1.
Catalonia
–
Catalonia is an autonomous community of Spain, located on the northeastern extremity of the Iberian Peninsula. It is designated as a nationality by its Statute of Autonomy, Catalonia consists of four provinces, Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. The capital and largest city is Barcelona, the second-most populated municipality in Spain, Catalonia comprises most of the territory of the former Principality of Catalonia. It is bordered by France and Andorra to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the east, the official languages are Catalan, Spanish, and the Aranese dialect of Occitan. The eastern counties of these marches were united under the rule of the Frankish vassal the Count of Barcelona, in the later Middle Ages Catalan literature flourished. Between 1469 and 1516, the King of Aragon and the Queen of Castile married and ruled their kingdoms together, retaining all their distinct institutions, Courts, and constitutions. During the Franco-Spanish War, Catalonia revolted against a large and burdensome presence of the Royal army in its territory, within a brief period France took full control of Catalonia, at a high economic cost for Catalonia, until it was largely reconquered by the Spanish army. In the nineteenth century, Catalonia was severely affected by the Napoleonic, in the second half of the century Catalonia experienced industrialisation. As wealth from the industrial expansion grew, Catalonia saw a cultural renaissance coupled with incipient nationalism while several workers movements appeared. In 1914, the four Catalan provinces formed a Commonwealth, and with the return of democracy during the Second Spanish Republic, after the Spanish Civil War, the Francoist dictatorship enacted repressive measures, abolishing Catalan institutions and banning the official use of the Catalan language again. Since the Spanish transition to democracy, Catalonia has regained some political and cultural autonomy and is now one of the most economically dynamic communities of Spain, the origin of the name Catalunya is subject to diverse interpretations because of a lack of evidence. During the Middle Ages, Byzantine chroniclers claimed that Catalania derives from the medley of Goths with Alans. Other less plausible theories suggest, Catalunya derives from the land of castles, having evolved from the term castlà or castlan. This theory therefore suggests that the names Catalunya and Castile have a common root, the source is of Celtic origin, meaning chiefs of battle. Although the area is not known to have been occupied by Celts, the Lacetani, an Iberian tribe that lived in the area and whose name, due to the Roman influence, could have evolved by metathesis to Katelans and then Catalans. In English, Catalonia is pronounced /kætəˈloʊniə/, the native name, Catalunya, is pronounced in Central Catalan, the most widely spoken variety whose pronunciation is considered standard. The Spanish name is Cataluña, and the Aranese name is Catalonha, the first known human settlements in what is now Catalonia were at the beginning of the Middle Palaeolithic. From the next era, the Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic, important remains survive
2.
Roussillon
–
Roussillon is one of the historical counties of the former Principality of Catalonia, corresponding roughly to the present-day southern French département of Pyrénées-Orientales. It may also refer to Northern Catalonia or French Catalonia, the first used by Catalan-speakers, a 1998 survey found that 34% of respondents stated they speak Catalan, and a further 21% understand it. Roussillon was a French province before the Revolution and it derived its name from Ruscino, a small fortified place near modern-day Perpignan where Gaulish chieftains met to consider Hannibals request for a conference. The region formed part of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis from 121 BC to AD462 and his successor, Amalaric, on his defeat by Clovis in 531, retired to Hispania, leaving a governor in Septimania. Roussillon was occupied by the Carolingians in 760, on the invasion of Hispania in 778, Charlemagne found the Marca Hispanica wasted by war and the inhabitants settled in the mountains. He granted some lands in the plains to Visigothic refugees from Moorish Hispania, in 792, the Saracens again invaded France, but they were repulsed by Count Guillaume of Toulouse - regent of the child Louis the Pious, King of Aquitaine - whose hegemony extended into Catalonia. The different portions of his kingdom in time grew into allodial fiefs and, in 893, but his rule only extended over the eastern part of what became the later province. The western part, the Cerdanya, was ruled in 900 by Miró as first count, the Counts of Roussillon were allied to their cousins the Counts of Empúries in a centuries-long conflict with the surrounding great nobles. Count Girard I participated in the First Crusade in the following of Raymond IV of Toulouse, and was one of the first to set foot in Jerusalem when it was stormed by the Crusaders in 1099. At the beginning of the 12th century, the prestige of the Counts of Barcelona began to rise to such a height that the Counts of Roussillon had no choice but to swear fealty to them. In 1111, Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, inherited the fief of Besalú, the possession of Roussillon by its last count, Girard II, was challenged by his illegitimate brothers. To ensure that his brothers would not inherit his territories, in his will Girard II left all his lands to Alfonso II of Aragon, who took possession in 1172. Under the Aragonese monarchs, economic and demographic growth of the continued, and Collioure. As the French and Spanish crowns grew in power, the region of Roussillon, James I of Aragon had wrested the Balearic Isles from the Moors and joined these islands with Roussillon to create the Kingdom of Majorca, with its capital at Perpignan. In 1276, James I granted this kingdom to his son, the subsequent disputes of this monarch with his brother Peter III were exploited by Philip III of France in his quarrel with Peter III for the crown of the Two Sicilies. Philip III espoused James IIs cause and led an army into Aragon but, retreating and his successor, James III of Majorca, refused to do homage to Philip VI of France for the seigneury of Montpellier, and applied to Peter IV of Aragon for aid. Peter not only refused, but declared war and seized Majorca, the province was now reunited to the Crown of Aragon, and it enjoyed peace until 1462. In that year, the disputes between John II of Aragon and his son over the Crown of Navarre spurred Louis XI of France to support John against his subjects, who had risen in revolt
3.
Donkey
–
The donkey or ass is a domesticated member of the horse family, Equidae. The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African wild ass, the donkey has been used as a working animal for at least 5000 years. There are more than 40 million donkeys in the world, mostly in underdeveloped countries, working donkeys are often associated with those living at or below subsistence levels. Small numbers of donkeys are kept for breeding or as pets in developed countries, a male donkey or ass is called a jack, a female a jenny or jennet, a young donkey is a foal. Jack donkeys are used to mate with female horses to produce mules. Asses were first domesticated around 3000 BC, probably in Egypt or Mesopotamia and they continue to fill important roles in many places today. While domesticated species are increasing in numbers, the African wild ass is an endangered species, as beasts of burden and companions, asses and donkeys have worked together with humans for millennia. Traditionally, the name for the donkey is Equus asinus asinus based on the principle of priority used for scientific names of animals. This means that the scientific name for the donkey is Equus africanus asinus when it is considered a subspecies. At one time, the ass was the more common term for the donkey. The first recorded use of donkey was in either 1784 or 1785, while the word ass has cognates in most other Indo-European languages, donkey is an etymologically obscure word for which no credible cognate has been identified. From the 18th century, donkey gradually replaced ass, and jenny replaced she-ass, by the end of the 17th century, changes in pronunciation of both ass and arse had caused them to become homophones. Donkeys vary considerably in size, depending on breed and management, the height at the withers ranges from 7.3 to 15.3 hands, and the weight from 80 to 480 kg. Working donkeys in the poorest countries have an expectancy of 12 to 15 years, in more prosperous countries. Donkeys are adapted to desert lands. Unlike wild and feral horses, wild donkeys in dry areas are solitary, each adult donkey establishes a home range, breeding over a large area may be dominated by one jack. Donkeys have large ears, which may pick up more distant sounds, donkeys can defend themselves by biting, striking with the front hooves or kicking with the hind legs. A jenny is normally pregnant for about 12 months, though the period varies from 11 to 14 months
4.
Catalan language
–
Catalan is a Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin and named after the medieval Principality of Catalonia, in northeastern modern Spain and adjoining parts of France. It is the national and only language of Andorra, and a co-official language of the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands. It also has status in the commune of Alghero, situated on the northwestern coast of the island of Sardinia. All these territories are often called Catalan Countries. 4% with Catalan and 47. 5% only Spanish, in order to integrate newcomers, the Generalitat de Catalunya spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories. Catalan evolved from Vulgar Latin in the Middle Ages around the eastern Pyrenees, during the Low Middle Ages it saw a golden age as the literary and dominant language of the Crown of Aragon, and was widely used all over the Mediterranean. The union of Aragon with the territories of Spain in 1479 marked the start of the decline of the language. In 1659 Spain ceded Northern Catalonia to France, and Catalan was banned in both states in the early 18th century, 19th-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival, which culminated in the 1913 orthographic standardization, and the official status of the language during the Second Spanish Republic. However, the Francoist dictatorship banned the use of Catalan in schools and in the public administration, there is no parallel in Europe for such a large, bilingual, non-state speech community. Catalan dialects are relatively uniform, and are mutually intelligible and they are divided into two blocks, Eastern and Western, differing mostly in pronunciation. The terms Catalan and Valencian are two varieties of the same language, there are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community. Catalan shares many traits with its neighboring Romance languages, thus, the similarities are naturally most notable with eastern Occitan. Nouns have two genders, and two numbers, pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, in terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages. The word Catalan derives from the territory of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology, in English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain. It is attested a language name since at least 1652, Catalan can be pronounced as /ˈkætəlæn/, /kætəˈlæn/ or /ˈkætələn/. The endonym is pronounced /kə. təˈɫa/ in the Eastern Catalan dialects, in the Valencian Community, the term valencià is frequently used instead. The names Catalan and Valencian are two names for the same language, see also status of Valencian below. By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south
5.
Spanish language
–
Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
6.
Mallorca
–
Majorca or Mallorca is the largest island in the Balearic Islands archipelago, which are part of Spain and located in the Mediterranean. The capital of the island, Palma, is also the capital of the community of the Balearic Islands. The Balearic Islands have been a region of Spain since 1983. The Cabrera Archipelago is administratively grouped with Majorca, the anthem of Majorca is La Balanguera. Like the other Balearic Islands of Minorca, Ibiza and Formentera, the island is a popular holiday destination, particularly for tourists from Germany. The international airport, Palma de Mallorca Airport, is one of the busiest in Spain, the name derives from Latin insula maior, larger island, later Maiorica, the larger one in comparison to Minorca, the smaller one. Little is recorded of the earliest inhabitants of the island, burial chambers and traces of habitation from the Neolithic period have been discovered, particularly the prehistoric settlements called talaiots, or talayots. They raised Bronze Age megaliths as part of their Talaiotic Culture, the island eventually came under the control of Carthage in North Africa, which had become the principal Phoenician city. After the Second Punic War, Carthage lost all of its overseas possessions, the island was occupied by the Romans in 123 BC under Quintus Caecilius Metellus Balearicus. It flourished under Roman rule, during which time the towns of Pollentia, in addition, the northern town of Bocchoris, dating back to pre-Roman times, was a federated city to Rome. The local economy was driven by olive cultivation, viticulture. Majorcan soldiers were valued within the Roman legions for their skill with the sling, in 427, Gunderic and the Vandals captured the island. Geiseric, son of Gunderic, governed Majorca and used it as his base to loot and plunder settlements around the Mediterranean, in 534, Majorca was recaptured by the Eastern Roman Empire, led by Apollinarius. Under Roman rule, Christianity thrived and numerous churches were built, from 707, the island was increasingly attacked by Muslim raiders from North Africa. Recurrent invasions led the islanders to ask Charlemagne for help, in 902, Issam al-Khawlani conquered the Balearic Islands, ushering in a new period of prosperity under the Emirate of Córdoba. The town of Palma was reshaped and expanded, and became known as Medina Mayurqa, later on, with the Caliphate of Córdoba at its height, the Moors improved agriculture with irrigation and developed local industries. The Caliphate was dismembered in 1015, Majorca came under rule by the Taifa of Dénia, and from 1087 to 1114 was an independent Taifa. During that period the island was visited by Ibn Hazm, however, an expedition of Pisans and Catalans in 1114-15, led by Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, overran the island, laying siege to Palma for eight months
7.
Pliny the Elder
–
In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions. Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncles now missing work on the History of the German Wars. The wind caused by the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the eruption would not allow his ship to leave the shore, and Pliny probably died during this event. Plinys dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD79 and a statement of his nephew that he died in his 56th year, Pliny was the son of an equestrian, Gaius Plinius Celer, and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names and their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio at Verona. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction, but in all cases the names come through, whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin presents a statement from a source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona. Hardouin also cites the conterraneity of Catullus, additional efforts to connect Celer and Marcella with other gentes are highly speculative. Hardouin is the scholar to use his unknown source. He kept statues of his ancestors there, a statue of Pliny on the facade of the Duomo of Como celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. In one of his letters to Tacitus, Pliny the Younger details how his uncles breakfasts would be light and simple following the customs of our forefathers. This shows that Pliny the Younger wanted it to be conveyed that Pliny the Elder was a good Roman and this statement would have pleased Tacitus. Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory, one commemorates the youngers career as imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another identifies his father Lucius village as Fecchio near Como and it is likely therefore that Plinia was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como. Gaius was a member of the Plinii gens and he did not take his fathers cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, no earlier instances of the Plinii are known. In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Plinys birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum as a colonia to secure the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to defeat
8.
Plain
–
In geography, a plain is a flat, sweeping landmass that generally does not change much in elevation. Plains occur as lowlands along the bottoms of valleys or on the doorsteps of mountains, as coastal plains, and as plateaus or uplands. In a valley, a plain is enclosed on two sides but in other cases a plain may be delineated by a complete or partial ring of hills, where a geological region contains more than one plain, they may be connected by a pass. Coastal plains would mostly rise from sea level until they run into elevated features such as mountains or plateaus, plains are one of the major landforms on earth, where they are present on all continents, and would cover more than one-third of the world’s land area. Plains may have formed from flowing lava, deposited by water, ice, wind, or formed by erosion by these agents from hills. Plains would generally be under the grassland, steppe, savannah or tundra biomes, in a few instances, deserts and rainforests can also be plains. Structural plains are relatively undisturbed horizontal surfaces of the Earth and they are structurally depressed areas of the world that make up some of the most extensive natural lowlands on the Earths surface. Erosional plains have been leveled by various agents of such as running water, rivers, wind and glacier which wear out the rugged surface. Plain resulting from the action of these agents of denudation are called peneplains while plains formed from wind action are called pediplains, depositional plains formed by the deposition of materials brought by various agents of transportation such as rivers, wind, waves, and glaciers. Their fertility and economic relevance depend greatly on the types of sediments that are laid down, flood plain, adjacent to a stream, river, lake or wetland that experiences occasional or periodic flooding. Scroll plain, a plain through which a river meanders with a low gradient. Lacustrine plain, a plain that originally formed in a lacustrine environment, lava plain, formed by sheets of flowing lava. Glacial plains, formed by the movement of glaciers under the force of gravity, Sandur, sandar consist mainly of stratified gravel and sand. Till plain, a plain of glacial till that forms when a sheet of ice becomes detached from the body of a glacier. Till plains are composed of unsorted material of all sizes, abyssal plain, a flat or very gently sloping area of the deep ocean basin. Planitia, the Latin word for plain, is used in the naming of plains on extraterrestrial objects, such as Hellas Planitia on Mars or Sedna Planitia on Venus
9.
Vic
–
Vic is the capital of the comarca of Osona, in the Barcelona Province, Catalonia, Spain. Vics location is 69 km from Barcelona and 60 km from Girona, vics position has made it one of the most important towns in central Catalonia. Vic lies in the middle of the Plain of Vic, equidistant from Barcelona, Vic is famous for its persistent fog in winter as a result of a persistent thermal inversion with temperatures as low as -10 °C and an absolute record of -24 °C. Episodes of cold and severe snowstorms are noticeable, in summer, storms are very common during the dry season, typical of the Mediterranean climate of coastal Catalonia. For that reason the natural vegetation includes the pubescent oak typical of the climates of eastern France, Northern Italy. In past times it was called Ausa by the Romans, iberian coins bearing this name have been found there. Sewage caps on sidewalks around the city will also read Vich, during the 8th and 9th centuries, Vic sat in the Spanish Marches that separated Frankish and Islamic forces. It was destroyed in 788 during a Muslim incursion, afterwards only one quarter was rebuilt, which was called Vicus Ausonensis, from which the name Vic was derived. It was repopulated by Wilfred the Hairy in 878 who gained control over the part of the city. From then on, the city was ruled by the count of Barcelona, at a council in Toulouges in 1027, the bishop of Vic established the first Peace and Truce of God that helped reduce private warfare. During the 18th century the city was the first focus of the rebellion against the centralist policy of King Philip V of Spain, the conflict became the War of the Spanish Succession. In the early 20th century Vic had 9500 inhabitants, and in 1992 it hosted Roller Hockey events of the Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics and it lies within the four Catalonian provinces, but the greater part of it in that of Barcelona. None, however, is mentioned by name until 516 when Cinidius is named as assisting at the provincial Council of Tarragona and Girona, with this bishop ends the history of the Church of Ausona before the Saracen invasion. In 826 Vic fell once more into the hands of the Moors and was reconquered by Wilfred the Hairy. Count Wilfred dedicated the monastery of Ripoll to the Blessed Virgin. Bishop Atton is worthy of mention as a promoter of education. Many persons availed themselves of the advantages offered by his reforms, among them Gerbert, the monk of Aurillac, afterwards Pope Sylvester II, who was distinguished for his learning. Another of the most illustrious bishops of Vic was Oliva, son of the Count of Besalú, the dedication took place 15 January 1032
10.
Segre River
–
The Segre is a river tributary to the Ebro with a basin comprising territories across three states, France, Andorra and Spain. It follows a western direction all along the Cerdanya Valley, and crosses the town Saillagouse and it enters Spain at Puigcerdà and continues west until La Seu dUrgell, where it meets the Valira River coming from Andorra. From this point it adopts a course across the pre-Pyrenees. It passes through Balaguer, Lleida and flows into the Ebro at Mequinenza, among its tributaries, Valira, Noguera Pallaresa, Noguera Ribagorzana, Cinca. The river Segre is a feature of the Lleidas geography. During the citys history several floods have occurred, the last in the late 1970s, there is also a dam on the river, near the natural park La Mitjana. Another park, Els Camps Elisis, is adjacent to the Segre, List of rivers of Spain List of rivers of Catalonia Environmental Action for River Segre -La Mitjana, Lleida
11.
Extinct
–
In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms, normally a species. The moment of extinction is considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed. Because a species range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult. This difficulty leads to such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly reappears after a period of apparent absence. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to five billion species. Estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described, the relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established. Mass extinctions are relatively rare events, however, isolated extinctions are quite common, only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions. Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented, some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100. A dagger symbol next to a name is often used to indicate its extinction. A species is extinct when the last existing member dies, Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. Pinpointing the extinction of a species requires a definition of that species. If it is to be declared extinct, the species in question must be distinguishable from any ancestor or daughter species. Extinction of a plays a key role in the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis of Stephen Jay Gould. In ecology, extinction is often used informally to refer to local extinction, in which a species ceases to exist in the area of study. This phenomenon is known as extirpation. Local extinctions may be followed by a replacement of the species taken from other locations, species which are not extinct are termed extant. Those that are extant but threatened by extinction are referred to as threatened or endangered species, currently an important aspect of extinction is human attempts to preserve critically endangered species
12.
Spanish Civil War
–
Ultimately, the Nationalists won, and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from April 1939 until his death in November 1975. Sanjurjo was killed in an accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal. The coup was supported by units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Zaragoza, Valladolid, Cádiz, Córdoba. However, rebelling units in some important cities—such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Málaga—did not gain control, Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided. The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country, the Nationalist forces received munitions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republican side received support from the Communist Soviet Union and leftist populist Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, operated a policy of non-intervention. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west and they also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war. Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists, with the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Franco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime. The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired, organized purges occurred in territory captured by Francos forces to consolidate the future regime. A significant number of killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, the extent to which Republican authorities took part in killings in Republican territory varied. The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain and those in favour of reforming Spains government vied for political power with conservatives, who tried to prevent reforms from taking place. Some liberals, in a tradition that had started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812, sought to limit the power of the monarchy of Spain, the reforms of 1812 did not last after King Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended the Trienio Liberal government. Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874, until the 1850s, the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture. There was little development of an industrial or commercial class. The land-based oligarchy remained powerful, a number of people held large estates called latifundia as well as all the important government positions. In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon, two distinct factors led to the uprisings, a series of urban riots and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military concerned with the ultra-conservatism of the monarchy. In 1873 Isabellas replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated owing to increasing pressure. After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874, Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy, alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute
13.
Nationalism
–
Nationalism is a complex, multidimensional concept involving a shared communal identification with ones nation. It is contrasted by Anti-nationalism as a political ideology oriented towards gaining and maintaining self-governance, or full sovereignty, Nationalism therefore holds that a nation should govern itself, free from unwanted outside interference, and is linked to the concept of self-determination. Nationalism therefore seeks to preserve the nations culture and it often also involves a sense of pride in the nations achievements, and is closely linked to the concept of patriotism. In these terms, nationalism can be considered positive or negative, from a political or sociological outlook, there are three main paradigms for understanding the origins and basis of nationalism. The first, known as Primordialism or Perennialism, sees nationalism as a natural phenomenon and it holds that although the concept nationhood may be recent, nations have always existed. The third, and most dominant paradigm is Modernism, which sees nationalism as a recent phenomenon that needs the structural conditions of society in order to exist. There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however and this anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community. Nationalism means devotion for the nation and it is a sentiment that binds the people together. National symbols and flags, national anthems, national languages, national myths, Nationalism is a newer word, in English the term dates from 1844, although the concept is older. It became important in the 19th century, the term increasingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. Glenda Sluga notes that The twentieth century, a time of disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of globalism. Nationalism is the term used to characterize the modern sense of national political autonomy. For example, German nationalism emerged as a reaction against Napoleonic control of Germany as the Confederation of the Rhine around 1805–14, linda Colley in Britons, Forging the Nation 1707–1837 explores how the role of nationalism emerged about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in the 1830s. The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th century, National symbols, anthems, myths, flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The Union Jack was adopted in 1801 as the national one, Thomas Arne composed the patriotic song Rule, Britannia. in 1740, and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot invented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English national spirit in 1712. The political convulsions of the late 18th century associated with the American, the Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder originated the term in 1772 in his Essay on the Origins of Language. Stressing the role of a common language, the political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history, napoleons conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–06 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity
14.
Toro de Osborne
–
The Osborne bull is a 14-metre high black silhouetted image of a bull in semi-profile. Nowadays the conservation of the bulls is handled by the family of Félix Tejada, the Osborne sherry company erected large images of bulls starting in 1956 to advertise their Brandy de Jerez. The images were black advertising boards located near major roads throughout Spain, the original image was smaller and slightly different in design. The current larger image was created to comply with a law that prohibited advertising within 150 metres of a road, in 1994 the EU passed a law that prohibited all roadside advertising of alcoholic beverages, and the bulls were therefore to be removed. There are now only two signs in Spain with the word Osborne still written on them. One is at the Jerez de la Frontera airport in the province of Cadiz, and the other is in the town of El Puerto de Santa María. The image of the bull is now displayed in stickers, key rings, also, in sport events where a Spanish team or individual take part, the bull is embedded by supporters in the Flag of Spain in the manner of a coat of arms. There are about 90 examples of the Osborne bull advertisements, a few of them are also present, in a slightly different design, in Mexico, where it retains its advertising function. The Barcelona bull was vandalized by people who identified themselves as Catalan independentists, later it was restored by a group of neighbours of Masquefa. The only Bull in Mallorca is often vandalized due to independentist or other movements, Spanish national flag with the Osborne bull, Images from Flags of the World. Grupo Osborne, the sherry company Spains biggest bullfight, The militant Catalans waging war against the Osborne bulls, The Independent,6 August 2007
15.
Castile (historical region)
–
Castile is a vaguely defined historical region of Spain. There are different conceptions and definitions of Castile, and since it lacks modern day official recognition, historically, Kingdom of Castile occupied the area. In modern Spain, it is considered to comprise the majority of the autonomous communities of Castile and León. Modern Spanish monarchs are numbered according to the system of Castile, castiles name is thought to derive from Spanish for land of castles in reference to the castles built in the area to consolidate the Christian Reconquest from the oncoming Moors. Originally an eastern county of the kingdom of León, in the 11th century Castile became an independent realm with its capital at Burgos, the County of Castile, which originally included most of Burgos and parts of Vizcaya, Álava, Cantabria and La Rioja. The capture of Toledo in 1085 added New Castile to the territories. León was finally reunited with Castile in 1230, and the following decades saw the capture of Córdoba, Murcia, by the Treaty of Alcaçovas with Portugal on March 6,1460, the ownership of the Canary Islands was transferred to Castile. See List of Spanish monarchs and Kings of Spain family tree, the Muslim Kingdom of Granada was conquered in 1492, formally passing to the Crown of Castile in that year. At the present time there are two nominally Castilian autonomous communities in Spain, as they hold the toponym in their own name, Castile and Leon. Other territories in the former Crown of Castile are left out for different reasons, however, in 1833, Spain was organised into administrative regions with specific official borders. The language of Castile emerged as the language of Spain—known to many of its speakers as castellano and in English sometimes as Castilian. See Names given to the Spanish language, Castilians are defined as a community with a shared culture and history. Their origin is, as well as most of parts of the Spain. Thus, it is not correct to establish a common origin. Over time, most Castilians have mixed with other Spaniards due to their past political dominance, Castilians and their cultural influence spread throughout the entire plateau of central Spain during the Reconquista, carried out principally by the Kingdom of Toledo which was renamed New Castile. Castilian ethnicity is the product of the conquest, by a kingdom in northern Spain. These lands were populated, during the reconquest, by peoples all over the peninsula. The Castilian language, now known as Spanish, gradually became the main language of Spain
16.
Andalusia
–
Andalusia is an autonomous community in southern Spain. It is the most populated and the second largest in area of the communities in the country. The Andalusian autonomous community is recognised as historical nationality. The territory is divided into eight provinces, Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga and its capital is the city of Seville. Andalusia is the only European region with both Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines, the small British overseas territory of Gibraltar shares a three-quarter-mile land border with the Andalusian province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar. The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System, consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, in the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spains Meseta Central. To the south the geographic subregion of Upper Andalusia lies mostly within the Baetic System, the name Andalusia is derived from the Arabic word Al-Andalus. Including an intense relationship with Naples, Italy, Andalusia has been a traditionally agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. However, the growth of the community especially in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain, the region has, however, a rich culture and a strong cultural identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin and these include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles. Andalusias hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, with cities like Córdoba, Late evening temperatures can sometimes stay around 35 °C until close to midnight, with daytime highs of over 40 °C common. Seville also has the highest average temperature in mainland Spain and mainland Europe. Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia. However, the etymology of the name Al-Andalus is disputed, the Spanish place name Andalucía was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form el Andalucía. This was a Castilianization of Al-Andalusiya, the form of the Arabic language al-Andalus. The etymology of al-Andalus is itself somewhat debated, but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this came under Muslim rule. Like the Arabic term al-Andalus, in historical contexts the Spanish term Andalucía or the English term Andalusia do not necessarily refer to the territory designated by these terms today. To designate the territories the Christians had regained by that time in the Guadalquivir valley and in the Kingdoms of Granada, in a document from 1253, Alfonso X styled himself Rey de Castilla, León y de toda Andalucía
17.
Sticker
–
A sticker is a type of label, a piece of printed paper or plastic with pressure sensitive adhesive on one side. They can be used for decoration, depending on the situation and they can come in many different shapes, sizes and colours and are put on things such as lunchboxes, in childrens rooms, on paper, lockers, notebooks, walls, and so on. Some people collect and trade stickers with other collectors, temporary name tags are usually stickers. Stickers are very widely used when an object requires identification with a word or idea, brand stickers may be attached to products to label these products as coming from a certain company. They may also be used to describe characteristics of the products that would not be obvious from simple examination, a label dispenser is often used as a convenient way to separate the sticky label from its liner or backing tape. Observers may clap hands, honk a horn or otherwise applaud a good sticker, stickers placed on automobile bumpers, called bumper stickers, are often used by individuals as a way of demonstrating support for political or ideological causes. Identification of vehicle registration and last service details are two examples of stickers on the inside of most car windscreens, stickers are also used for embellishing scrapbooking pages. Kinds of stickers sold for this purpose include acrylic, 3D, cardstock, epoxy, fabric, flocked, sparkly, paper, puffy, while in the earlier days of scrapbooking stickers were sold mostly on 2x6 sheets, now 6x12 and even 12x12 size sheets are very common. Stickers applied to guitars are called guitar decals, post-it notes are removable stickers having glue on only part of the back, and are usually sold blank. Bumper sticker Decal Label Pressure-sensitive tape Prizes Release liner Sticker album Sticker – emoticon like pictures
18.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
19.
Andalusian donkey
–
The Andalusian, Spanish, Asno Andaluz, is a breed of domestic donkey native to the province of Córdoba in Andalusia, Spain. It is also known as the Asno Cordobés after the city of Córdoba or the Asno de Lucena because of its origin in the town of Lucena. It is considered the oldest of the European breeds, at some 3,000 years, the Andalusian is a large donkey, averaging 150–160 centimetres at the withers and of medium length. The head is of size, with a convex profile. The coat is short and fine, and soft to the touch, it is pale grey, the Andalusian donkey is strong and sturdy, yet docile and calm. It is well adapted to the hot and arid conditions of its native environment.418 The current state of the Andalusian breed is critical, at the end of 2013 the total population was reported at 749, of which almost all were in Andalucia. Conservation plans include sparing use as work animal in the field and the forest, and use in rural tourism initiatives that have been followed in some places like Mijas
20.
Asno de las Encartaciones
–
The Asno de las Encartaciones, Basque, Enkarterriko asto, is a breed of small domestic donkey from the western part of the autonomous community of the Basque Country, in north-east Spain. It is named for the comarca of Las Encartaciones, in the province of Biscay, the breed almost disappeared during the course of the twentieth century. As with other breeds, the principal causes were the mechanisation of agriculture. The Asno de las Encartaciones was presented at agricultural fairs in Gordexola in 1994, the breed was officially recognised in 2004. Numbers of about 100 were reported in 1999,2001 and 2008. 45–46 The Asno de las Encartaciones is the only small donkey breed in Spain and it stands about 120 cm and weighs approximately 200 kg. The coat is black or dark bay in colour, the belly, muzzle and it may have a darker dorsal stripe. The Asno de las Encartaciones is small but strong and it was used in the extraction of minerals from the mines of the Cantabrian coast, and in all kinds of agricultural work. Its hooves are small and do not damage the terrain, because of the competitive nature of jacks, Basque farmers preferred to keep jennies, the meat of jack foals slaughtered at about three months was a traditional local delicacy. Media related to Asno de las Encartaciones at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Balearic donkey
–
The Balearic donkey shares common origins with the Catalan donkey and the Baudet du Poitou. The donkey was in the past the most highly valued animal in Mallorca, in the early twentieth century it was prized outside the islands too, and many were exported to England, and later to the United States. The breed population fell rapidly in the first half of century, and it came close to disappearing. A herd book was established for the Mallorquín donkey, as it was then known, a breeders association, now called the Associació de Criadors de Pura Raça Asenca de les Illes Balears, was formed. In 2002 the breed was recognised, and a genealogical stud book was established. From 1997 the Balearic donkey was listed by the Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, in 2006, at the request of the breeders association, the name of the breed was changed to Raça Asenca Balear
22.
Burro da Ilha Graciosa
–
It is critically endangered, but is not officially recognised or reported to the DAD-IS database of the FAO. Efforts are being made to official recognition and protection of the breed. The donkey became the principal beast of burden in the Azores and it was used also for riding, but not as a draught animal. Donkeys were very numerous in the islands, in 1841 the number on São Miguel alone was estimated at 8000, the number of donkeys on Graciosa in now severely reduced, the number remaining was reported as 26 in 2001, 45–46 and as about 70 in 2008. As with the Miranda donkey, male donkeys used for work were for preference castrated. A process of recognition of the Burro da Ilha Graciosa as an autochthonous breed began in 2005, an association, the Associação de Criadores e Amigos do Burro da Ilha Graciosa, was formed in 2013. The Burro da Ilha Graciosa is a donkey, standing on average 105.8 cm. The coat is pale grey or mouse-brown in colour, but may also be bay or black. A darker dorsal stripe and shoulder-stripe are often seen, especially in pale-coloured animals, the legs may have zebra-stripes
23.
Majorera (donkey)
–
The Majorera is an endangered breed of small domestic donkey indigenous to the Canary Islands, the Spanish archipelago in the Atlantic off the coast of southern Morocco. There are approximately 200 of the donkeys, almost all are on the island of Fuerteventura, the name derives from majorero, a demonym for the people of Fuerteventura. The Majorera is a small donkey of African origin, and is the only breed of the archipelago. The Majorera was introduced to the Canaries at the time of the Spanish conquest in the 15th century. It is now present in all six municipalities of Fuerteventura, Antigua, Betancuria, La Oliva, Pájara, Puerto del Rosario and Tuineje, a number are on Lanzarote. From 1997 the Majorera was listed by the Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente and its conservation status was listed as critical by the FAO in 2007 and as endangered by the SAVE Foundation in 2008. As with other breeds, the mechanisation of agriculture in the twentieth century led to a rapid fall in numbers. In 2009 the population was reported as 141, at the end of 2013 the total recorded was 27. The Majorera is a small donkey of African type and it usually grey, ranging from pale to dark grey, and may also be brown. It has primitive markings, a dorsal stripe and shoulder-stripe. It stands about 1. 00–1.20 metres at the withers, and weighs about 125–175 kilograms
24.
Miranda donkey
–
The Miranda donkey, Portuguese, Burro de Miranda, is an autochthonous donkey breed from the Terra de Miranda region of northeast Portugal. The Miranda donkey is born with coat that appears black, Miranda donkeys are distinguished from common donkeys by longer hair, and they are considered more social and docile. It is the officially recognized donkey breed on Portugal. For centuries the Miranda donkeys were a mainstay of agriculture in the Terra de Miranda region of Portugal, helping farmers plow, descended from the African wild ass, donkeys originated in deserts with little fodder and difficult ground. Those attributes made the Miranda donkey ideally suited for Portugals highlands, the donkey was at the center of Mirandesa society, major trade fairs, called feiras de burros, were centered around it. Made largely superfluous by mechanization and the end of exploitation of small parcels, they are no longer profitable as work animals and it is estimated that only 300 Miranda donkeys are now used as farm animals. The majority are now cared for by farmers, who are then eligible for E. U. subsidies. But, it is said that the keep the donkeys more for love than for subsidies. For preservation it is problematic that almost only old people keep this breed, ninety percent of Miranda owners are over 75 years of age, extinction of owners is felt to be a main risk for extinction for the animals. The majority of the donkeys are well-cared for, many owners viewing the animals as part of their family, even with subsidies, they are not profitable, though the payments persuade more farmers to keep the burros despite their dwindling worth. At a cost of $650/year and only a $230 E. U subsidy, when the animal can no longer work, or be supported by the farmer, they generally end up being sold for slaughter, few are given free to shelters. Before roads were paved and dams were built in the 1960s, owners pushed unwanted animals off the cliff over the River Douro, since 2003, they have been listed as an endangered breed. The number of animals has stabilized at around 800, a quarter of the number in the 1970s and it reputation as the stupid animal of the poor has not helped. With the efforts of the conservationists, this view is changing, in the era of austerity the donkeys are front and center in the debate about how far the E. U. should go to subsidize non-profitable agricultural regions. The fear is that in the future support will be withdrawn from the donkeys. The donkey has been used as a metaphor for Portugal, shunted aside by industrial society, there is criticism of the subsidies, as they are felt to dampen the enthusiasm for innovation and modernization. A socialist mayor in the region opined that “the honest answer is that subsidies bring nothing. ”In the past the Miranda donkey was known as the motor, a docile and safe companion of the rural farmers, its arms and legs, its entertainment. This is the aim of the preservationists, to keep alive an indigenous breed in order to save a genetic, in 2015 researchers at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro concluded the Miranda donkey was in danger of extinction over the next 50 years
25.
Equus (genus)
–
Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, asses, and zebras. Within Equidae, Equus is the only recognized extant genus, comprising seven living species, the term equine refers to any member of this genus, including horses. Like Equidae more broadly, Equus has numerous species known only from fossils. The genus most likely originated in North America and spread quickly to the Old World, Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers with simpler digestive systems than ruminants, while the domestic horse and donkey exist worldwide, wild equine populations are limited to Africa and Asia. In both systems, females take care of their offspring but males may play a role as well, Equines communicate with each other both visually and vocally. Human activities have threatened wild equine populations and out of the seven living species, only the plains zebra remains widespread and abundant. The word equus is Latin for horse, and is cognate with the Greek ἵππος, horse, and Mycenaean Greek i-qo /ikkʷos/, the genus Equus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. It is the only recognized extant genus in the family Equidae, the first equids were small, dog-sized mammals adapted for browsing on shrubs during the Eocene, around 54 million years ago. These animals had three toes on the feet and four on the front feet with small hooves in place of claws. Equids developed into larger, three-toed animals during the Oligocene and Miocene, from there, the tridactyl toes became progressively smaller through the Pleistocene until the emergence of the single-toed Equus. The genus Equus, which all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from Dinohippus. One of the oldest species is Equus simplicidens, described as zebra-like with a head shape. The oldest material to date was found in Idaho, USA, the genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged E. livenzovensis documented from western Europe and Russia. Molecular phylogenies indicate that the most recent common ancestor of all modern equines lived ~5.6 mya, mitochondrial evidence supports the division of Equus species into non-caballoid and caballoids or true horses. Of the extant equine species, the lineage of the asses may have diverged first, zebras appear to be monophyletic and differentiated in Africa where they are endemic. Molecular dating indicates the caballoid lineage diverged from the non-caballoids 4 mya, genetic results suggest that all North American fossils of caballine equines, as well as South American fossils traditionally placed in the subgenus E. belong to E. ferus. Remains attributed to a variety of species and lumped together as New World stilt-legged horses probably all belong to a species that was endemic to North America
26.
Equine anatomy
–
Equine anatomy refers to the gross and microscopic anatomy of horses and other equids, including donkeys, and zebras. Sometimes used colloquially to refer to the root of the tail, elbow, The joint of the front leg at the point where the belly of the horse meets the leg. Horses and other equids evolved as grazing animals, adapted to eating small amounts of the kind of food all day long. In the wild, the horse adapted to eating prairie grasses in semi-arid regions, therefore, the digestive system of a horse is about 30 m long, and most of this is intestines. Digestion begins in the mouth, which is called the oral cavity. It is made up of the teeth, the palate, the soft palate, the tongue and related muscles, the cheeks. Horses also have three pairs of salivary glands, the parotoid, mandibular, and sublingual, horses select pieces of forage and pick up finer foods, such as grain, with their sensitive, prehensile lips. The front teeth of the horse, called incisors, clip forage, and food is pushed back in the mouth by the tongue. The esophagus is about 1.2 to 1.5 m in length, a muscular ring, called the cardiac sphincter, connects the stomach to the esophagus. This sphincter is very developed in horses. This and the angle at which the esophagus connects to the stomach explains why horses cannot vomit. The esophagus is also the area of the digestive tract where horses may suffer from choke, horses have a relatively small stomach for their size, and this limits the amount of feed a horse can take in at one time. The average sized horse has a stomach with a capacity of around 15 L, the horse stomach consists of a non-glandular proximal region, divided by a distinct border, the margo plicatus, from the glandular distal stomach. In the stomach, assorted acids and the enzyme pepsin break down food, pepsin allows for the further breakdown of proteins into amino acid chains. Other enzymes include resin and lipase, additionally, the stomach absorbs some water, as well as ions and lipid-soluble compounds. The end product is food broken down into chyme and it then leaves the stomach through the pyloric valve, which controls the flow of food out of stomach. The horse’s small intestine is 15 to 21 m long and holds 38 to 45 L and this is the major digestive organ, and where most nutrients are absorbed. It has three parts, the duodenum, jejunum and ileum, the majority of digestion occurs in the duodenum while the majority of absorption occurs in the jejunum
27.
Equine nutrition
–
Equine nutrition is the feeding of horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, and other equines. Correct and balanced nutrition is a component of proper horse care. Horses are non-ruminant herbivores of a known as a hindgut fermenter. Horses have only one stomach, as do humans, however, unlike humans, they also have to utilize plant fiber that comes from grass and hay. In practical terms, horses prefer to eat small amounts of food throughout the day. The digestive system of the horse is somewhat delicate, Horses are unable to regurgitate food, except from the esophagus. Thus, if they overeat or eat something poisonous, vomiting is not an option and they also have a long, complex large intestine and a balance of beneficial microbes in their cecum that can be upset by rapid changes in feed. Because of these factors, they are susceptible to colic. Therefore, horses require clean, high-quality feed, provided at regular intervals, Horses are also sensitive to molds and toxins. For this reason, they must never be fed contaminated fermentable materials such as lawn clippings, fermented silage or haylage is fed to horses in some places, however, contamination or failure of the fermentation process that allows any mold or spoilage may be toxic. Horses and other members of the genus Equus are adapted by evolutionary biology to eating small amounts of the kind of food all day long. In the wild, horses ate prairie grasses in semi-arid regions, therefore, their digestive system was made to work best with a small but steady flow of food that does not change much from day to day. First, the animal selects pieces of forage and picks up finer foods, such as grain, with sensitive, prehensile, the front teeth of the horse, called incisors, nip off forage, and food is ground up for swallowing by the premolars and molars. The esophagus carries food to the stomach, the esophagus enters the stomach at an acute angle, creating a one-way valve, with a powerful sphincter mechanism at the gastroesophageal junction, which is why horses cannot vomit. The esophagus is also the area of the digestive tract where horses may suffer from choke, Horses have a small stomach for their size, which limits the amount of feed that can be taken in at one time. The average sized horse has a stomach with a capacity of only 4 US gallons, the small intestine is 50 to 70 feet long and holds 10 US gallons to 12 US gallons. This is the digestive organ where 50 to 70 percent of all nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. Bile from the liver acts here, combined with enzymes from the pancreas, equids do not have a gall bladder, so bile flows constantly, an adaptation to a slow but steady supply of food, and another reason for providing fodder to horses in several small feedings
28.
Horse behavior
–
Horse behavior is best understood from the view that horses are prey animals with a well-developed fight-or-flight response. Nonetheless, because of their horses are also suited to a number of work. Humans domesticated horses thousands of years ago, and they have used by humans ever since. Through selective breeding, some breeds of horses have been bred to be quite docile, on the other hand, most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness, and endurance, building on natural qualities that extended from their wild ancestors. Horses instincts can be used to advantage to create a bond between human and horse. These techniques vary, but are part of the art of horse training, Horses evolved from small mammals whose survival depended on their ability to flee from predators. This survival mechanism still exists in the domestic horse. Humans have removed many predators from the life of the horse, however. If running is not possible, the resorts to biting, kicking, striking. Many of the natural behavior patterns, such as herd-formation. The fight-or-flight response involves nervous impulses which result in hormone secretions into the bloodstream, when a horse reacts to a threat, it may initially freeze in preparation to take flight. The fight-or-flight reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland, the adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously and releases the neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure and blood sugar, catecholamine hormones, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action. However, the supply of oxygen and glucose to these areas is at the expense of non-essential flight organs, such as the skin. Once the horse has removed itself from danger, the body is returned to more normal conditions via the parasympathetic nervous system. This is also known as the rest and digest state, Horses are highly social herd animals that prefer to live in a group. There also is a dominance hierarchy in any herd
29.
Horse care
–
There are many aspects to horse care. Horses, ponies, mules, donkeys and other domesticated equids require attention from humans for optimal health, Horses require both shelter from natural elements like wind and precipitation, as well as room to exercise and run. Worldwide, horses and other equids usually live outside with access to shelter for protection from the elements, in some cases, animals are kept in a barn or stable for better protection in cases of extreme weather. For horse owners who do not own their own land, fields, Horses that are not on full-time turnout in a field or pasture normally require some form of regular exercise, whether it is being ridden, longed or turned out for free time. However, if a horse is ill or injured it may need to be confined to a stable, as equines are herd animals, most have better mental behavior when in proximity to other equine company. However, this is not always possible, and it has known for companionship bonds to develop between horses and cats, goats and other species. Some horses, particularly stallions may need to live on their own as they may fight with other animals, Horses require access to clean fresh water at all times, and access to adequate forage such as grass or hay. Unless an animal can be maintained on pasture with a natural open water source. As horses evolved as continuous grazers, it is better to feed small amounts of grain throughout the day than to feed a large amount of grain at one time. In the winter, horses grow a heavy coat to keep warm. But if kept artificially clipped for show, or if under stress from age, sickness or injury, in the summer, access to shade is well-advised. Some owners may choose to turn their horses out in a natural setting during certain times of the year or when retired from work, if a horse is kept in a pasture, the amount of land needed for basic maintenance varies with climate. An animal needs more land for grazing in a dry climate than in a moist one, an average of between one and 3 acres of land per horse will provide adequate forage in much of the world. Often times other feed, such as hay, may have to be supplemented in winter or during periods of drought, certain diseases are associated with changes in a horses pasture environment. It is best to check both the horse and the every day to avoid injury, parasites, sickness, weight loss, and changes to the pasture such as stagnant water, poisonous plants. The pasture used to any horse or pony should be rotated when it has been used for some months. Horses will not eat grass that contains too much of their own manure and this is known as sour grass and further decomposition of the manure needs to be allowed while the horses are kept in an alternative paddock. Certain weeds which grow in pastures can be poisonous to horses such as creeping indigo, pastures should always be checked before horses are allowed to graze
30.
Horse breeding
–
Horse breeding is reproduction in horses, and particularly the human-directed process of selective breeding of animals, particularly purebred horses of a given breed. Planned matings can be used to produce specifically desired characteristics in domesticated horses, furthermore, modern breeding management and technologies can increase the rate of conception, a healthy pregnancy, and successful foaling. The male parent of a horse, a stallion, is known as the sire and the female parent. Both are genetically important, as each parent provides half of the makeup of the ensuing offspring. Contrary to popular misuse, colt refers to a male horse only, filly is a young female. Alternatively, a breeder could, using individuals of differing phenotypes, a horse is bred where it is foaled. Thus a foal conceived in England but foaled in the United States is regarded as being bred in the US, in some cases, most notably in the Thoroughbred breeding industry, American- and Canadian-bred horses may also be described by the state or province in which they are foaled. Some breeds denote the country, or state, where took place as the origin of the foal. Similarly, the breeder, is the person who owned or leased the mare at the time of foaling and that individual may not have had anything to do with the mating of the mare. It is important to each breed registrys rules to determine which applies to any specific foal. In the horse breeding industry, the term half-brother or half-sister only describes horses which have the same dam, Horses with the same sire but different dams are simply said to be by the same sire, and no sibling relationship is implied. Full siblings have both the dam and the same sire. The terms paternal half-sibling, and maternal half-sibling are also often used, three-quarter siblings are horses out of the same dam, and are by sires that are either half-brothers or who are by the same sire. The female line of descent always appears at the bottom of a pedigree and is therefore often known as the bottom line. In addition, the grandfather of a horse has a special term. Linebreeding technically is the duplication of fourth generation or more distant ancestors, however, the term is often used more loosely, describing horses with duplication of ancestors closer than the fourth generation. It also is used as a euphemism for the practice of inbreeding. The estrous cycle controls when a mare is sexually receptive toward a stallion, the estrous cycle lasts about 19–22 days, with the average being 21 days
31.
Horse genome
–
The horse genome was first sequenced in 2006. The Horse Genome Project mapped 2.7 billion DNA base pairs, the horse genome is larger than the dog genome, but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome. It encompasses 31 autosomes and two sex chromosomes, as horses share over 90 hereditary diseases similar to those found in humans, the sequencing of the horse genome has potential applications to both equine and human health. Further, nearly half of the chromosomes in the genome show conserved synteny with a human chromosome. This is a degree of conserved synteny and may help researchers use insights from one species to illuminate the other. Mapping the horse genome may also assist in the development of expression arrays to improve treatment of lameness, lung disease, reproduction. Research also has provided new insights to the development of centromeres, the $15 million project was funded by National Human Genome Research Institute of the National Institutes of Health. Researchers on the project included Kerstin Lindblad-Toh at the Eli and Edythe L, the first horse to have its genome fully sequenced, in 2006-2007, was a Thoroughbred mare named Twilight, donated by Cornell University. This allowed creation of a catalogue of one million single nucleotide polymorphisms to compare genetic variation within, in 2012, a second horse was fully sequenced at Texas A&M University, an 18-year-old Quarter Horse mare named Sugar. Sugars genome, sequenced with newer techniques, had 3 million genetic variants from Twilights, notably in genes governing sensory perception, signal transduction, researchers are in the process of sequencing the genome of seven additional horses. One result to date of the mapping of the genome was locating the mutation that creates the Leopard complex spotting pattern seen in breeds such as the Appaloosa. Horses homozygous for the Lp gene are also at risk for congenital stationary night blindness, studies in 2008 and 2010 indicated that both CSNB and leopard complex spotting patterns are linked to TRPM1. As this disorder also afflicts humans, a researcher and lead author from the Broad Institute stated, as the horse was only domesticated about 4000-3500BCE, this research was stated to identify the starting point for horse selection and the raw genetic material our ancestors had available
32.
Equine conformation
–
Equine conformation evaluates the degree of correctness of a horses bone structure, musculature, and its body proportions in relation to each other. Undesirable conformation can limit the ability to perform a specific task, Although there are several universal faults, a horses conformation is usually judged by what its intended use may be. Thus form to function is one of the first set of traits considered in judging conformation, a horse with poor form for a Grand Prix show jumper could have excellent conformation for a World Champion cutting horse, or to be a champion draft horse. Every horse has good and bad points of its conformation and many horses excel even with conformation faults. The standard of the head varies dramatically from breed to breed based on a mixture of the role the horse is bred for and what breeders, owners. Breed standards frequently cite large eyes, a broad forehead and a dry head-to-neck connection as important to correctness about the head, traditionally, the length of head as measured from poll to upper lip should be two-thirds the length of the neck topline. Presumably, the construction of the horses head influences its breathing, historically, a width of 4 fingers or 7.2 cm was associated with an unrestricted airflow and greater endurance. However, a study in 2000 which compared the intermandibular width-to-size ratio of Thoroughbreds with their racing success showed this to be untrue, the relationship between head conformation and performance are not well-understood, and an appealing head may be more a matter of marketability than performance. Among mammals, morphology of the head often plays a role in temperature regulation, Many ungulates have a specialized network of blood vessels called the carotid rete, which keeps the brain cool while the body temperature rises during exercise. Horses lack a carotid rete and instead use their sinuses to cool blood around the brain and these factors suggest that the conformation of a horses head influences its ability to regulate temperature. A horse with a face or dished head has a muzzle with a concave profile on top. Dished heads are associated with Arabians and Arabian-influenced breeds, which excel at Endurance riding and were bred in the arid Arabian desert. There are several theories regarding the role of the dished head. It may be an adaptation to reduce resistance and increase aerobic endurance. Dished head is not considered a deformity, a Roman nose is a muzzle with a convex profile. Convex heads are associated with Draft horses, Baroque horse breeds and this trait likely plays a role in warming air as it is inhaled, but may also influence aerobic capacity. Roman nose is not considered a deformity, a horse with small nostrils or small nares can be found in any breed and often accompanies a narrow jaw and muzzle. Small nostrils limit the ability to breathe hard while exerting itself
33.
Equine coat color
–
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings. A specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe them, while most horses remain the same color throughout life, a few, over the course of several years, will develop a different coat color from that with which they were born. Most white markings are present at birth, and the skin color of a horse does not change. Discussion, research, and even controversy continues about some of the details, particularly those surrounding spotting patterns, color sub-shades such as sooty or flaxen, and markings. Genetically, all start out as either chestnut, called red by geneticists, represented by the absence of the extension gene. Therefore, red and black are the two base colors, the Bay color is expressed when a common genetic modifier, the Agouti gene, works on black. The vast range of all other colors are created by additional genes action upon one of these three coat colors. Statistically, the most commonly seen horse color phenotypes are identified by the terms, Bay. The main color variations are, Dark bay, very red or brown hair. Sometimes also called black bay, mahogany bay, or brown, blood bay, bright red hair, often considered simply bay. Brown, The word brown is used by some breed registries to describe dark bays, There is a distinct allele that darkens a bay coat to seal brown, but it is not the cause of all forms of dark bay. Informally, brown is applied to many distinct coat colors, most often, horses described by casual observers as brown are actually bay or chestnut. In the absence of DNA testing, chestnut and bay can be distinguished from each other by looking at the mane, tail, chestnut, A reddish body color with no black. Mane and tail are the shade or lighter than the body coat. The main color variations are, Liver chestnut, very dark brown coat, sometimes a liver chestnut is also simply called brown. Sorrel, Reddish-tan to red coat, about the color of a new penny, the most common shade of chestnut. Blond or light chestnut, seldom-used term for lighter tan coat with pale mane, gray, A horse with black skin but white or mixed dark and white hairs. Gray horses can be any color, and lighten as they age
34.
Horse gait
–
Horse gaits are the various ways in which a horse can move, either naturally or as a result of specialized training by humans. Special training is required before a horse will perform an ambling gait in respond to a riders command. Another system of classification that applies to quadrupeds uses three categories, walking and ambling gaits, running or trotting gaits, and leaping gaits. The British Horse Society Dressage Rules require competitors to perform four variations of the walk, six forms of the trot, five leaping gaits, halt, and rein back, the British Horse Society Equitation examinations also require proficiency in the gallop as distinct from the canter. The so-called natural gaits, in increasing order of speed, are the walk, trot, canter, and gallop. Some consider these as three gaits, with the canter a variation of the gallop, even though the canter is distinguished by having three beats, whereas the gallop has four beats, all four gaits are seen in wild horse populations. While other intermediate speed gaits may occur naturally to some horses, in some animals the trot is replaced by the pace or an ambling gait. Horses who possess an ambling gait are usually able to trot. The walk is a gait that averages about 4 miles per hour. When walking, a horses legs follow this sequence, left leg, left front leg, right hind leg, right front leg. At the walk, the horse will alternate between having three or two feet on the ground, a horse moves its head and neck in a slight up and down motion that helps maintain balance. In detail, suppose the horse starts by lifting its left front leg and it then lifts its right hind leg. Next, the front foot touches the ground, then the horse lifts its right front leg. Then it lifts its rear leg, puts down the front right, lifts the left front, puts down the rear left. Ideally, the rear hoof oversteps the spot where the previously advancing front hoof touched the ground. The more the rear hoof oversteps, the smoother and more comfortable the walk becomes, individual horses and different breeds vary in the smoothness of their walk. However, a rider will almost always some degree of gentle side-to-side motion in the horses hips as each hind leg reaches forward. The fastest walks with a footfall pattern are actually the lateral forms of ambling gaits such as the running walk, singlefoot
35.
Equestrianism
–
Equestrianism, more often known as riding, horseback riding or horse riding, refers to the skill of riding, driving, steeplechasing or vaulting with horses. This broad description includes the use of horses for practical working purposes, transportation, recreational activities, artistic or cultural exercises, Horses are trained and ridden for practical working purposes such as in police work or for controlling herd animals on a ranch. They are also used in sports including, but not limited to, dressage, endurance riding, eventing, reining, show jumping, tent pegging, vaulting, polo, horse racing, driving. Some popular forms of competition are grouped together at horse shows, Horses are used for non-competitive recreational riding such as fox hunting, trail riding or hacking. There is public access to trails in almost every part of the world, many parks, ranches. Horses are also used for therapeutic purposes, both in specialized paraequestrian competition as well as non-competitive riding to improve health and emotional development. Horses are also driven in harness racing, at shows and in other types of exhibition, historical reenactment or ceremony. In some parts of the world, they are used for practical purposes such as farming. Horses continue to be used in service, in traditional ceremonies, police and volunteer mounted patrols. Riding halls enable the training of horse and rider in all weathers as well as indoor competition riding, though there is controversy over the exact date horses were domesticated and when they were first ridden, the best estimate is that horses first were ridden approximately 3500 BC. Indirect evidence suggests that horses were ridden long before they were driven, however, the most unequivocal early archaeological evidence of equines put to working use was of horses being driven. Chariot burials about 2500 BC present the most direct evidence of horses used as working animals. In ancient times chariot warfare was followed by the use of war horses as light, the horse played an important role throughout human history all over the world, both in warfare and in peaceful pursuits such as transportation, trade and agriculture. Horses lived in North America, but died out at the end of the Ice Age, Horses were brought back to North America by European explorers, beginning with the second voyage of Columbus in 1493. Humans appear to have expressed a desire to know which horse were the fastest. Gambling on horse races appears to go hand-in hand with racing and has a history as well. Thoroughbreds have the pre-eminent reputation as a breed, but other breeds also race. Under saddle, Thoroughbred horse racing is the most popular form worldwide, in the UK, it is known as flat racing and is governed by the Jockey Club in the United Kingdom
36.
Glossary of equestrian terms
–
This is a basic glossary of equestrian terms that includes both technical terminology and jargon developed over the centuries for horses and other equidae, as well as various horse-related concepts. Where noted, some terms are used only in American English, only in British English, or are regional to a part of the world. Action The way a horse elevates its legs, knees, hocks, Also includes how the horse uses its shoulder, humerus, elbow, and stifle, most often used to describe motion at the trot, but sometimes applied to the canter or gallop. High action is a characteristic of Saddlebreds and other breeds used in Saddle seat or certain harness disciplines. Originally referred to a horse with a mouth, generally eight years old or older. Term may refer to a seven years old or older, eight or older, nine or older. In horse racing and in horse shows, an aged horse is one over 4 years. In some contexts, a horse is older than 16 to 20 years of age. Aging The process of estimating a horses age by inspecting its teeth, Agistment, agister Agistment, letting out pasture to horse owners. Agister, an official of the New Forest Verderers who controls grazing on the Forest by New Forest Ponies, aids Signals from the rider or driver to the horse that tell the animal what the handler wants it to do. Generally broken down into two varieties, natural and artificial, Airs above the ground, Airs Movements in haute ecolé or high school classical dressage, where the horse leaves the ground with two or four feet in response to the riders commands. Made famous by the Lipizzan horses at the Spanish Riding School, the airs include the levade, capriole, croupade, courbette, amateur An individual who exhibits horses but is not paid money or other compensation. Amble A general term for a range of four beat intermediate speed horse gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, a specific intermediate speed horse gait, a slowed down pace. It is a four beat gait, where the legs on one side of the horse move one immediately following the other. It is a smooth gait, and is natural to some breeds. Ankle Incorrect term for the fetlock joint, the hock most closely corresponds to the human ankle. Arabian or Arab One of the oldest breeds of horse, noted for small size, dished face, erect carriage, high intelligence and lively disposition, many other breeds contain Arabian bloodlines. Arena An enclosed area for training or riding horses, artificial Insemination The practice of breeding a mare through human assisted means, with no contact between the stallion and mare
37.
Horse tack
–
Tack is a piece of equipment or accessory equipped on horses in the course of their use as domesticated animals. Saddles, stirrups, bridles, halters, reins, bits, harnesses, martingales, equipping a horse is often referred to as tacking up. A room to store equipment, usually near or in a stable, is a tack room. Some western saddles will also have a second strap known as a flank or back cinch that fastens at the rear of the saddle, there are many types of saddle, each specially designed for its given task. Saddles are usually divided into two categories, English saddles and Western saddles according to the riding discipline they are used in. Other types of saddles, such as racing saddles, Australian saddles, sidesaddles and they provide greater stability for the rider but can have safety concerns due to the potential for a riders feet to get stuck in them. If a rider is thrown from a horse but has a foot caught in the stirrup, to minimize this risk, a number of safety precautions are taken. First, most riders wear riding boots with a heel and a smooth sole, next, some saddles, particularly English saddles, have safety bars that allow a stirrup leather to fall off the saddle if pulled backwards by a falling rider. Other precautions are done with stirrup design itself, Western saddles have wide stirrup treads that make it more difficult for the foot to become trapped. A number of saddle styles incorporate a tapedero, which is covering over the front of the stirrup that keeps the foot from sliding all the way through the stirrup. The English stirrup has several variations which are either shaped to allow the riders foot to slip out easily or are closed with a very heavy rubber band. The invention of stirrups was of historic significance in mounted combat. Bridles, hackamores, halters or headcollars, and similar equipment consist of arrangements of straps around the horses head. A halter or headcollar consists of a noseband and headstall that buckles around the horses head and allows the horse to be led or tied. The lead rope is separate, and it may be short for everyday leading and tying, or much longer for tasks such as for leading packhorses or for picketing a horse out to graze. Some horses, particularly stallions, may have an attached to the lead rope. Most of the time, horses are not ridden with a halter, as it offers insufficient precision and control. In Australian and British English, a halter is a rope with a running loop around the nose and another over the poll
38.
Bit (horse)
–
It rests on the bars of the mouth in an interdental region where there are no teeth. It is held on a head by means of a bridle and has reins attached for use by a rider. Although there are hundreds of variations, the basic families of bits are defined by the way in which they use or do not use leverage. They include, Direct pressure bits without leverage, Snaffle bit, Uses a bit ring at the bit mouthpiece to apply pressure on the bars, tongue. Leverage bits, Curb bit, A bit that uses a type of lever called a shank that puts pressure not only on the mouth, pelham bit, A single curb bit with two sets of reins attached to rings at the mouthpiece and end of the shank. Partly combines snaffle and curb pressure, kimblewick or Kimberwicke, A hybrid design that uses a slight amount of mild curb leverage on a bit ring by use of set rein placement on the ring. The port or straight piece goes inside the mouth, and the circular part lies under the jaw, the bit is attached to separate head piece or the head collar and the lead is clipped onto the bit and headcollar to limit the severity. Types of headgear for horses that exert control with a rather than a bit are usually called hackamores. The riders of early domesticated horses probably used some type of bitless headgear made of sinew, leather, components of the earliest headgear may be difficult to determine, as the materials would not have held up over time. For this reason, no one can say with certainty which came first, there is evidence of the use of bits, located in two sites of the Botai in ancient Kazakhstan, dated about 3500-3000 BC. Nose rings appear on the equids portrayed on the Standard of Ur, to date, the earliest known artistic evidence of use of some form of bitless bridle comes in illustrations of Synian horseman, dated approximately 1400 BC. The first bits were made of rope, bone, horn, metal bits came into use between 1300 and 1200 BC, originally made of bronze. In modern times, nickel was a favored material until about 1940, copper, aurigan and sweet iron are incorporated into some bits to encourage salivation in the mouth of the horse, which encourages a softer mouth and more relaxed jaw. Bits also can be made of materials such as rubber or plastic. A bit consists of two components, the bit mouthpiece that goes inside the horses mouth, and the bit rings of a snaffle bit or shanks of a curb bit, to which the bridle. Particular mouthpieces do not define the type of bit, the mouthpiece of a horses bit is the first factor most people think of when assessing the severity and action of the bit. Therefore, it is considered when choosing a bit for a horse. Many mouthpieces are not allowed in certain competitions, Bit mouthpieces may be single jointed, double-jointed, mullen, or have an arched port in the center of varying height, with or without joints
39.
Bridle
–
A bridle is a piece of equipment used to direct a horse. As defined in the Oxford English Dictionary, the bridle includes both the headstall that holds a bit that goes in the mouth of a horse, and the reins that are attached to the bit. Headgear without a bit that uses a noseband to control a horse is called a hackamore, or, in some areas, a bitless bridle. The bridle consists of the elements, Crownpiece, The crownpiece, headstall or headpiece goes over the horses head just behind the animals ears. It is the strap that holds the remaining parts of the bridle in place. Cheekpieces, On most bridles, two cheekpieces attach to either side of the crownpiece and run down the side of the face, along the cheekbone. On some designs, the crownpiece is a strap that includes the right cheek and crownpiece as a single unit. Throatlatch, the throatlatch or throatlash is usually part of the piece of leather as the crownpiece. It runs from the right ear, under the horses throatlatch. Browband, The crownpiece runs through the browband, the browband runs from just under one ear of the horse, across the forehead, to just under the other ear. In certain sports, such as dressage and Saddle seat, decorative browbands are sometimes fashionable, noseband, the noseband encircles the nose of the horse. It is often used to keep the mouth closed, or to attach other pieces or equipment. Because it has a separate headstall, a cavesson can be adjusted with greater precision, in Saddle seat riding, the cavesson is often brightly colored and matches the browband. Variations on the standard English-style bridle are often named for their style of noseband, for use in polo, a gag bridle usually has a noseband plus a cavesson. Frentera, a running from the browband to the noseband. Fiador, a form of throatlatch, is used with a hackamore, reins, The reins of a bridle attach to the bit, below the attachment for the cheekpieces. The reins are the link to the horse, and are seen on every bridle. Reins are often laced, braided, have stops, or are made of rubber or some other material to provide extra grip
40.
Saddle
–
The saddle is a supportive structure for a rider or other load, fastened to an animals back by a girth. The most common type is the equestrian saddle designed for a horse, today, modern saddles come in a wide variety of styles, each designed for a specific equestrianism discipline, and require careful fit to both the rider and the horse. Proper saddle care can extend the life of a saddle. The word saddle originates from the Proto-Germanic language *sathulaz, with cognates in various other Indo-European languages, there is evidence, though disputed, that humans first began riding the horse not long after domestication, possibly as early as 4000 BC. The earliest known saddle-like equipment were fringed cloths or pads used by Assyrian cavalry around 700 BC and these were held on with a girth or surcingle that included breast straps and cruppers. From the earliest depictions, saddles became status symbols and these were located in Pazyryk burials finds. These saddles, found in the Ukok Plateau, Siberia were dated to 500-400 BC, the Scythians also developed an early saddle that included padding and decorative embellishments. Though they had neither a solid tree nor stirrups, these early treeless saddles and pads provided protection and comfort to the rider, with a slight increase in security. The Sarmatians also used a padded treeless early saddle, possibly as early as the century, BC. Early solid-treed saddles were made of felt that covered a wooden frame, Asian designs appeared during the Han dynasty approximately 200 BC. One of the earliest solid-treed saddles in the west was the four horn design, the invention of the solid saddle tree also allowed development of the true stirrup as it is known today. Without a solid tree, the weight in the stirrups creates abnormal pressure points. Thermography studies on treeless and flexible tree saddle designs have found there is considerable friction across the center line of a horses back. The stirrup was one of the milestones in saddle development, the first stirrup-like object was invented in India in the 2nd century BC, and consisted of a simple leather strap in which the riders toe was placed. It offered very little support, however, the stirrup appeared to be in widespread use across China by 477 AD. which then spread to Europe. This invention gave great support for the rider, and was essential in later warfare, Saddles were improved upon during the Middle Ages, as knights needed saddles that were stronger and offered more support. The resulting saddle had a higher cantle and pommel and was built on a tree that supported more weight from a rider with armor. This saddle, a predecessor to the modern Western saddle, was padded with wool or horsehair
41.
Horse harness
–
A horse harness is a type of horse tack that allows a horse or other equine to be driven and to pull various horse-drawn vehicles such as a carriage, wagon or sleigh. Harnesses may also be used to hitch animals to other such as a plow or canal boat. There are two categories of horse harness, the breaststrap or breastcollar design, and the collar. For light work, such as horse show competition where light carts are used and it can only be used for lighter hauling, since it places the weight of the load on the sternum of the horse and the nearby windpipe. This is not the heaviest skeletal area, also heavy loads can constrict the windpipe, by contrast, the collar and hames harness places the weight of the load onto the horses shoulders, and without any restriction on the air supply. For heavy hauling, the harness must include a collar to allow the animal to use its full weight. Harness components designed for other animals are not suitable for horses, putting harness on a horse is called harnessing or harnessing up. Attaching the harness to the load is called putting to or hitching, the order of putting on harness components varies by discipline, but when a horse collar is used, it is usually put on first. Parts of the include, A collar to allow the horse to push against the harness with its shoulders. Two main alternative arrangements, A horse collar, a padded loop fitting closely around the horses neck, pointed at the top to fit the crest of the neck. Used for heavier pulling, especially when used without a swingletree or whippletree, a padded strap running around the chest from side to side. Used for light work, or for heavier work it is used together with a swingletree evenly on each step without rubbing. Two metal or wooden strips which take the force of the pull. A strap around the horses haunches allowing it to set back and slow a vehicle, used for a single horse, a pair, or in a larger team, only for the wheelers. The leaders in a team do not have breeching, as they are in front of the shafts or pole, breeching may also be omitted in fine harness, or when the cart is very light or has efficient brakes on the wheels. The straps or chains which take the pull from the breastcollar or hames to the load, a small supportive piece of the harness that lies on the horses back, not the same as a riding saddle. A strap that goes firmly around the girth of the horse to attach the harness saddle, a strap that goes more loosely under the belly of the horse, outside the girth. Prevents the shafts rising up, especially on a two-wheeled vehicle, a strap going through the harness saddle to join the belly band either side
