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the equivalent, may indicate an emperors wife, mother. Emperors are generally recognized to be of an honour and rank than kings. The Emperor of Japan is the currently reigning monarch whose title is translated into English as Emperor. Both kings and emperors are monarchs, but emperor and empress are considered the higher monarchical titles. In as much as there is a definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler. Thus a king might be obliged to pay tribute to another ruler, or be restrained in his actions in some unequal fashion, although initially ruling much of Central Europe and northern Italy, by the 19th century the Emperor exercised little power beyond the German speaking states. In Eastern Europe the rulers of the Russian Empire also used translatio imperii to wield authority as successors to the Eastern Roman Empire. Their title of Emperor was officially recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, in practice the Russian Emperors are often known by their Russian-language title Tsar, which may also used to refer to rulers equivalent to a king. Historians have liberally used emperor and empire anachronistically and out of its Roman and European context to any large state from the past or the present. Such pre-Roman titles as Great King or King of Kings, used by the Kings of Persia, however such empires did not need to be headed by an emperor. Empire became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century, outside the European context, emperor was the translation given to holders of titles who were accorded the same precedence as European emperors in diplomatic terms. In reciprocity, these rulers might accredit equal titles in their languages to their European peers. Through centuries of international convention, this has become the dominant rule to identifying an emperor in the modern era, also the name of the position split in several branches of Western tradition, see below. Later new symbols of worldly and/or spiritual power, like the orb, rules for indicating successors also varied, there was a tendency towards male inheritance of the supreme office, but as well election by noblemen, as ruling empresses are known. Ruling monarchs could additionally steer the succession by adoption, as occurred in the two first centuries of Imperial Rome. Of course, intrigue, murder and military force could also mingle in for appointing successors, probably the epoch best known for this part of the imperial tradition is Romes third century rule. When Republican Rome turned into a de facto monarchy in the half of the 1st century BC
6.
Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor
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Frederick I, also known as Frederick Barbarossa, was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death. He was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and he became King of Italy in 1155 and was crowned Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV on 18 June 1155. Two years later, the term sacrum first appeared in a document in connection with his Empire and he was later formally crowned King of Burgundy, at Arles on 30 June 1178. He was named Barbarossa by the northern Italian cities which he attempted to rule, Barbarossa means red beard in Italian, in German, he was known as Kaiser Rotbart, before his imperial election, Frederick was by inheritance Duke of Swabia. He was the son of Duke Frederick II of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and Judith, daughter of Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria, Frederick therefore descended from the two leading families in Germany, making him an acceptable choice for the Empires prince-electors. Historians consider him among the Holy Roman Empires greatest medieval emperors, in 1147 he became Duke of the southern German region of Swabia, and shortly afterwards made his first trip to the East, accompanied by his uncle, the German king Conrad III, on the Second Crusade. The expedition proved to be a disaster, but Frederick distinguished himself, when Conrad died in February 1152, only Frederick and the prince-bishop of Bamberg were at his deathbed. Frederick energetically pursued the crown and at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 the kingdoms princely electors designated him as the next German king and he was crowned King of the Romans at Aachen several days later, on 9 March 1152. Fredericks father was from the Hohenstaufen family, and his mother was from the Welf family, the Hohenstaufens were often called Ghibellines, which derives from the Italianized name for Waiblingen castle, the family seat in Swabia, the Welfs, in a similar Italianization, were called Guelfs. The reigns of Henry IV and Henry V left the status of the German empire in disarray, for a quarter of a century following the death of Henry V in 1125, the German monarchy was largely a nominal title with no real power. The king was chosen by the princes, was given no resources outside those of his own duchy, the royal title was furthermore passed from one family to another to preclude the development of any dynastic interest in the German crown. When Frederick I of Hohenstaufen was chosen as king in 1152, royal power had been in abeyance for over twenty-five years. The only real claim to lay in the rich cities of northern Italy. The Salian line had died out with the death of Henry V in 1125, one of the Hohenstaufens gained the throne as Conrad III of Germany. When Frederick Barbarossa succeeded his uncle in 1152, there seemed to be excellent prospects for ending the feud, the Welf duke of Saxony, Henry the Lion, would not be appeased, however, remaining an implacable enemy of the Hohenstaufen monarchy. Barbarossa had the duchies of Swabia and Franconia, the force of his own personality, the Germany that Frederick tried to unite was a patchwork of more than 1600 individual states, each with its own prince. A few of these, such as Bavaria and Saxony, were large, many were too small to pinpoint on a map. The titles afforded to the German king were Caesar, Augustus, by the time Frederick would assume these, they were little more than propaganda slogans with little other meaning
7.
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Turin
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The Roman Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Turin is an ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Roman Catholic Church in Italy. Founded in the 4th century and elevated to the dignity of an archdiocese on 21 May 1515 and its mother church is the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist. Since 2010 the Archbishop of Turin has been Cesare Nosiglia, the first bishop of Turin whose name has survived was St Maximus. He can hardly be considered the first bishop of Turin, even though no other bishop is known before him, Maximus, many of whose homilies are extant, died between 408 and 423. It was another Maximus who lived in 451 and 465, in 494 Victor of Turin went with St Epiphanius to France for the ransom of prisoners of war. St Ursicinus suffered at the hands of the Franks and it was then that the Diocese of Moriana was detached from that of Turin. In the time of Cesare Cybo the diocese saw the rise of Calvinism, Cardinal Girolamo della Rovere, in 1564, brought to Turin the Holy Shroud and the body of St Maurice, the martyr. From 1713 to 1727, owing to difficulties with the Holy See, after 1848, Cardinal Luigi Fransoni became notable for his opposition to the Piedmontese Governments reform of the rights of the Church, and in consequence he went into exile. His successors include Gaetano Alimonda and Agostino Richelmy, the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd edition. Gli antichi Vescovi dItalia, il Piemonte, il cardinal Domenico Della Rovere, costruttore della cattedrale, e gli arcivescovi di Torino dal 1515 al 2000, stemmi, alberi genealogici e profili biografici. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
8.
House of Savoy
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The House of Savoy is one of the oldest royal families in the world, being founded in 1003 in the historical Savoy region. Through gradual expansion, it grew from ruling a small county in that region to the attainment of the rank of king in 1713, the Savoyard kings of Italy were Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, Victor Emmanuel III, and Umberto II. The last monarch ruled for a few weeks before being deposed following the Constitutional Referendum of 1946, the name derives from the historical region of Savoy in the Alpine region between what is now France and Italy. Over time, the House of Savoy expanded its territory and influence through judicious marriages, from rule of a small region on the French/Italian border, the dynastys realm included nearly all of the Italian Peninsula by the time of its deposition. The house descended from Humbert I, Count of Sabaudia, Humberts family are thought to have originated from near Magdeburg in Saxony, with the earliest recording of the family being two 10th century brothers, Amadeus and Humbert. Though Sabaudia was originally a county, later counts were diplomatically skilled. Two of Humberts sons were bishops at the Abbey of Saint Maurice on the River Rhone east of Lake Geneva and this diplomatic skill caused the great powers such as France, England, and Spain to take the counts opinions into account. Piedmont was later joined with Sabaudia, and the name evolved into Savoy, the people of Savoy were descended from the Celts and Romans. In 1494, Charles VIII of France passed through Savoy on his way to Italy and Naples, during the outbreak of the Italian war of 1521-1526, Emperor Charles V stationed imperial troops in Savoy. In 1536, Francis I of France invaded Savoy and Piedmont taking Turin by April of that year, Charles III, Duke of Savoy, fled to Vercelli. He served Philip II as Governor of the Netherlands from 1555 to 1559, in this capacity he led the Spanish invasion of northern France and won a victory at St. Quentin in 1557. He took advantage of various squabbles in Europe to slowly regain territory from both the French and the Spanish, including the city of Turin and he moved the capital of the duchy from Chambéry to Turin. The 17th century brought economic development to the Turin area. Charles Emmanuel II developed the port of Nice and built a road through the Alps towards France, and through skillful political manoeuvres territorial expansion continued. Savoy rule over Sicily lasted only seven years, the crown of Sicily, the prestige of being kings at last, and the wealth of Palermo helped strengthen the House of Savoy further. In 1720 they were forced to exchange Sicily for Sardinia as a result of the War of the Quadruple Alliance, on the mainland, the dynasty continued its expansionist policies as well. In 1798, Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate, eventually, in 1814 the kingdom was restored and enlarged with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa by the Congress of Vienna. In the meantime, nationalist figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini were influencing popular opinion, the Kingdom of Italy was the first Italian state to include the Italian Peninsula since the fall of the Roman Empire
9.
Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy
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Amadeus VI, nicknamed the Green Count was Count of Savoy from 1343 to 1383. He was the eldest son of Aymon, Count of Savoy, though he started under a regency, he showed himself to be a forceful leader, continuing Savoys emergence as a power in Europe politically and militarily. He participated in a crusade against the Turks who were moving into Europe, when his father died in 1343, Amadeus inherited the County of Savoy. Since he was nine years old, his fathers will left two cousins as co-regents, Amadeus III of Geneva and Louis II of Vaud. The two agreed to a document limiting their power as regents, neither could make any significant decision without the other, and the decisions of both were subject to review by the resident council of nobles representing all bailis in the county. Though she died the year, in her will she left the county to Philip. In 1345, he negotiated a settlement to the one Joan reached with Aymon. Amadeus was educated both physically and mentally and he enjoyed learning to fight and ride. His education included classic works such as De Re Militari and more modern texts including De Regimine Principum and he also showed religious devotion, requesting a portable altar and the right for his chaplain to say mass for him every morning wherever he may be. He took vows to fast more often than was healthy for him, the pope agreed, asking him instead to feed twelve of the poor weekly. When the young Angevin queen Joanna I of Naples took the throne, several in northern Italy sought to take advantage of her inexperience, John II, Marquess of Montferrat led the first attacks, while James of Piedmont, a cousin and vassal of Amadeus, backed the queen. After her first army was defeated in 1345, the attackers moved next into the territory ruled by James, in 1347, James asked Amadeus for help, and Amadeus sent an army. That army swept the attackers back through July of that year, John then recruited the help of Humbert II, Dauphin of Viennois, an old enemy of the Savoyards, and Thomas II, Marquess of Saluzzo. Together, they conquered the Angevin lands, Pope Clement VI spent 1348 negotiating a truce to end the fighting, which none of the combatants were satisfied with. From 1348 through 1351, the Black Death ravaged the lands of Savoy, in 1348, many of the peasants thought that it was caused by Jews poisoning wells and fountains. Though the castellans in some places tried to protect them, quite a few were killed, in Chambéry, the Jews were locked in the castle for their protection, but a mob broke in and killed several. Court officers were pressured into finding the remainder guilty of poisoning, executing eleven. In 1349, Amadeus agreed to a treaty between himself, Amadeus of Geneva, James of Piedmont, and the House of Visconti, rulers of Milan and this treaty included provisions for Galeazzo II Visconti to marry Bianca of Savoy, sister of the count
10.
Shroud of Turin
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The shroud is kept in the royal chapel of the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist in Turin, northern Italy. The Catholic Church has neither endorsed nor rejected the shroud. Pope John Paul II called the Shroud a mirror of the Gospel, the origins of the shroud and its images are the subject of intense debate among theologians, historians and researchers. Articles published from 2005 -2015 have highlighted concerns about this dating, aspects of the 1988 test continue to be debated, but meaningful challenges to the dating result have so far been unsuccessful. According to Christopher Ramsey of the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit in 2011, there are various hypotheses as to why the dates might not be correct, but none of them stack up. A variety of methods have been proposed for the formation of the image, despite numerous investigations and tests, the status of the Shroud of Turin remains murky, and the nature of the image and how it was fixed on the cloth remain puzzling. The shroud continues to be intensely studied and controversial. The shroud is rectangular, measuring approximately 4.4 by 1.1 metres, the cloth is woven in a three-to-one herringbone twill composed of flax fibrils. Its most distinctive characteristic is the faint, brownish image of a front, the two views are aligned along the midplane of the body and point in opposite directions. The front and back views of the head nearly meet at the middle of the cloth, the image of the Man of the Shroud has a beard, moustache, and shoulder-length hair parted in the middle. Forensic doctors have interpreted markings on the cloth as follows, One wrist bears a large, round wound, small punctures around the forehead and scalp Scores of linear wounds on the torso and legs. Swelling of the face Streams of blood down both arms The details of the image on the shroud are not easily seen with the naked eye, in May 1898 Italian photographer Secondo Pia was allowed to photograph the shroud. He took the first photograph of the shroud on 28 May 1898, Pia was startled by the visible image of the negative plate, implying that the shroud is effectively a negative of some kind. Pia was at first accused of doctoring his photographs, but he was vindicated in 1931 when another photographer, Giuseppe Enrie, photographed the shroud, in 1978, ultraviolet photographs were taken of the shroud. The shroud was damaged in a fire in 1532 in the chapel in Chambery, There are some burn holes and scorched areas down both sides of the linen, caused by contact with molten silver during the fire that burned through it in places while it was folded. Fourteen large triangular patches and eight smaller ones were sewn onto the cloth by Poor Clare nuns to repair the damage, the historical records for the shroud can be separated into two time periods, before 1390 and from 1390 to the present. Prior to 1390 there are some similar images such as the Pray Codex. However, what is claimed by some to be the image of a shroud on the Pray Codex has crosses on one side, a step pyramid pattern on the other
11.
Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy
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The Blessed Amadeus IX, nicknamed the Happy, was the Duke of Savoy from 1465 to 1472. The Catholic Church venerates him with a liturgical feast on March 30 and he was born at Thonon-les-Bains, the son of Louis, Duke of Savoy, and Anne de Lusignan, daughter of Janus of Cyprus, King of Cyprus. In 1452, his mother arranged a marriage to Yolande of Valois, sister of Louis XI of France. Because of his epilepsy and retirement, she was left in control of the state, France and the Holy Roman Empire competed to gain control of Savoy’s strategically important Alpine passes and trade routes. French influence increased in Savoy and involved the country in the wars between France and the emperors, the Castle of Moncalleri in Piedmont, Italy was initially built around 1100 as a fortress on a hill, to command the main southern access to Turin. In the mid-15th century Yolanda turned it into a Renaissance Royal Palace, Amadeus was a particular protector of Franciscan friars and endowed other religious houses as well as homes for the care of the poor and suffering. He made a pilgrimage to Saint-Claude in 1471, a painting of Amadeus, made in 1474 was housed in the Dominican church in Turin and acquired a miraculous reputation. In 1612 a brief text was published in the city, by Girolamo Cordieri, canon of the cathedral chapter of Mondovi. Cordieri was later appointed theologian to Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, also that year, a canon from Vercelli published a compendium of miracles attributed to the intercession of Amadeus IX. The cultus of Amadeus was actively promoted by Charles Emanuels son, Prince Maurice of Savoy, in 1613, an Historia del Beato Amedeo terzo duca di Savoia was composed by Fr. Six years later, the Duke of Savoy issued nine-florin coins depicting Amadeus IX on one side and these appear to have been used as religious medals, particularly in the Chablais, where they were distributed by Francis de Sales. Michel Merle suggests that the revival of the cult of Amadeus IX was part of a long effort on the part of the House of Savoy to enhance its political status. Presented as a prince known for his charity and concern for the poor
12.
Duke
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A duke or duchess can either be a monarch ruling over a duchy or a member of the nobility, historically of highest rank below the monarch. During the Middle Ages the title signified first among the Germanic monarchies, Dukes were the rulers of the provinces and the superiors of the counts in the cities and later, in the feudal monarchies, the highest-ranking peers of the king. During the 19th century many of the smaller German and Italian states were ruled by Dukes or Grand Dukes, but at present, with the exception of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, there are no dukes ruling as monarchs. Duke remains the highest hereditary title in Portugal, Spain, in Sweden, members of the Royal Family are given a personal dukedom at birth. The Pope, as a sovereign, has also, though rarely. In some realms the relative status of duke and prince, as borne by the nobility rather than by members of reigning dynasties, varied—e. g. in Italy. A woman who holds in her own right the title to such duchy or dukedom, Queen Elizabeth II, however, is known by tradition as Duke of Normandy in the Channel Islands and Duke of Lancaster in Lancashire. A duchy is the territory or geopolitical entity ruled by a duke, a dukedom is the title or status of a duke, a rank in the present or past nobility, and is not necessarily attached to a duchy. A few examples exist today, The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a independent state and its head. In Scotland the male heir apparent to the British crown is always the Duke of Rothesay as well, the Channel Islands are two of the three remaining Crown Dependencies, the last vestiges of the lands of the Duchy of Normandy. The Islanders in their loyal toast will say La Reine, notre Duc, however, the Channel Islands, part of the lost Duchy, remained a self-governing possession of the English Crown. While the islands today retain autonomy in government, they owe allegiance to The Queen in her role as Duke of Normandy. During the Middle Ages, after Roman power in Western Europe collapsed, in 1332, Robert of Taranto succeeded his father, Philip. John took the style of Duke of Durazzo, in 1368, Durazzo fell to Karl Thopia, who was recognized by Venice as Prince of Albania. The Visigoths retained the Roman divisions of their kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula and they were the most powerful landowners and, along with the bishops, elected the king, usually from their own midst. They were the commanders and in this capacity often acted independently from the king. The army was structured decimally with the highest unit, the thiufa, the cities were commanded by counts, who were in turn answerable to the dukes, who called up the thiufae when necessary. When the Lombards entered Italy, the Latin chroniclers called their war leaders duces in the old fashion and these leaders eventually became the provincial rulers, each with a recognized seat of government
13.
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy
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Emmanuel Philibert was Duke of Savoy from 1553 to 1580, KG. Born in Chambéry, Emmanuel Philibert was the child of Charles III, Duke of Savoy. Instead, he continued to serve the Habsburgs in hopes of recovering his lands, in this capacity he personally led the Spanish invasion of northern France and won a brilliant victory at Saint-Quentin on 10 August 1557. He was also a suitor to Lady Elizabeth Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII of England and their only child was Charles Emmanuel I of Savoy. Following the death of his uncle, Henry I of Portugal, on 31 January 1580, however, he soon realised that he had quite a fragile position due to the claims of Philip II, who gained control of the country, thus uniting Spain and Portugal. Emmanuel Philibert spent his rule regaining what had been lost in the wars with France. A skilled political strategist, he took advantage of various squabbles in Europe to slowly regain territory from both the French and the Spanish, including the city of Turin. Internally, he moved the capital of the duchy from Chambéry to Turin and he was attempting to acquire the marquisate of Saluzzo when he died in Turin. Later, he was buried in the Chapel of the Holy Shroud of the Turin Cathedral, where he did move the Sindone in 1578
14.
Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy
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Charles Emmanuel I, known as the Great, was the Duke of Savoy from 1580 to 1630. He was nicknamed Testa dfeu for his rashness and military aggression and he was born in the Castle of Rivoli in Piedmont, the only child of Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy and Margaret of France, Duchess of Berry. He became duke on 30 August 1580, well-educated, and intelligent, he spoke Italian, French and Spanish, as well as Latin. He proved an able warrior although short and hunchbacked, being also ambitious and confident, he pursued a policy of expansion for his duchy, seeking to expand it into a kingdom. In the autumn of 1588, taking advantage of the civil war weakening France during the reign of his first cousin Henry III, he occupied the Marquisate of Saluzzo, which was under French protection. The new king, Henry IV, demanded the restitution of land, but Charles Emmanuel refused. The broader conflict involving France and Spain ended with the Peace of Vervins, after the Duke started talks with Spain, Henry threatened to return to war until, with the Treaty of Lyon, Saluzzo went to Savoy in exchange for Bresse and other territories over the Alps. By terms of the treaty, the eradication of Protestants was to be carried on in the duchy, in 1602 Charles Emmanuel attacked the city of Geneva. On 11 December that year he led his troops to the city during the night, the Savoyard cuirassiers were ordered to dismount and climb the city walls in full armour as a shock tactic. However, the alarm was raised by a watchman and Genevas militia rose to meet the invaders. The attempted raid was a failure, and 54 Savoyards were killed. Charles Emmanuels army retreated in a panic and the Savoyard prisoners were executed, the heavy helmets worn by Charles Emmanuels troops, which featured visors made in crude imitation of a human face, were henceforth known as Savoyard helmets after this notorious incident. A number of suits of armour were captured by the Swiss. The Geneva militias successful defence of the walls is still celebrated as an act of heroism during the annual festival of LEscalade. Nevertheless, Charles Emmanuel obtained the help of French troops to free Alba from the Spaniards and his sister Christine Marie was married to Charles Emmanuels son, Victor Amadeus in 1619. In the First Genoese-Savoyard War of 1625, Charles Emmanuel tried with the help of France to obtain access to the Mediterranean Sea at the expense of Genoa, after Spanish intervention, the status-quo was restored in the Treaty of Monçon. However, when the French occupied Casale Monferrato during the War of the Mantuan Succession, when Richelieu invaded Piedmont and conquered Susa, the duke changed sides again and returned to an alliance with France. The French troops, soon backed by army, occupied Pinerolo
15.
Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia
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Victor Amadeus II was Duke of Savoy from 1675 to 1730. He also held the titles of marquis of Saluzzo, duke of Montferrat, prince of Piedmont, count of Aosta, Moriana, Louis XIV organised his marriage in order to maintain French influence in the Duchy but Victor Amadeus soon broke away from the influence of France. Having fought in the War of the Spanish Succession, he became king of Sicily in 1713 but he was forced to exchange this title, Victor Amadeus was born in Turin to Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy and his second wife Marie Jeanne of Savoy. Named after his paternal grandfather Victor Amadeus I he was their only child, as an infant he was styled as the Prince of Piedmont, traditional title of the heir apparent to the duchy of Savoy. A weak child, his health was greatly monitored, as an infant he had a passion for soldiers and was noted as being very intelligent. His father died in June 1675 Turin at the age of forty after a series of convulsive fevers and his mother was declared Regent of Savoy and Marie Jeanne, known as Madame Royale at court, took power. The duchy would revert to the Kingdom of Portugal at her death. Victor Amadeus refused and a party was formed which refused to recognise his leaving Savoy. Despite a marriage contract being signed between Portugal and Savoy on 15 May 1679, the marriage between Victor Amadeus and the Infanta came to nothing and was thus cancelled, other candidates included Maria Antonia of Austria, a Countess Palatine of Neuburg and Anna Maria Luisa de Medici. Victor Amadeus was keen on the match with Tuscany and negotiations were kept secret from France even though the match never happened, under the influence of Louis XIV and Marie Jeanne, Victor Amadeus was forced to marry a French princess Anne Marie dOrléans. His mother was keen on the match and had always promoted French interests having been born in Paris a member of a branch of the House of Savoy. A significant event of his mothers regency was the Salt Wars of 1680 and these rebellions were caused by the unpopular taxes on salt in all cities in Savoy. The system had been put in place by Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy in order to raise money for the crown, the unrest caused an army to be sent to stop the unrest in the town, which was pacified quickly. However, in the town of Montaldo, the unrest began again and was more serious than before,200 soldiers were killed in warfare which lasted for several days. The news of these rebellions soon reached a wider scope and it clear that soon the whole of Piedmont was on the verge of revolt. The event had allowed Victor Amadeus a chance to some power. Having succeeded in ending his mothers power in Savoy, Victor Amadeus looked to his marriage with the youngest child of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans. The contract of marriage between Anne Marie and the Duke of Savoy was signed at Versailles on 9 April, On 10 April 1684, Anne Marie was married at Versailles, by proxy, the couple were married in person on 6 May 1684
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Filippo Juvarra
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Filippo Juvarra was an Italian architect and stage set designer, active in a late-Baroque style. He was born in Messina, Sicily, to a family of goldsmiths, after spending his formative years with his family in Sicily where he designed Messinas festive settings for the coronation of Philip V of Spain and Sicily, Juvarra moved to Rome in 1704. There he studied architecture with Carlo and Francesco Fontana, the first phase of his independent career was occupied with designs for ceremonies and celebrations, and especially with set designs for theatres. Juvarras set designs incorporate the scena per angolo, literally scenes at an angle, the exact origin of this style is unclear. Ferdinando Galli Bibiena claims to have invented it in his treatise Architettura Civile, however, the style was clearly in use before then, including in the works of Juvarra. A couple of early drawings by Juvarra, dated 1706, are associated with the Teatro S. Bartolomeo, Naples, the majority of his work in theatre and set design was in Rome under the patronage of Cardinal Ottoboni. He assisted in the rebuilding of the Cardinals private theatre in the Palazzo della Cancelleria, the first opera for which Juvarra designed all the sets was Costantino Pio. The libretto was by Cardinal Ottoboni and the music was by Carlo Francesco Pollarolli, the opera was premiered in 1709 and was one of the first operas to appear after the lifting of papal bans on secular theatre, it also inaugurated Ottoboni’s newly renovated private theatre. He also worked on set designs for performances sponsored by Ottoboni at the Teatro Capranica, in 1713 a theatre project took him to Genoa. In 1706 Juvarra won a contest for the new sacristy at the St. Peters, organized by Pope Clement XI, Juvarra was also an engraver, his book of engravings of sculpted coats-of-arms appeared in 1711, Raccolta di varie targhe fatte da professori primarii di Roma. He was engaged in projects in Lombardy, including a monumental altar for the Sanctuary Church of Caravaggio. He also designed the decorative belltower for the cathedral of Belluno, one of Juvarras masterworks, the basilica church of Superga, was built in 1731 and rises at the top of a mountain overlooking the city of Turin. It was part-picturesque monument and part-royal mausoloeum for the family of Savoy, construction was arduous, and took over fourteen years, including two years to flatten the mountaintop, and at incredible cost and effort to bring the stones and supplies to the peak. Behind the church was a monastery, the classical portico is appended to a centralized church with a highly vertical, seventy five meter, baroque dome, the latter creates a mountain atop a mountain effect. He also built in Turin the church of the Blessed Virgin of the Carmine and he also helped decorate the interior of many churches in Turin. He also built churches, including the bizarre, Borrominesque church of San Gregorio in Messina. In Mantua, he added a tall buttressed dome to the Alberti church of SantAndrea, the Palace of Stupinigi was built to be the royal hunting lodge some 6 miles outside of Turin, the huge layout and highly decorated interiors made this palace a grand setting for summer retreats. Juvarra fulfills the needs of his patron for classical grandeur, but with the urge to decorate
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Morganatic marriage
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Now rare, it is also known as a left-handed marriage because in the wedding ceremony the groom held his brides hand with his left hand instead of his right. Generally, this is a marriage between a man of birth and a woman of lesser status. Usually, neither the bride nor any children of the marriage have a claim on the succession rights, titles, precedence. The children are considered legitimate for all purposes and the prohibition against bigamy applies. In some countries, a woman could marry a man of lower rank morganatically. e, the Latin term, applied to a Germanic custom, was adopted from a Germanic term, *morgangeba. Morgen is the German word for morning, while the Latin word is matutinus, the bride received property from the bridegrooms clan. It was intended to ensure her livelihood in widowhood, and it was to be separate as the wifes discrete possession. e. King Erik XIV of Sweden married the servant Karin Månsdotter morganatically in 1567, and later secondly, ludwig Wilhelm, Duke in Bavaria and Henriette Mendel. She was created Baroness von Wallersee, and their daughter, Marie Louise, victor Emmanuel II of Italy in 1869 married morganatically his principal mistress Rosa Teresa Vercellana Guerrieri. Popularly known in Piedmontese as Bela Rosin, she was born a commoner, late in his life, the widowed ex-king Fernando II of Portugal married the opera singer Elise Hensler, who was created Countess von Edla. Royal women who married morganatically, Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma contracted a second marriage with a mediatized count after the death of her first husband. Queen Maria Christina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, regent of Spain after her husbands death while their daughter and she married one of her guards in a secret marriage. Princess Stéphanie of Belgium, the widow of Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, in 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria, conferred upon Lónyay a non-dynastic title of prince. Succession to the Danish throne followed the specifications of the Lex Regia until the Danish Act of Succession was passed in 1953, prominent morganatic marriages include the 1615 marriage of King Christian IV of Denmark to noblewoman Kirsten Munk. Kirsten was titled Countess of Schleswig-Holstein and bore the King 12 children, King Frederick VII married the ballerina Louise Rasmussen, who was raised to the rank of Countess Danner in 1850. There were no children of this marriage, when Christian IX of Denmarks brother, Prince Julius of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg married Elisabeth von Ziegesar in 1883, the king granted her the title Countess af Røst. They were granted the prefix of Prince and their descendants bear the title Count af Rosenborg in the Danish nobility. Neither of the children of Queen Margrethe II has married a person of royal birth or of the titled aristocracy
18.
Anna Canalis di Cumiana
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Anna Carlotta Teresa Canalis di Cumiana was the morganatic wife of Victor Amadeus II, King of Sardinia. She was created Marchesa of Spigno, born at the Palazzo Canalis, Turin in 1680, she was a daughter of Francesco Maurizio Canalis, Count of Cumiana and his wife Monica Francesca San Martino dAgliè. Receiving education as a nun at the Convent of the Visitation in Turin and she was made a lady-in-waiting to Marie Jeanne of Savoy, mother of the ruler, Victor Amadeus II. She was styled as Mademoiselle de Cumiana and she was married on 21 April 1703 to Ignazio Francesco Novarina, the Count of San Sebastiano, by whom she purportedly had seven children. The marriage was organised by Duchess Marie Jeanne, to whose household she belonged, the couples first child is widely believed to have been fathered by Victor Amadeus but San Sebastiano accepted paternity. Victor Amadeus and Anna were in correspondence and she became a confidante in place of his wife. Leaving the court in 1723 with her husband who had a good career and she was later elevated to the position of Polyxenas Lady of the Bedchamber. In August 1728 Victor Amadeuss consort Anne Marie dOrléans died after a series of heart attacks, two years later he married Anna in a private ceremony on 12 August 1730 in the Royal Chapel in Turin, having obtained permission from Pope Clement XII. Victor Amadeus created her Marchesa of Spigno, the title was attached to a fief of the Holy Roman Empire, acquired as spoils of the War of the Spanish Succession and subsequently owned by an illegitimate brother of Victor Amadeus. The couple made their marriage public on 3 September 1730, much to the dismay of the court, a month later, Victor Amadeus announced his wish to abdicate the throne and did so in a ceremony at the Castle of Rivoli on the day of his marriage. His son succeeded him as Charles Emmanuel III, taking the style of King Victor Amadeus, he and Anna moved into the château de Chambéry outside the capital. The couple took a retinue of servants and Victor Amadeus was kept informed of matters of state. Under the influence of Anna and despite having suffered a stroke in 1731, Victor Amadeus decided he wanted to resume his tenure on the throne and she was returned to him on 12 April. The stroke seemed to have affected Victor Amadeus in a way which caused him to turn violent toward his wife. King Victor Amadeus having died in September 1732, Anna was imprisoned in the Convent of San Giuseppe di Carignano and she was later moved to the Convent of the Visitation in Pinerolo where she died aged 88. Her son later left the Savoy court in disgrace but succeeded to the marquisate of Spigno and she was buried at Pinerolo in a grave without a headstone
19.
Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia
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Charles Emmanuel III was the Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia from 1730 until his death. He was born a Prince of Savoy in Turin to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy and his maternal grandparents were Prince Philippe of France and his first wife Princess Henrietta Anne, the youngest daughter of King Charles I of England and Henrietta Maria of France. From his birth he was styled as the Duke of Aosta, at the time of his birth, Charles Emmanuel was not the heir to the Duchy of Savoy, his older brother Prince Victor Amadeus John Philip, Prince of Piedmont, was the heir apparent. Charles Emmanuel was the second of three males that would be born to his parents and his older brother died in 1715 and Charles Emmanuel then became heir apparent. As a result of his aid in the War of the Spanish Succession, Victor Amadeus was forced to exchange Sicily for the less important kingdom of Sardinia in 1720 after objections from an alliance of four nations, including several of his former allies. Yet he retained his new title of King, however, Victor Amadeus in his late years was dominated by shyness and sadness, probably under the effect of some mental illness. In the end, on 3 September 1730, he abdicated and he was not loved by Victor Amadeus, and consequently received an incomplete education. He however acquired noteworthy knowledge in the field along his father. In summer,1731, after having recovered from a fatal illness. The old king was confined to the Castle of Rivoli, where he died without any further harm to Charles. In the War of the Polish Succession Charles Emmanuel sided with the French- backed king Stanislaw I, after the treaty of alliance signed in Turin, on 28 October 1733 he marched on Milan and occupied Lombardy without significant losses. However, when France tried to convince Philip V of Spain to join the coalition, he asked to receive Milan and this was not acceptable for Charles Emmanuel, as it would recreate a Spanish domination in Italy as it had been in the previous centuries. While negotiations continued about the matter, the Savoy-French-Spanish troops attacked Mantua under the command of Charles Emmanuel himself. Sure that in the end Mantua would be assigned to Spain, the Franco-Piedmontese army was victorious in two battles at Crocetta and Guastalla. In the end, when Austria and France signed a peace, in exchange, he was given some territories, including Langhe, Tortona and Novara. Charles Emmanuel was involved in the War of the Austrian Succession, in which he sided with Maria Theresa of Austria, with financial and naval support from England. After noteworthy but inconclusive initial successes, he had to face the French-Spanish invasion of Savoy and, after a failed allied attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Naples, when the enemy army invaded Piedmont, in 1744 he personally defended Cuneo against the Spanish-French besiegers. The following year, with some 20,000 men, he was facing an invasion of two armies with a total of some 60,000 troops, the important strongholds of Alessandria, Asti and Casale fell
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
21.
Robert Browning
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Robert Browning was an English poet and playwright whose mastery of the dramatic monologue made him one of the foremost Victorian poets. His poems are known for their irony, characterization, dark humour, social commentary, historical settings, Brownings early career began promisingly, but was not a success. His reputation took more than a decade to recover, during which time he moved away from the Shelleyan forms of his early period, in 1846 Browning married the older poet Elizabeth Barrett, who at the time was considerably better known than himself. So started one of historys most famous literary marriages and they went to live in Italy, a country he called my university, and which features frequently in his work. By the time of her death in 1861, he had published the crucial collection Men and Women, the collection Dramatis Personae and the book-length epic poem The Ring and the Book followed, and made him a leading British poet. He continued to write prolifically, but his reputation rests largely on the poetry he wrote in this middle period. Unusually for a poet, societies for the study of his work were founded while he was still alive, such Browning Societies remained common in Britain and the United States until the early 20th century. Brownings admirers have tended to temper their praise with reservations about the length and difficulty of his most ambitious poems, particularly The Ring and the Book. Nevertheless, they have included such eminent writers as Henry James, Oscar Wilde, George Bernard Shaw, G. K. Chesterton, Ezra Pound, Jorge Luis Borges, among living writers, Stephen Kings The Dark Tower series and A. S. Byatts Possession refer directly to Brownings work, today Brownings critically most esteemed poems include the monologues Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came, Fra Lippo Lippi, Andrea Del Sarto, and My Last Duchess. Robert Browning was born in Walworth in the parish of Camberwell, Surrey and he was baptized on 14 June 1812, at Locks Fields Independent Chapel, York Street, Walworth, the only son of Sarah Anna and Robert Browning. His father was a clerk for the Bank of England. Brownings paternal grandfather was an owner in Saint Kitts, West Indies. Brownings father had sent to the West Indies to work on a sugar plantation. Brownings mother was the daughter of a German shipowner who had settled in Dundee in Scotland, the evidence, however, is inconclusive either way. Roberts father, a collector, amassed a library of around 6,000 books. As such, Robert was raised in a household of significant literary resources and his mother, to whom he was very close, was a devout nonconformist and a talented musician. His younger sister, Sarianna, also gifted, became her brothers companion in his later years and his father encouraged his childrens interest in literature and the arts
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Piedmont
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Piedmont is one of the 20 regions of Italy. It has an area of 25,402 square kilometres and a population of about 4.6 million, the capital of Piedmont is Turin. The name Piedmont comes from medieval Latin Pedemontium or Pedemontis, i. e. ad pedem montium, meaning “at the foot of the mountains”. Other towns of Piedmont with more than 20,000 inhabitants sorted by population and it borders with France, Switzerland and the Italian regions of Lombardy, Liguria, Aosta Valley and for a very small fragment with Emilia Romagna. The geography of Piedmont is 43. 3% mountainous, along with areas of hills. Piedmont is the second largest of Italys 20 regions, after Sicily and it is broadly coincident with the upper part of the drainage basin of the river Po, which rises from the slopes of Monviso in the west of the region and is Italy’s largest river. The Po collects all the waters provided within the semicircle of mountains which surround the region on three sides, from the highest peaks the land slopes down to hilly areas, and then to the upper, and then to the lower great Padan Plain. 7. 6% of the territory is considered protected area. There are 56 different national or regional parks, one of the most famous is the Gran Paradiso National Park located between Piedmont and the Aosta Valley, Piedmont was inhabited in early historic times by Celtic-Ligurian tribes such as the Taurini and the Salassi. They were later subdued by the Romans, who founded several colonies there including Augusta Taurinorum, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was repeatedly invaded by the Burgundians, the Goths, Byzantines, Lombards, Franks. In the 9th–10th centuries there were incursions by the Magyars. At the time Piedmont, as part of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, was subdivided into several marks, in 1046, Oddo of Savoy added Piedmont to their main territory of Savoy, with a capital at Chambéry. Other areas remained independent, such as the powerful comuni of Asti and Alessandria, the County of Savoy was elevated to a duchy in 1416, and Duke Emanuele Filiberto moved the seat to Turin in 1563. In 1720, the Duke of Savoy became King of Sardinia, founding what evolved into the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Republic of Alba was created in 1796 as a French client republic in Piedmont. A new client republic, the Piedmontese Republic, existed between 1798 and 1799 before it was reoccupied by Austrian and Russian troops, in June 1800 a third client republic, the Subalpine Republic, was established in Piedmont. It fell under full French control in 1801 and it was annexed by France in September 1802, in the congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, and furthermore received the Republic of Genoa to strengthen it as a barrier against France. Piedmont was a springboard for Italys unification in 1859–1861, following earlier unsuccessful wars against the Austrian Empire in 1820–1821 and this process is sometimes referred to as Piedmontisation. However, the efforts were countered by the efforts of rural farmers
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Turin
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Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
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Castello del Valentino
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The Castle of Valentino is a historic building in the north-west Italian city of Turin. It is located in Parco del Valentino, and is the seat of the Architecture Faculty of the Polytechnic University of Turin and it is one of the Residences of the Royal House of Savoy included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1997. The ancient castle was bought by Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy on the advice of Andrea Palladio, the name Valentino, first mentioned in 1275, seems to derive from a saint called Valentine whose relics were venerated in a church which stood nearby. The current structure is due to Princess Christine Marie of France, wife of Victor Amadeus I, architect Carlo di Castellamonte renovated the construction substantially, with the help of his son Amedeo. Works started around 1633 and lasted until 1660 and it has a horseshoe shape, with four round towers at each angle, and a wide inner court with a marble pavement. The ceilings of the upper floors are clearly in transalpino style. The façade sports a coat of arms of the House of Savoy. Minor modifications were made in the nineteenth century, at this time, too. For the next century the palace was more or less abandoned. Renovations were carried out in 1860 when it was selected as the seat of the faculty of Turin. Today it is the building of the Architecture faculty of the Polytechnic University of Turin. The Orto Botanico dellUniversità di Torino, a botanical garden in the castle grounds
25.
Palazzo Carignano
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The Palazzo Carignano is a historical building in the centre of Turin, Italy, which houses the Museum of the Risorgimento. It was a residence of the Princes of Carignano, after whom it is named. Its rounded façade is different from other façades of the same structure and it is located on the Via Accademia delle Scienze. The construction of the Palazzo Carignano was ordered by Prince Emmanuel Philibert, son of Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano, the Prince commissioned architect Guarino Guarini to design a suitable residence for his home and the cadet house of the reigning House of Savoy. Guarini designed the structure in the shape of a square, with a straight and restrained east façade, Guarini also added a forecourt at the center of the palace. Construction began in 1679, when the Prince was 51 years old, the decorations over the windows of the piano nobile recall the campaign of the Carignano family with Carignan-Salières Regiment against the Iroquois in 1667. The interior has always described as lavish and has splendid frescoes. Among the frescoes are some by Stefano Legnani, called il Legnanino, the main stairwell is decorated with busts by Pietro Somazzi. The building, constructed in brick in a typical Baroque style, has an elliptical main façade, the Palazzo was the birthplace of princesse de Lamballe in 1749 – confidant of Marie Antoinette and for whom she died in 1792. Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Carignano was born there in 1770 and it was also the birthplace of the first King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel II in 1820. From 1848 to 1861 the palace was used as the House of Deputies of the Subalpine Parliament. In 1861, with the creation of the parliament of the newly unified Kingdom of Italy, the room was not large enough to host the House of Deputies, Palazzo Carignano, from the site of the Museo nazionale del Risorgimento italiano
26.
Palazzo Chiablese
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The Palazzo Chiablese is a wing of the Royal Palace of Turin, in Northwest Italy. It was the residence of the Duke of Chablais first and then of Carlo Felice, King of Sardinia, today it is home to a cultural collection honouring the history of Piedmont. It is open to the public Wednesday, Thursday, Friday from 4 pm to 8pm and during press conferences, located in Piazza San Giovanni, the Palazzo Chiablese is part of the Royal Palace of Turin which was a residence of the Kings of Sardinia. As an extension of the palace, it was the home of Maurice of Savoy and it was then used as offices by the court. From 1753, it served as the residence of Benedetto of Savoy, son of Charles Emmanuel III, consequently, it was named after his courtesy title of Duke of Chablais. Chablais carried out improvements to the interior of the palace under the direction of Benedetto Alfieri. The former died here in 1831, the building was the seat of the provisional government of France during the Napoleonic occupation. It was the home of Camillo Borghese and his wife Pauline Bonaparte, restored to the House of Savoy, it was later the birthplace of Margherita of Savoy, daughter of the Duke of Genoa and later Queen of Italy as wife of Umberto I. A century later the palace was bombed during World War II, the property passed to the State in the 1950s and it was then used as the Superintendence headquarters. Later on the palace was converted to provide the dormitories, kitchens and it is closed to the public except on special occasions
27.
Palazzo Madama, Turin
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Palazzo Madama e Casaforte degli Acaja is a palace in Turin, northern Italy. It was the first Senate of the Italian Kingdom, and takes its name from the embellishments it received under two queens of the House of Savoy. At the beginning of the first century BC, the site of the palace was occupied by a gate in the Roman walls from which the decumanus maximus of Augusta Taurinorum departed, two of the towers, although restored, still testify to this original nucleus. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the gate was used as a stronghold in the defences of the city. Later the building became a possession of the Savoia-Acaja, a branch of the House of Savoy, in the early 14th century. A century later Ludovico of Acaja rebuilt it in shape, with an inner court and a portico. The form of this edifice is still recognizable from the back section of the palace. After the extinction of the Acajas, the became a residence for guests of the house of Savoy. In 1637 the regent for Duke Charles Emmanuel II, Christine Marie of France and she commissioned the covering of the court and a revamping of the inner apartments. Sixty years later another regent, Marie Jeanne of Savoy, who was known as Madama Reale and she conferred upon it definitively the nickname of Madama. She invited many artists to renovate the building which the duchess wanted to turn into a royal palace. The duchess also asked architect Filippo Juvarra to design a new Baroque palace in white stone, later the palace had various uses, and housed the headquarters of the provisional French government during the Napoleonic Wars. In the 19th century King Charles Albert selected it as seat of the Pinacoteca Regia, the art gallery. Since 1934 it has housed to the City Museum of Ancient Art, overlooking Piazza Castello, the section built by Juvarra constitutes today a scenographic façade a single bay deep, screening the rear part of the edifice, which has remained unchanged. Each pilaster stands on a sturdy and formal fielded channel-rusticated base against the masonry of the ground floor. Their prominence is emphasised by the tall socles on which they stand, on either side the bays windows are set together within a slightly recessed panel, thus there are three layered planes to the façade. The dentiled cornice supported on consoles in the frieze breaks forward over the central columns. A conforming balustrade decorated with vases and statues in white marble surmounts the façade, the Palazzo Madama houses Turins Turin City Museum of Ancient Art
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Royal Palace of Turin
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The Royal Palace of Turin is a historic palace of the House of Savoy in the city of Turin in Northern Italy. It was originally built in the 16th century and was modernized by Christine Marie of France in the 17th century. The palace also includes the Palazzo Chiablese and the Chapel of the Holy Shroud, in 1946, the building became the property of the state and was turned into a museum. In 1997, it was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list along with 13 other residences of the House of Savoy, construction of the palace was ordered by the Regent Maria Christina in 1645. She wanted a new residence for the court after her son returned from the civil war. The chosen location was the previous Bishops Palace, which had built in the middle of the new capital of Savoy, Turin, during the reign of Emmanuel Philibert. Its advantages included an open and sunny position, in addition to being close to buildings where the court met. The Duke was able to monitor the two entrances of the city from the Bishops Palace, the Bishops Palace in Turin was later captured by the French in 1536 and served as a residence of the French Viceroys of Savoy, who were appointed by Francis I of France. Opposite the Bishops Palace was the Palazzo Vecchio or the Palazzo di San Giovanni and this building, disparagingly known as Pasta con Tonno because of its architecture, was later replaced by the grand Ducal Palace. Thus the old Bishops Palace became the seat of power and was expanded by Emmanuel Philibert to house his ever growing collection of art, animals, marbles. Emmanuel Philibert died in Turin in August 1580 and the Savoyard throne was handed down to his son, Charles Emmanuel I and his son, the future Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy, entered into a prestigious marriage when he married the French Princess Christine Marie of France. Their marriage took place in Paris at the Louvre in 1619, Victor Amadeus I succeeded to the Duchy of Savoy in 1630. He had previously spent his youth in Madrid at the court of his grandfather and his wife set the tone for Victor Amadeus Is reign. Christine Marie had the court moved from the palace in Turin to the Castello del Valentino. Many of Victor Amadeus I and Christine Maries children were born at Valentino, including Francis Hyacinth, Duke of Savoy and his successor Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy. Christine Marie became the regent of Savoy after the death of her husband in 1637 on behalf of her two sons, who succeeded as Dukes of Savoy. During the reign of Victor Amadeus II, the Daniel gallery was created and named after Daniel Seiter, Victor Amadeus II also had a collection of summer apartments built to look onto the court and a winter apartment overlooking the gardens. His wife was the niece of Louis XIV, born Anne Marie dOrléans, Louis XVs mother and aunt were born in the palace in 1685 and 1688, respectively
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Villa della Regina
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The Villa della Regina is a palace in the city of Turin, Italy. It was originally built by the House of Savoy in the 17th century, the original structure was designed in early 1615 by the Italian soldier, architect and military engineer, Ascanio Vitozzi. He died in 1615 and the project was passed over to his collaborators, father and son Carlo, the original building was built for the Prince-Cardinal Maurice of Savoy during the reign of his brother Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy. The property was built as a villa with its own vineyard. In 1637 Cardinal Maurice lost his brother and his sister in law Christine Marie of France became Regent of Savoy for her young son, Prince Maurice of Savoy and his brother Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano opposed the Regency and fled to Spain. Following his return to Turin, Maurice died at the Villa in 1657, at the death of Louise Christine, it passed to Anne Marie dOrléans, niece of Louis XIV of France wife Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy in 1684. She used the Vigna when she could, most of the present décor of the Vigna is from her lifetime. Her husband was the King of Sicily from 1713 till 1720, from then on, the building was known as Villa della Regina. It was here Anne Marie died in 1728, Anne Maries eldest daughter Maria Adelaide came here and tried to recreate it at Versailles at the Ménagerie. Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg, daughter in law of Anne Marie, did work in the main saloon of the building when she became the owner of the villa in 1728 at the death of Anne Marie. In the park there is the Pavilion of the Solinghi, pagoda building in which the Academy of the Solinghi used to meet, the Villa was later used by the Spanish Queen of Sardinia Maria Antonietta Ferdinanda. It remained the property of the House of Savoy till 1868 when it was donated by Victor Emmanuel II of Italy to the Institute of the Armys Daughters, damaged in the Second World War, it is today open to the public in order to fund its maintenance
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Province of Turin
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The Province of Turin was a province in the Piedmont region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Turin, the province existed until 31 December 2014, when it was replaced by the Metropolitan City of Turin. It has an area of 6,830 km2, and a population of 2,306,676. There are 315 comuni in the province – the most of any province in Italy, the second highest comunis are in the Province of Cuneo which has 250. Torino, the capital of the province was the first Italian national capital in 1861. The most important export items from Turin are cars, machinery, the province has commercial relations with Germany, France, Poland, Spain, United Kingdom, Romania and Czech Republic. A large quantity of import and export is carried with these nations, service is the most important economic sector accounting to 66% of the Gross Domestic Product. The other two important sectors are Industry and agriculture, to promote entrepreneurship the provincial body has started- Start your own business, an advice service to help aspiring entrepreneurs who have new business ideas
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Moncalieri Castle
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The Castle of Moncalieri is a palace in Moncalieri, Piedmont, in northern Italy. It is one of the Residences of the Royal House of Savoy listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites in 1997, the first structure was a fortress built by Thomas I of Savoy around 1100 on a hill, to command the main southern access to Turin. In the mid-15th century Yolanda of Valois, wife of Duke Amadeus IX, architect Carlo di Castellamonte enlarged the construction substantially, and the interiors were redesigned by him and other local artists. The castle was the site of the marriage between Maria Vittoria Francesca of Savoy to the Prince of Carignano and it was also the place where Maria Carolina of Savoy married Anthony of Saxony by proxy in 1781. It was the scene of the death of Maria Antonietta of Spain in 1785, Victor Amadeus would later die there in 1796. The castle was used extensively by the Savoyards, and was the first castle occupied in 1798 by the French armies, who retained it until 1814. Returned to Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia and later to his distant nephew Charles Albert of Sardinia, Prince of Carignano, king Victor Emmanuel II preferred it to the Royal Palace of Turin, and had numerous apartments furnished according to his tastes. In 1849, it was from this palace that emerged the famous Proclamation of Moncalieri, written by Massimo DAzeglio, the palace was later was used by the Mother Queens and royal princesses. Since 1921 it has been the home of the 1st Battalion of the Carabinieri, on April 5,2008, a fire broke out in the castle, damaging one of the towers and the hall of the proclaim. The current structure of the castle is in the shape of a horseshoe facing south, with four square towers at each angle. The side sections have fived floors, brick walls and robust buttresses, two other minor buildings parallel the side sections and create two courts. The southern façade has a giardino allitaliana and two cylindrical towers, last remains of the 15th-century castle. The northern entrance has also a notable belvedere
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Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi
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The Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi is one of the Residences of the Royal House of Savoy in northern Italy, part of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list. Built as a hunting lodge in the early 18th century, it is located in Stupinigi. The original castle was owned by the Acaja line of the House of Savoy, Lords of Piedmont until 1418 and it was then acquired by Emmanuel Philibert in 1563, when the ducal capital was moved from Chambéry to Turin. The new palace was designed by the architect Filippo Juvarra to be used as a palazzina di caccia for Victor Amadeus II, within two years construction was far enough advanced for the first formal hunt to take place. Juvarra called upon a team of decorators, many of them from Venice, the final building has a total of 137 rooms and 17 galleries, and covers 31,050 square meters. Polissena of Hesse-Rotenburg, wife of Carlo Emanuele III also carried out improvements, the original purpose of the hunting lodge is symbolized by the bronze stag perched at the apex of the stepped roof of its central dome, and the hounds heads that decorate the vases on the roofline. The building has a plan, four angled wings project from the oval-shaped main hall. The extensions resulted in separate pavilions linked by long angled galleries, Stupinigi was the preferred building to be used for celebrations and dynastic weddings by members of the House of Savoy. Here, in 1773, Maria Teresa, Princess of Savoy, married Charles Philippe, Count of Artois, brother of Louis XVI and the future Charles X of France. Stupinigi has the most important collection of Piedmontese furniture, including works by Turins three most famous Royal cabinet-makers, Giuseppe Maria Bonzanigo, Pietro Piffetti and Luigi Prinotti, some of the sculptures of hunting figures are by Giovanni Battista Bernero. Additionally, temporary exhibitions are held in its galleries, such as the Mostra del Barocco. The hunting park that belonged to a branch of the House of Savoia was given to Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy in 1563, since 1992, woods and agricultural land surrounding Stupinigi have been preserved as the Parco naturale di Stupinigi. Wildlife includes beech martens, weasels, foxes, hazel dormouses, European hares, white storks, tree squirrels, list of Baroque residences Roberto, Baffert, Francesco Fenoglio. Castelvecchio di Stupinigi, storia e trasformazioni, page at Piemonte on line Visiting information Pages by the Park Authority on Parks. it Photos
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La Mandria Regional Park
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La Mandria Regional Park is a park in the communes of Venaria Reale and Druento, near Turin, northern Italy. Founded in 1978 by the council of Piedmont, it occupies a wide area between the Stura di Lanzo torrent and the north-western part of Turin and Venaria. The park included one of the last relics of the large forest which covered the whole Po Plain. Fauna includes wild boars and reindeers, the park has also breeds of horse races which are considered in risk of extinction. Filippo Juvarra worked at the castle in the 1720s, in 1860 Victor Emmanuel ordered the enlargement of the village, turning it into a castle with a surface of 35,000 m². The new structure had a rectangular shape measuring 280 x 100 m with three internal courtyards divided by rows of trees, the king wanted here a private residence to live with his morganatic wife, Rosa Vercellana. An apartment was built for her family by Domenico Ferri, in 1861 the structure was expanded with the Castle of the Lakes, a neo-Gothic wing and a fountain of a sea horse fighting a triton by Vincenzo Vela. All the edifices, similarly to the Palazzo Carignano in Turin, are in brickwork, in the late 19th century La Mandria and its buildings were sold to the Medici del Vascello family. After World War II, a testing track owned by FIAT, a golf court and it became a regional estate in 1976. Francesco Pernice, ed. LAppartamento di Vittorio Emanuele II
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Palace of Venaria
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The Palace of Venaria is a former royal residence located in Venaria Reale, near Turin, in Piedmont, northern Italy. It is one of the Residences of the Royal House of Savoy, the name itself derives from Latin, Venatio Regia meaning Royal Hunt. Charles Emmanuel was inspired by the example of the Castle of Mirafiori, the place was rechristened Venaria for his future function as hunting base. The design was commissioned from architects Amedeo di Castellamonte and Michelangelo Garove, the plan of the annexed borough was to symbolize the collar symbol of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, a dynastic order created by the House of Savoy. In 1675 the borough and the palace were completed, including the so-called Reggia di Diana (Royal Residence of Diana. Further damage was inflicted during the Siege of Turin, when the French troops under Louis dAubusson de La Feuillade were billeted there, after the Savoyard victory, Victor Amadeus named Filippo Juvarra as director of the works. It was here that during the reign of Charles Emmanuel III that his wife died giving birth to son. The structure was used after. During the Napoleonic domination, the structures were turned into barracks, the complex maintained this role also after the fall of Napoleon, and was used by the Italian Army until 1978, when it was sold to the Ministry of Culture. Restoration works were begun, but most of the complex was open for tourism from 13 October 2007, the entrance of the palace leads into the Cour dhonneur, which once housed a fountain with a deer. The main facade, covered in the 17th century section with plaster and featuring cornucopias, shells, the original gardens of the residence are now totally disappeared, since French troops turned them into training grounds. Recent works have recreated a park in modern style, exhibiting works by Giuseppe Penone. After the death of Garove, Juvarra built the Grand Gallery and in built a church dedicated to St. Hubertus. The church is included within the palaces structure, so that it was impossible to build a dome. Other works of the Juvarra period included the stables, the citroneria, ambienti e Figure di Torino Vecchia. Lux – a 2012 album by Brian Eno which was initially a soundtrack for the Grand Gallery Official website A. V. T. A
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Province of Cuneo
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Cuneo or Coni is a province in the southwest of the Piedmont region of Italy. To the west it borders on the French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur, to the north it borders on the province of Turin. To the east it borders on the province of Asti, to the south it borders on the Ligurian provinces of Savona and Imperia. It is also known as the Provincia Granda, the big province, because it is the third largest province in Italy, briga Marittima and Tenda were part of this province before cession to France in 1947. Its capital is the city of Cuneo, communes of the province of Cuneo Piemonte Bole, David. Innovative policies for Alpine towns, Alpine space small local urban centres innovative pack, losing Paradise, The Water Crisis in the Mediterranean. Earth Repair, A Transatlantic History of Environmental Restoration, the Aging Population and the Competitiveness of Cities, Benefits to the Urban Economy
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Pollentia
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Pollentia, known today as Pollenzo, was an ancient city on the left bank of the Tanaro. It is now a frazione of Bra in the Province of Cuneo, Piedmont, during the Antiquity Pollentia belonged to the Ligurian Statielli, Augusta Bagiennorum being 16 km to the south. Its position on the road from Augusta Taurinorum to the coast at Vada Sabatia, decimus Brutus managed to occupy it an hour before Mark Antony in 43 BC. Here Stilicho on April 6,402 fought the Battle of Pollentia with Alaric I, the place was famous for its brown wool and pottery. Today it is home to the University of Gastronomic Sciences which offers undergraduate, graduate and masters programs focused on gastronomy and food tourism. Pollentia, la Pollenzo romana, from the website of the Commune of Bra, gives a history of Pollentia. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
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Castle of Racconigi
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The Royal Castle of Racconigi is a palace and landscape park in Racconigi, province of Cuneo, Italy. It was the residence of the Carignano line of the House of Savoy. The first records of the castle are from around the year 1000, the castle was a possession of the margraves of Saluzzo and others starting in the 13th century, and in the 16th century was acquired by the House of Savoy. In 1630, Duke Charles Emmanuel I granted it to his nephew Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano, at this time, the castle was a high brick moated fortress with a square plan, four corner towers and a tall donjon on one side. Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Carignano, Tommasos son, in the late 17th century, the architect erected the current central section where the court was, adding a pagoda-like roof. The two northern towers were replaced by pavilions with dome roof and square plan, provided with white marble lanterns, Charles Albert, a Carignano who eventually became King of Sardinia, further enlarged and embellished the castle to represent the splendour of the newly acquired reign. Here the last King of Italy, Umberto II, was born in 1904, having received the castle as a wedding present in 1930, he proceeded to install in it the family gallery of some 3,000 paintings and historical documents regarding the Shroud of Turin. Emmanuel Philibert created a magnificent wide park in the jardin à la française style that opens for the castles northwards view and it was designed by the renowned 17th century French landscape architect André Le Notre, known for designing the gardens of Versailles radiating from Château de Versailles. A Russian dacha, built to honour tsar Nicholas II of Russias visit to Piedmont in order to sign the Racconigi Bargain, was created in the landscape park. Italian Renaissance garden Giardino allitaliana List of gardens in Italy Grandi Giardini Italiani Official Castle of Racconigi website
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