1.
Catamaran Corporation
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SXC has three separate but interrelated business segments which deal with prescription drug programs. For 2013 23% of company revenue came from Cigna Corporation, most of the companys growth came in 2008 when it doubled in size, Between 2005 and 2010 revenue increased 3, 400%. As a Canadian startup, the company received venture capital subsidies from the Canadian government in addition to private investments and these subsidies allowed the business to grow initially and establish its business model in advance of its initial public offering, which was offered through the NASDAQ exchange in 2009. The success of the public and private approach in SXCs case has been called perhaps the best example of the flexibility. In 2013 company revenue increased by 49% thanks to a year of prescription claims at the Catalyst division. On 30 March 2015, it was announced that Catamaran will be acquired by OptumRx, Systems Xellence, founded in 1993, was a Canadian company that first went public in 1995 when it joined the TSX. Six years later, in 2001, it acquired ComCoTec, an Illinois-based software business, after going public on the NASDAQ stock market in 2006, the company shifted its headquarters from Milton, Ontario to Chicago, the city ComCoTec was based in. SXC was one of the first companies to build technology used in pharmacy benefit management and it is now known as InformedRx, a division of SXC. On December 19,2008, the company also acquired Zynchros, SXC purchased private company MedfusionRx, Inc on December 2,2010 for $100 million. MedfusionRx provides voice messaging services to people in all 50 US states as well as other services to over 9000 patients. The messages have to do medical treatment assistance including the delivery and refill reminders of medication. It was founded in 2003 in Birmingham, Alabama, medfusion manages $270 million in drug spending. In 2012, SXC agreed to buy rival Catalyst Health Solutions Inc. in a roughly $4.14 billion cash-and-stock deal, shortly thereafter, SXC Health Solutions Corp. renamed the company, Catamaran Corp. In 2015, Health insurer UnitedHealth Group agreed to buy pharmacy benefit manager Catamaran Corp in a deal worth about $12.8 billion, SXC has three main business segments, InformedRx, Healthcare IT Group, and Health Business Systems. InformedRx is SXC Health Solutions pharmacy benefit management service, Healthcare IT Group focuses on the technological aspects of the company. It includes the RxCLAIM, RxTRACK, and RxPORTAL customer interfaces and it also includes pharmacy technology services, as well as Zynchros, a provider of formulary management tools. Health Business Systems are management systems providers to retail, institutional or nursing home, SXC Health Solutions has been used by various organizations, including Cigna, HealthSpring, PharMerica, TennCare, the Boston Medical Center HealthNet Plan, and Health Alliance of Michigan
2.
Formula 16
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The Formula 16 sport catamaran is an ISAF recognised 5 m long beach catamaran with an asymmetric spinnaker setup. It is actively sailed in two modes, doublehanded with a jib, and singlehanded without a jib and its class rules setup is very similar to those of the Formula 18 class of beach catamarans. In effect any boat that adheres to a limited set of general design specifications may participate in all the official class races. The two classes, F18 and F16, govern the racing of their own class compliant boats. In handicap racing, the F16 uses a D-PN of 63.0 In the beginning the F18 class rules functioned as a template for the F16 class rules, the F16 class focused more and more on a truly lightweight design with a reduced rule set. The latter meaning that all rules governing a particular detail in the boat design. The F16 rules control what is known as a boxrule, eventually a reduced number of major limits was finalized, Maximum overall length is 5 m. Minimum overall weight 104 kg 1up and 107 kg 2-up, the other main rules are, Mid height width of spinnaker is at minimum 75% of length foot. No ballast other than corrector weights up to 7.5 kg are allowed The F16 class was from its inception engineered towards a sports catamaran with certain remarkable qualities. A careful balancing act between the components of the F16 boats allows this result. Several modifications were made to the early F16 class rules to achieve this result, the founders believed this result to be important to the growth and success of the F16 class. Additionally, both the doublehanded and singlehanded F16s race each other for being first across the line as well and they are simply that close in overall performance around the race course. The other goal that the F16 class was engineered towards was the ease of handling the boat by any singlehanded or doublehanded crew. By increasing further the character of the design and incorporating several technological advances. In this respect the F16 class had found its own character and has set itself apart from its mentor the F18 class. The F16 class has a modest following in the USA, Europe, Asia and Australia, the key areas within these regions are Florida/Maryland/California, UK/Netherlands/Belgium/Germany, Singapore/Thailand, New South Wales and Victoria. But during the years 2005 and 2006 the class grew in unlikely places like Shanghai, Finland, Arab Emirates and places in the USA like Arizona, the class grows as much in areas new to beach cat sailing as well growing in volume in the traditional beach cat regions. The F16 class is therefore trail blazing a path for a beach catamaran scene in these places
3.
Salem, Massachusetts
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Salem is a coastal city in Essex County, Massachusetts, in the United States, located on Massachusetts North Shore. It is a New England bedrock of history and is considered one of the most significant seaports in Puritan American history, the citys reported population was 41,340 at the 2010 census. Salem and Lawrence are the county seats of Essex County, though the county government was abolished in 1999, much of the citys cultural identity reflects its role as the location of the Salem witch trials of 1692, as featured in Arthur Millers The Crucible. Tourists know Salem as a mix of important historical sites and a vibrant downtown that has more than 60 restaurants, cafes, in 2012, the Retailers Association of Massachusetts chose Salem for their inaugural Best Shopping District award. President Barack Obama signed executive order HR1339 on January 10,2013, more than one million tourists from all around the world visit Salem annually, bringing in at least $100 million in tourism spending each year. More than 250,000 visited Salem over Halloween weekend in 2016, Salem is located at the mouth of the Naumkeag river at the site of an ancient American Indian village and trading center. It was first settled by Europeans in 1626, when a company of fishermen arrived from Cape Ann, led by Roger Conant. Conants leadership provided the stability to survive the first two years, but he was replaced by John Endecott, one of the new arrivals, Conant graciously stepped aside and was granted 200 acres of land in compensation. These New Planters and the Old Planters agreed to cooperate, in part due to the diplomacy of Conant. In 1628, Endecott ordered that the Great House be moved from Cape Ann, when Higginson arrived in Salem, he wrote that we found a faire house newly built for the Governor which was remarkable for being two stories high. A year later, the Massachusetts Bay Charter was issued creating the Massachusetts Bay Colony with Matthew Craddock as its governor in London, John Winthrop was elected Governor in late 1629, and arrived with the Winthrop Fleet in 1630, beginning the Great Migration. In 1639, Endecotts was one of the signatures on the contract for enlarging the meeting house in Town House Square for the First Church in Salem. This document remains part of the records at City Hall. He was active in the affairs of the town throughout his life, Samuel Skelton was the first pastor of the First Church of Salem, which is the original Puritan church in North America. Endecott already had a relationship with Skelton, having been converted by him. Roger Conant died in 1679 at the age of 87, a statue commemorating him stands overlooking Salem Common. Salem originally included much of the North Shore, including Marblehead, most of the accused in the Salem witch trials lived in nearby Salem Village, now known as Danvers, although a few lived on the outskirts of Salem. Salem Village also included Peabody and parts of present-day Beverly, Middleton, Topsfield, Wenham, and Manchester-by-the-Sea were once parts of Salem
4.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
5.
Multihull
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A multihull is a ship, vessel, craft or boat with more than one hull. Multihull ships include multiple types, sizes and applications, hulls range from two to five, of uniform or diverse types and arrangements Catamarans are the most common type, with two symmetric hulls. They are used as racing, sailing, tourist and fishing boats, about 70% of fast passenger and car-passenger ferries are catamarans. About 300 semi-submersible drilling and auxiliary platforms operate at sea, some ships with outriggers are built, including the experimental ship Tritone and the first and second sister-ships of the series of Littoral Combat Ships. About 70 small waterplan area ships whose hulls have a cross section at the waterplane than below the surface exist. Multihull ships can be classified by the number of hulls, by their arrangement, the first multihull vessels were Austronesian canoes. They hollowed out logs to make canoes and stabilized them by attaching outriggers to prevent them from capsizing and this led to the proa, catamaran, and trimaran plus various outriggers throughout the Pacific. Individual hulls are connected by a structure called the platform or above-water bridge. The structure can be partially or fully, or can consist of separate connections. The distance between hulls is called the clearance and can be measured between center planes or between the inner boards. The distance between the design waterplane and the bottom of the platform is called the vertical clearance. The longitudinal distance between a ship is called the longitudinal clearance and can be measured between the middle of the hulls or between their fore perpendiculars. An outrigger is a small side hull attached to the main load-carrying hull by two or more struts, proas have one hull and one outrigger. Engines are commonly placed on the main hull, a ship with one hull of conventional shape and two small side hulls is called an outrigger ship. This type is identified as trimaran in English language publications, three terms from the Malay and Micronesian language group describe hull components. The terms originated as descriptions of the proa, Catamarans and trimarans share the same terminology. Ama − The ama is the outrigger hull, Aka − The aka connects the vaka to the ama. In Hawaiian, this is called the iako, Vaka − The vaka is the main canoe-like hull
6.
Watercraft
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Watercraft are water-borne vehicles including ships, boats, hovercraft and submarines. Watercraft usually have propulsive capability and hence are distinct from a device that merely floats. Most watercraft would be described as either a ship or a boat, however, there are numerous craft which many people would consider neither a ship nor a boat, such as, surfboards, underwater robots, seaplanes, jetskis and torpedoes. Although ships are larger than boats, the distinction between those two categories is not one of size per se. Ships are typically large ocean-going vessels, whereas boats are smaller, and typically travel most often on inland or coastal waters. A rule of thumb says a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship cant fit on a boat, local law and regulation may define the exact size that distinguishes a ship from a boat. A merchant ship is any floating craft that transports cargo for the purpose of earning revenue, in that context, the term watercraft is rarely used to describe any individual object, rather the term serves to unify the category that ranges from jet skis to aircraft carriers. Such a vessel may be used in saltwater and freshwater, for pleasure, recreation, physical exercise, commerce, in general, the purpose of a water vehicle identifies its utility with a maritime industry sub-sector. The design from which a vehicle is created usually seeks to achieve a balance between internal capacity, speed and seaworthiness. Propulsion is the application of technology in watercraft. Current technological development seeks to identify cheaper, renewable and less polluting sources of propulsion for watercraft of all shapes and sizes, secondary applications of technology in watercraft have been those of used structural materials, navigation aids, and in the case of warships, weapon systems. Watercraft registration is the registration of a watercraft with a government authority, identification consists of an alphanumeric string called a vessel registration number that is issued in the United States by the states Department of Motor Vehicles. Navigation aids have varied over time, from observation, to mechanical mechanisms. Since the early 20th century, there has been a development in technologies which allow force projection from a naval task force to a land objective using marine infantry. The Canadian Museum of Civilization - Native Watercraft in Canada A History of Recreational Small Watercraft Recreational Watercraft
7.
Hull (watercraft)
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The hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present, the line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type, the uppermost continuous deck may be called the upper deck, weather deck, spar deck, main deck, or simply deck. The particular name given depends on the type of ship or boat. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames and bulkheads, often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, in many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design, shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. Hulls come in varieties and can have composite shape, but are grouped primarily as follows. Examples are the flat-bottom, v-bottom, and multi-bottom hull and these types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length. These hull shapes all have smooth curves, examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull. After this they can be categorized as, Displacement The hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy, vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length. They are often, though not always, heavier than planing types, planing The planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged, the most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with sea keeping. Sail boats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds, semi-displacement, or semi-planing The hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessels weight is still supported through buoyancy. At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull, in the inverted bell shape of the hull, with a smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher
8.
Beam (nautical)
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The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
9.
Keel
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On boats and ships, keel can refer to either of two parts, a structural element that sometimes resembles a fin and protrudes below a boat along the central line, or a hydrodynamic element. As the laying down of the keel is the step in the construction of a ship, in British. Only the ships launching is considered significant in its creation. The word can also be used as a synecdoche to refer to a complete boat, a structural keel is the bottom-most structural member around which the hull of a ship is built. The keel runs along the centerline of the ship, from the bow to the stern. The keel is often the first part of a hull to be constructed. The most common type of keel is the plate keel. A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the bar keel, which may be fitted in trawlers, tugs, and smaller ferries. Where grounding is possible, this type of keel is suitable with its massive scantlings, if a double bottom is fitted, the keel is almost inevitably of the flat plate type, bar keels often being associated with open floors, where the plate keel may also be fitted. Duct keels are provided in the bottom of some vessels and these run from the forward engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead and are utilized to carry the double bottom piping. The piping is then accessible when cargo is loaded, the keel surface on the bottom of the hull gives the ship greater directional control and stability. In non-sailing hulls, the helps the hull to move forward. In traditional boat building, this is provided by the structural keel, in modern construction, the bar keel or flat-plate keel performs the same function. There are many types of fixed keels, including full keels, long keels, fin keels, winged keels, bulb keels, the rudimentary purpose of the keel is to convert the sideways motion of the wind when it is abeam into forward motion. A secondary purpose of the keel is to provide ballast, keels are different from centreboards and other types of foils in that keels are made of heavy materials to provide ballast to stabilize the boat. Keels may be fixed, or non-movable, or they may retract to allow sailing in shallower waters, retracting keels may pivot or slide upwards to retract, and are usually retracted with a winch due to the weight of the ballast. Since the keel provides far more stability when lowered than when retracted, types of non-fixed keels include swing keels and canting keels. Canting keels can be found on racing yachts, such as competing in the Volvo Ocean Race
10.
Monohull
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A monohull is a type of boat having only one hull, unlike multihulled boats which can have two or more individual hulls connected to one another. Among the earliest hulls were simple logs, but these were generally unstable, adding weight or ballast to the bottom of the hull or as low as possible within the hull adds stability. Naval architects place the center of gravity substantially below the center of buoyancy, the use of stones and other weights as ballast can be traced back to the Romans, Phoenicians and Vikings. Modern ships carry tons of ballast in order to maintain their stability and this is the most prevalent form of waterborne vessel. Keels - Most sailing ships and larger sailboats have deep keels containing ballast which adds horizontal stabilility, Displacement hulls - Monohull boats frequently ride deeply in the water, this is known as a displacement hull. Planing hulls - Hulls that ride on top of the water are called planing hulls, because when they reach speed, the hulls are substantially lifted above the water, handbook of offshore cruising, The Dream and Reality of Modern Ocean Cruising. Sailing Yachts Sailboats Multihull Keel Displacement Displacement hull Hydrodynamics Buoyancy Catamaran
11.
Sailboat
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A sailboat or sailing boat is a boat propelled partly or entirely by sails smaller than a sailing ship. Distinctions in what constitutes a sailing boat and ship vary by region, although sailboat terminology has varied across history, many terms have specific meanings in the context of modern yachting. A great number of sailboat-types may be distinguished by size, hull configuration, keel type, purpose, number and configuration of masts, and sail plan. Once a common racing configuration, today it gives versatility to cruising boats, a catboat has a single mast mounted far forward and does not carry a jib. Most modern designs have only one sail, the mainsail, however, a dinghy is a type of small open sailboat commonly used for recreation, sail training, and tending a larger vessel. They are popular in youth sailing programs for their short LOA, simple operation and they have three sails, the mainsail, jib, and spinnaker. Ketches are similar to a sloop, but there is a shorter mast astern of the mainmast. The second mast is called the mizzen mast and the sail is called the mizzen sail, a ketch can also be Cutter-rigged with two head sails. A schooner has a mainmast taller than its foremast, distinguishing it from a ketch or a yawl, a schooner can have more than two masts, with the foremast always lower than the foremost main. Traditional topsail schooners have topmasts allowing triangular topsails sails to be flown above their gaff sails, the most common modern sailboat is the sloop, which features one mast and two sails, typically a Bermuda rigged main, and a headsail. This simple configuration is very efficient for sailing into the wind, a smaller headsail is easier for a short-handed crew to manage. A yawl is similar to a ketch, with a mizzen mast carried astern the rudderpost more for balancing the helm than propulsion. Traditional sailboats are monohulls, but multi-hull catamarans and trimarans are gaining popularity, monohull boats generally rely on ballast for stability and usually are displacement hulls. This stabilizing ballast can, in boats designed for racing, be as much as 50% of the weight of the boat and it creates two problems, one, it gives the monohull tremendous inertia, making it less maneuverable and reducing its acceleration. Secondly, unless it has built with buoyant foam or air tanks, if a monohull fills with water. Multihulls rely on the geometry and the stance of the multiple hulls for their stability. Indeed, multihulls are designed to be as light-weight as possible and this absence of ballast also results in some very real performance gains in terms of acceleration, top speed, and maneuverability. The lack of ballast makes it easier to get a multihull on plane, reducing its wetted surface area and thus its drag. The absence of drag improves wind precision
12.
Tamil language
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Tamil is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken by the Tamil people of India and Sri Lanka, and also by the Tamil diaspora, Sri Lankan Moors, Burghers, Douglas, and Chindians. Tamil is a language of two countries, Singapore and Sri Lanka. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and it is also used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia, along with English, Malay and Mandarin. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and it is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. Tamil is one of the classical languages in the world. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from 500 BC have been found on Adichanallur and 2 and it has been described as the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past. The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as one of the classical traditions. A recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years, the earliest period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from ca.300 BC – AD300. It has the oldest extant literature among other Dravidian languages, the earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC. More than 55% of the inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka, the two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil. In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, the Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in the Indian languages. According to a 2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, Tamil belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages, a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent. It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family, the closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam, the two began diverging around the 9th century CE. According to linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Tamil, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India. The next phase in the reconstructed proto-history of Tamil is Proto-South Dravidian, the linguistic evidence suggests that Proto-South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the second millennium BC, and that proto-Tamil emerged around the 3rd century BC. The earliest epigraphic attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been shortly thereafter
13.
Draft (hull)
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Draft determines the minimum depth of water a ship or boat can safely navigate. The draft can also be used to determine the weight of the cargo on board by calculating the displacement of water. A table made by the shows the water displacement for each draft. The density of the water and the content of the bunkers has to be taken into account. The closely related term trim is defined as the difference between the forward and aft drafts, the draft aft is measured in the perpendicular of the stern. The draft forward is measured in the perpendicular of the bow, the scale may use traditional English units or metric units. If the English system is used, the bottom of each marking is the draft in feet, in metric marking schemes, the bottom of each draft mark is the draft in decimeters and each mark is one decimeter high. Larger ships try to maintain a water draft when they are light, in order to make a better sea crossing. In order to achieve this they use sailing ballasts to stabilize the ship, the water draft of a large ship has little direct link with its stability because stability depends solely on the respective positions of the metacenter of the hull and the center of gravity. It is also however, that a light ship has quite high stability which can lead to implying too much rolling of the ship. A fully laden ship can have either a strong or weak stability, the draft of ships can be increased when the ship is in motion in shallow water, a phenomenon known as squat. Draft is a significant factor limiting navigable waterways, especially for large vessels, of course this includes many shallow coastal waters and reefs, but also some major shipping lanes. Panamax class ships—the largest ships able to transit the Panama Canal—do have a limit but are usually limited by beam, or sometimes length overall. However, in the much wider Suez Canal, the factor for Suezmax ships is draft. Some supertankers are able to transit the Suez Canal when unladen or partially laden, canals are not the only draft-limited shipping lanes. A Malaccamax ship has the deepest draft able to transit the very busy, there are only a few ships of this size. A small draft allows pleasure boats to navigate through shallower water and this makes it possible for these boats to access smaller ports, to travel along rivers and even to beach the boat. A large draft ensures a level of stability in strong wind
14.
Drag (physics)
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In fluid dynamics, drag is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two layers or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are independent of velocity. Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow, even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity. Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the object in the fluids path. In the case of viscous drag of fluid in a pipe, in physics of sports, the drag force is necessary to explain the performance of runners, particularly of sprinters. Types of drag are generally divided into the categories, parasitic drag, consisting of form drag, skin friction, interference drag, lift-induced drag. The phrase parasitic drag is used in aerodynamics, since for lifting wings drag it is in general small compared to lift. For flow around bluff bodies, form and interference drags often dominate, further, lift-induced drag is only relevant when wings or a lifting body are present, and is therefore usually discussed either in aviation or in the design of semi-planing or planing hulls. Wave drag occurs either when an object is moving through a fluid at or near the speed of sound or when a solid object is moving along a fluid boundary. Drag depends on the properties of the fluid and on the size, shape, at low R e, C D is asymptotically proportional to R e −1, which means that the drag is linearly proportional to the speed. At high R e, C D is more or less constant, the graph to the right shows how C D varies with R e for the case of a sphere. As mentioned, the equation with a constant drag coefficient gives the force experienced by an object moving through a fluid at relatively large velocity. This is also called quadratic drag, the equation is attributed to Lord Rayleigh, who originally used L2 in place of A. Sometimes a body is a composite of different parts, each with a different reference areas, in the case of a wing the reference areas are the same and the drag force is in the same ratio to the lift force as the ratio of drag coefficient to lift coefficient. Therefore, the reference for a wing is often the area rather than the frontal area. For an object with a surface, and non-fixed separation points—like a sphere or circular cylinder—the drag coefficient may vary with Reynolds number Re. For an object with well-defined fixed separation points, like a disk with its plane normal to the flow direction
15.
Sailing
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Sailing employs the wind—acting on sails, wingsails or kites—to propel a craft on the surface of the water, on ice or on land over a chosen course, which is often part of a larger plan of navigation. A course defined with respect to the wind direction is called a point of sail. Conventional sailing craft cannot derive power from sails on a point of sail that is too close into the wind, on a given point of sail, the sailor adjusts the alignment of each sail with respect to the apparent wind direction to mobilize the power of the wind. In the 21st century, most sailing represents a form of recreation or sport, recreational sailing or yachting can be divided into racing and cruising. Cruising can include extended offshore and ocean-crossing trips, coastal sailing within sight of land, until the end of the 19th century, sailing ships were the primary means for marine commerce. The earliest representation of a ship under sail appears on a painted disc found in Kuwait dating between 5000 and 5500 BCE, polynesian oceanfarers traveled vast distances of open ocean in outrigger canoes using navigation methods such as stick charts. Advances in sailing technology from the Middle Ages onward enabled Arab, Chinese, Indian and European explorers to make longer voyages into regions with extreme weather and climatic conditions. There were improvements in sails, masts and rigging, improvements in marine navigation including the tree and charts. Sailing has contributed to many great explorations in the world, the air interacting with the sails of a sailing vessel creates various forces, including reaction forces. If the sails are properly oriented with respect to the wind, however, boats propelled by sails cannot sail directly into the wind. They must tack back and forth in order to progress directly upwind, sails are airfoils that work by using an airflow set up by the wind and the motion of the boat. Sails work in two modes to use the wind to force, PUSH, when the boat is going in the same direction as the wind. The force on the sail is mostly aerodynamic drag, and sails acting in this way are aerodynamically stalled. This force manifests itself as pressure differences between the two sides of the sail - there is a region of low pressure on the front side of the sail and a region of high pressure on the back. Another way to say this is that sails generate lift using the air flows around them in the same way as an aircraft wing. The wind that a boat experiences is the combination of the true wind and this combination is the apparent wind, which is the relative velocity of the wind relative to the boat. When sailing upwind the apparent wind is greater than the true wind, iceboats can typically sail at 5 times the speed of the wind. Where there is a difference in motion, then there is energy to be extracted at the interface, the sailboat does this by placing the sail in the air and the hull in the water
16.
Rowing
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Rowing is the act of propelling a boat using the motion of oars in the water, displacing water, and propelling the boat forward. The difference between paddling and rowing is that rowing requires oars to have a connection with the boat. In some localities, rear-facing systems prevail, in other localities, forward-facing systems prevail, especially in crowded areas such as in Venice, Italy and in Asian and Indonesian rivers and harbors. This is not strictly an either-or, because in different situations its useful to be able to row a boat facing either way. The current emphasis on the aspects of rowing has resulted in some new mechanical systems being developed. Rearward-facing systems, This is probably the oldest system used in Europe, a seated rower pulls on one or two oars, which lever the boat through the water. The pivot point of the oars is the fulcrum, the motive force is applied through the rowers feet. In traditional rowing craft, the point of the oars is generally located on the boats gunwale. The actual fitting that holds the oar may be as simple as one or two pegs or a metal oarlock, in performance rowing craft, the rowlock is usually extended outboard on a rigger to allow the use of a longer oar for increased power. Sculling involves a seated rower who pulls on two oars or sculls, attached to the boat, thereby moving the boat in the direction opposite that which the rower faces, in some multiple-seat boats seated rowers each pull on a single sweep oar, usually with both hands. Boats in which the rowers are coordinated by a coxswain are referred to as a coxed pair/four/eight, sometimes sliding seats are used to enable the rower to use the leg muscles, substantially increasing the power available. An alternative to the seat, called a sliding rigger, uses a stationary seat. On a craft used in Italy, the catamaran moscone, the rower stands and this is a convenient method of manoeuvring in a narrow waterway or through a busy harbour. The Rantilla system of frontrowing oars uses inboard mounted oarlocks rather than a reversing transmission to achieve forward motion of the boat with a motion on the oars. In ancient times, rowing vessels, especially galleys, were used in naval warfare and trade. Galleys had advantages over sailing ships, they were easier to maneuver, capable of bursts of speed. Galleys continued in use in the Mediterranean until the advent of steam propulsion and their use in northern Atlantic waters was less successful, finishing with their poor performance with the Spanish Armada. The Classical trireme used 170 rowers, later galleys included even larger crews, trireme oarsmen used leather cushions to slide over the seats, which allowed them to use their leg strength as a modern oarsman does with a sliding seat
17.
Roll-on/roll-off
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This is in contrast to lift-on/lift-off vessels, which use a crane to load and unload cargo. RORO vessels have either built-in or shore-based ramps that allow the cargo to be rolled on. While smaller ferries that operate across rivers and other short distances often have built-in ramps, the ramps and doors may be located in stern, bow or sides, or any combination thereof. At first, wheeled vehicles carried as cargo on oceangoing ships were treated like any other cargo, automobiles had their fuel tanks emptied and their batteries disconnected before being hoisted into the ship’s hold, where they were chocked and secured. This process was tedious and difficult, and vehicles were subject to damage, an early roll-on/roll-off service was a train ferry, started in 1833 by the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, which operated a wagon ferry on the Forth and Clyde Canal in Scotland. The first modern train ferry was Leviathan, built in 1849, the Edinburgh, Leith and Newhaven Railway was formed in 1842 and the company wished to extend the East Coast Main Line further north to Dundee and Aberdeen. The company hired the civil engineer Thomas Bouch who argued for a train ferry with an efficient roll-on/roll-off mechanism to maximise the efficiency of the system. Custom-built ferries were to be built, with lines and matching harbour facilities at both ends to allow the rolling stock to easily drive on and off the boat. To compensate for the tides, adjustable ramps were positioned at the harbours. The wagons were loaded on and off with the use of steam engines. ”The company was persuaded to install this train ferry service for the transportation of goods wagons across the Firth of Forth from Burntisland in Fife to Granton. The ferry itself was built by Thomas Grainger, a partner of the firm Grainger and Miller, the service commenced on 3 February 1850. Train-ferry services were used extensively during World War I and this involved three train-ferries to be built, each with four sets of railway line on the main deck to allow for up to 54 railway wagons to be shunted directly on and off the ferry. These train-ferries could also be used to transport vehicles along with railway rolling stock. Later that month a second train-ferry was established from the Port of Southampton on the South East Coast, in the first month of operations at Richborough,5,000 tons were transported across the Channel, by the end of 1918 it was nearly 261,000 tons. There were many advantages of the use of train-ferries over conventional shipping in World War I and it was much easier to move the large, heavy artillery and tanks that this kind of modern warfare required using train-ferries as opposed to repeated loading and unloading of cargo. The increase of traffic because of the war effort meant that economies. After the signing of the Armistice on 11 November 1918, train ferries were used extensively for the return of material from the Front, indeed, according to war office statistics, a greater tonnage of material was transported by train ferry from Richborough in 1919 than in 1918. As the train ferries had space for motor transport as well as rolling stock, thousands of lorries, motor cars
18.
Polynesia
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Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including the language family, culture, and beliefs. Historically, they were experienced sailors who used stars to navigate at night, the term Polynesia was first used in 1756 by French writer Charles de Brosses, and originally applied to all the islands of the Pacific. In 1831, Jules Dumont dUrville proposed a restriction on its use during a lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris, historically, these islands have also been referred to as the South Sea Islands. Polynesia is characterized by an amount of land spread over a very large portion of the mid. Most Polynesian islands and archipelagos, including the Hawaiian Islands and Samoa, are composed of volcanic islands built by hotspots, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Ouvéa, the Polynesian outlier near New Caledonia, are the unsubmerged portions of the largely sunken continent of Zealandia. At first, the Pacific plate was subducted under the Australian plate, the Alpine Fault that traverses the South Island is currently a transform fault while the convergent plate boundary from the North Island northwards is called the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone. The volcanism associated with subduction zone is the origin of the Kermadec. Out of approximately 300,000 or 310,000 square kilometres of land, over 270,000 km2 are within New Zealand, the Zealandia continent has approximately 3,600,000 km2 of continental shelf. The oldest rocks in the region are found in New Zealand and are believed to be about 510 million years old, the oldest Polynesian rocks outside of Zealandia are to be found in the Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain, and are 80 million years old. Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the Polynesian Triangle, geographically, the Polynesian Triangle is drawn by connecting the points of Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island. The other main island groups located within the Polynesian Triangle are Samoa, Tonga, there are also small Polynesian settlements in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Caroline Islands, and in Vanuatu. An island group with strong Polynesian cultural traits outside of this triangle is Rotuma. The people of Rotuma have many common Polynesian traits but speak a non-Polynesian language, some of the Lau Islands to the southeast of Fiji have strong historic and cultural links with Tonga. However, in essence, Polynesia is a term referring to one of the three parts of Oceania. Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the triangle that geographically defines the region. The Phoenix Islands and Line Islands, most of which are part of Kiribati, are geographically Polynesian islands, tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between about 3000 and 1000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia, there are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia
19.
Nathanael Greene Herreshoff
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Nathanael Greene Herreshoff was an American naval architect, mechanical engineer, and yacht design innovator. He produced a succession of undefeated Americas Cup defenders between 1893-1920, Herreshoff was born on March 18,1848 in Bristol, Rhode Island and was named after General Nathanael Greene. He was the youngest of three brothers, behind Lewis and John B and he graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1870 with a three-year degree in mechanical engineering. After graduation, he took a position with the Corliss Steam Engine Company in Providence, at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he oversaw operation of the Corliss Stationary Engine, a 40-foot-tall,1, 400-horsepower dynamo that powered the exhibitions machinery. In 1878 Herreshoff returned to Bristol where he and his older brother John B. formed the Herreshoff Manufacturing Company, Herreshoff provided the engineering expertise and his brother provided the business expertise, managing the firms personnel and interacting with clients. Together, they grew the business from about 20 employees to over 400, in 1888, a serious accident occurred while Herreshoff was supervising speed trials of a 138-foot, 875-horsepower steamboat named Say When. After a safety valve opened to release over-pressure, Herreshoff closed it so the boat could achieve its maximum speed. But a boiler exploded, fatally injuring a member of the crew, consequently, Herreshoff lost his steam engineers license. Two of Herreshoffs sons would also become yacht designers, Sidney Dewolf Herreshoff and he died on June 2,1938 in Bristol, Rhode Island. Herreshoff boat production incorporated power tools that increased productivity at a level of quality. Herreshoff was noted as a sailboat designer of his time. His designs ranged from the 12½, a 16-foot sailboat for training the children of yachtsmen, to the 144-foot Americas Cup Reliance and he received the first US patent for a sailing catamaran. The firm built the Americas Cup winning Cup yachts Enterprise -1930, every winning Americas Cup Yacht from 1893 to 1934 was built by the Herreshoff yard. The 123-foot Defender featured steel-framing, bronze plating up to the waterline, in salt water, Defender was subject to galvanic corrosion, which limited its durability in water. Defender won the Americas Cup in 1895 over Lord Dunravens Valkyrie III and she was broken up in 1901. Those of the 2, 000-plus designs by Herreshoff that survive are sought by connoisseurs of classic yachts, Herreshoff S-Class sailboats, designed in 1919 and built until 1941, are still actively raced in Narragansett Bay, Buzzards Bay and Western Long Island Sound. His 12½ design of 1914 is still being built and raced in New England as well, the New York 30 is well regarded as a one-design racer/cruiser. The Herreshoff Marine Museum preserves Herreshoffs legacy at the site of the Herreshoff Manufacturing Co
20.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
21.
2nd millennium BC
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The 2nd millennium BC spans the years 2000 through 1000 BC. It marks the transition from the Middle to the Late Bronze Age and its first half is dominated by the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and Babylonia. Indo-Iranian migration onto the Iranian plateau and onto the Indian subcontinent propagates the use of the chariot, chariot warfare and population movements lead to violent changes at the center of the millennium, a new order emerges with Greek dominance of the Aegean and the rise of the Hittite Empire. The end of the sees the transition to the Iron Age. World population begins to rise steadily, reaching some 50 million towards 1000 BC, the Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and their contemporary Kings of Babylon, of Amorite origin, brought good governance without much tyranny, and favoured elegant art and architecture. Farther east, the Indus Valley civilization was in a period of decline, possibly as a result of intense, Egypt and Babylonias military tactics were still based on foot soldiers transporting their equipment on donkeys. Combined with an economy and difficulty in maintaining order, this was a fragile situation that crumbled under the pressure of external forces they could not oppose. About a century before the middle of the millennium, bands of Indo-European invaders came from the Central Asian plains and swept through Western Asia and they were riding fast two-wheeled chariots powered by horses, a system of weaponry developed earlier in the context of plains warfare. This tool of war was unknown among the classical civilizations, Egypt and Babylonias foot soldiers were unable to defend against the invaders, in 1630 BC, the Hyksos swept into the Nile Delta, and in 1595 BC, the Hittites swept into Mesopotamia. The peoples in place were quick to adapt to the new tactics, among the great states of the time, only Babylon refrained from taking part in battles, mainly due to its new position as the worlds religious and intellectual capital. Also contributing to the changes were the Sea Peoples, ship-faring raiders of the Mediterranean, the civilizations, kingdoms and dynasties in this section are organized according to the United Nations geoscheme The events in this section are organized according to the United Nations geoscheme. It is difficult to pinpoint the year or even the correct century for many events of the 2nd Millennium BC. c.1700 BC–1300 BC—Palace complex in Knossos. C.1600 BC–1360 BC Egyptian domination over Canaan and Syria, in the history of the Egyptian language, the early 2nd millennium saw a transition from Old Egyptian to Middle Egyptian. As the most used form of the Ancient Egyptian language. The earliest attested Indo-European language, the Hittite language, first appears in cuneiform in the 16th century BC, Hittite is the best known and the most studied language of the extinct Anatolian branch of Indo-European languages. The first Northwest Semitic language, Ugaritic, is attested in the 14th century BC, the first fully phonemic script Proto-Canaanite developed from Egyptian hieroglyphs, becoming the Phoenician alphabet by 1200 BC. Mycenaean Greek, the most ancient attested form of the Greek language, was used on the Greek mainland, Crete, the people in this section are organized according to the United Nations geoscheme The Canadian–American speculative fiction author S. M. Stirling has written a set in Bronze Age era, circa the 1250s BC
22.
Polynesians
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The Polynesian people consist of various ethnic Austronesian groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages, and inhabit Polynesia. The native Polynesian people of New Zealand and Hawaii are minorities in their homelands, Polynesians, including Samoans, Tongans, Niueans, Cook Islands Māori, Tahitian Māohi, Hawaiian Māoli, Marquesans and New Zealand Māori, are a subset of the Austronesian peoples. They share the same origins as the peoples of maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar. This is supported by genetic, linguistic, and archaeological evidence, the origins of the Polynesian people are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago. These are outlined well by Kayser et al, however, Soares et al. have argued for an older pre-Holocene Sundaland origin within Island Southeast Asia based on mitochondrial DNA. Paternal Y chromosome analysis by Kayser et al. also showed that Polynesians have significant Melanesian genetic admixture. However, a study by Kayser et al. discovered that only 21% of the Polynesian autosomal gene pool is of Melanesian origin. Another study by Friedlaender et al. also confirmed that Polynesians are closer genetically to Micronesians, Taiwanese Aborigines, the study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia fairly rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians. Thus the high frequencies of mtDNA B4a1a1 in the Polynesians are the result of drift, the Polynesian population experienced a population bottleneck and genetic drift. DNA analysis of modern Polynesians indicates that there has been intermarriage that results in a mixed Asian-Papuan ancestry of the Polynesians. The preliminary analysis of skulls found at the Teouma and Talasiu Lapita sites is that the skulls lacks Australian or Papuan affinities, there is an estimated 2 million ethnic Polynesians and their descendants worldwide, majority of which live in Polynesia, United States, Australia and New Zealand
23.
Outrigger canoe
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The outrigger canoe is a type of canoe featuring one or more lateral support floats known as outriggers, which are fastened to one or both sides of the main hull. Smaller canoes often employ a single outrigger on the side, while larger canoes may employ a single-outrigger, double-outrigger. The sailing canoes are an important part of the Polynesian heritage and are raced and sailed in Hawaii, Tahiti, Samoa and they are also very popular in Puerto Rico. Unlike a single-hulled canoe, an outrigger or double-hull canoe generates stability as a result of the distance between its hulls rather than due to the shape of individual hull. As such, the hulls of outrigger or double-hull canoes are typically longer, narrower, compared to other types of canoes, outrigger canoes can be quite fast, yet are also capable of being paddled and sailed in rougher water. This paddling technique, however, differs greatly from kayaking or rowing, the paddle, or blade, used by the paddler is single sided, with either a straight or a double-bend shaft. Despite the single paddle, an experienced paddler will only paddle on one side, using a technique such as a J-stroke to maintain heading, the outrigger float is called the ama in many Polynesian and Micronesian languages. The spars connecting the ama to the hull are called ʻiako in Hawaiian and kiato in Māori, in Micronesian languages. Outrigger canoes were developed by the Austronesian-speaking peoples of the islands of Southeast Asia for sea travel. They were used to transport these peoples both eastward to Polynesia and New Zealand and westward across the Indian Ocean as far as Madagascar during the Austronesian migration period. While today they can be found in East Africa, the Austronesian peoples continue to be the users of the outrigger canoes. The ethnological significance of this spread has been studied by James Hornell, when Magellans ships first encountered the Chamorros of the Mariana Islands in 1521, Antonio Pigafetta recorded that the Chamorros sailboats far surpassed Magellans in speed and maneuverability. The Hikianalia and Alingano Maisu are other extant double-hulled voyaging canoes, the technology has persisted into the modern age. Outrigger canoes can be quite large fishing or transport vessels, in the Philippines, outrigger canoes are often fitted with petrol engines. A variety of boat types exist, including the OC1, OC2, OC3, OC4 and OC6, outriggers without a rudder are referred to as V1, V2, etc. Single-hull outrigger canoes have an ama connected to the hull by spars called ʻiako, ʻiato. The ama, which is rigged on the left side. The paddlers need to be careful to avoid leaning too far on the side of the ama
24.
Polynesian navigation
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Traditional Polynesian navigation was used for thousands of years to make long voyages across thousands of miles of the open Pacific Ocean. Navigators travelled to small inhabited islands using wayfinding techniques and knowledge passed by oral tradition from master to apprentice, generally each island maintained a guild of navigators who had very high status, in times of famine or difficulty they could trade for aid or evacuate people to neighboring islands. As of 2014, these traditional methods are still taught in the Polynesian outlier of Taumako Island in the Solomons. Polynesian navigation used some instruments, which predate and are distinct from the machined metal tools used by European navigators. However, they relied heavily on close observation of sea sign. Both wayfinding techniques and outrigger canoe construction methods have been kept as guild secrets, in the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with a degree of certainty. This culture, known as Lapita, stands out in the Melanesian archeological record, particularly characteristic of the Lapita culture is the making of pottery, including a great many vessels of varied shapes, some distinguished by fine patterns and motifs pressed into the clay. Within a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita culture spread 6000 km further to the east from the Bismarck Archipelago, until it reached as far as Tonga, in this region, the distinctive Polynesian culture developed. The Polynesians are then believed to have spread eastward from the Samoan Islands into the Marquesas, the Society Islands, the Hawaiian Islands and Easter Island, there are numerous traditional Polynesian devices used for navigating and/or teaching navigation. These include charts, spatial representations of islands and the conditions around them and they also include non-physical devices such as songs and stories for memorizing the properties of stars, islands, and navigational routes. Harold Gatty suggested that long-distance Polynesian voyaging followed the paths of bird migrations. There are some references in their traditions to the flight of birds. It is also believed that Polynesians employed shore-sighting birds as did many seafaring peoples, one theory is that they would have taken a frigatebird with them. These birds refuse to land on the water as their feathers will become waterlogged making it impossible to fly, when the voyagers thought they were close to land they may have released the bird, which would either fly towards land or else return to the canoe. For navigators near the celestial navigation is simplified since the whole celestial sphere is exposed. Any star that passes the zenith is on the celestial equator, each star has a specific declination, and when they rise or set, they give a bearing for navigation. Stars are learned by compass point, making a star compass, for example, in the Caroline Islands Mau Piailug taught natural navigation using a star compass. The development of sidereal compasses has been studied and theorized to have developed from an ancient pelorus, the Polynesians also took measurements of stellar elevation to determine their latitude
25.
Tamils
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Tamil people with a population of approximately 76 million living around the world are one of the largest and oldest of the existing ethno-linguistic cultural groups of people in the modern world. Tamils comprise 24. 87% of the population in Sri Lanka,5. 91% in India,10. 83% in Mauritius, 5% in Singapore, among languages spoken today, the Tamil language is the oldest written language. Between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century AD, Tamil people produced native literature that came to be called Sangam literature, Tamils were noted for their martial, religious and mercantile activities beyond their native borders. Pandyas and Cholas were historically active in Sri Lanka, the Chola dynasty successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Southern Thailand and Indonesia. Medieval Tamil guilds and trading organizations like the Ayyavole and Manigramam played an important role in the Southeast Asia trade, Pallava traders and religious leaders travelled to Southeast Asia and played an important role in the cultural Indianisation of the region. Locally developed scripts such as Grantha and Pallava script induced the development of many scripts such as Khmer, Javanese Kawi script, Baybayin. Tamil visual art is dominated by stylised Temple architecture in major centres, Chola bronzes, especially the Nataraja sculpture of the Chola period, have become notable as a symbol of Hinduism. Tamil performing arts are divided into popular and classical, classical form is Bharatanatyam, whereas the popular forms are known as Koothu and performed in village temples and on street corners. Tamil cinema, known as Kollywood, is an important part of the Indian cinema industry, music too is divided into classical Carnatic form and many popular genres. Although most Tamils are Hindus, most practice what is considered to be folk Hinduism, a sizeable number are Christians and Muslims. A small Jain community survives from the period as well. Tamil cuisine is informed by varied vegetarian and non-vegetarian items usually spiced with locally available spices, the music, the temple architecture and the stylised sculptures favoured by the Tamil people as in their ancient nation are still being learnt and practised. It is unknown as to whether the term Thamizhar and its equivalents in Prakrit such as Damela, Dameda, the well-known Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga ruler Kharavela refers to a Tmira samghata dated to 150 BC. It also mentions that the league of Tamil kingdoms had been in existence 113 years before then, in Amaravati in present-day Andhra Pradesh there is an inscription referring to a Dhamila-vaniya datable to the 3rd century AD. Another inscription of about the time in Nagarjunakonda seems to refer to a Damila. A third inscription in Kanheri Caves refers to a Dhamila-gharini, in the Buddhist Jataka story known as Akiti Jataka there is a mention to Damila-rattha. There were trade relationship between the Roman Empire and Pandyan Empire, as recorded by Strabo, Emperor Augustus of Rome received at Antioch an ambassador from a king called Pandyan of Dramira. Hence, it is clear that by at least 300 BC, Thamizhar is etymologically related to Tamil, the language spoken by Tamil people
26.
Tamil Nadu
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Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai, Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The state shares a border with the nation of Sri Lanka. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh-largest state in India by area and the sixth-most populous, the state was ranked sixth among states in India according to the Human Development Index in 2011, with the second-largest state economy after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy in India with ₹13,842 billion in gross domestic product after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu was ranked as one of the top seven developed states in India based on a Multidimensional Development Index in a 2013 report published by the Reserve Bank of India and its official language is Tamil, which is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world. Tamil Nadu is home to natural resources. In addition, its people have developed and continue classical arts, classical music, historic buildings and religious sites include Hindu temples of Tamil architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites, and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in the Indian peninsula, the ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is very rudimentary Tamil Brahmi. Adichanallur has been announced as a site for further excavation. About 60 per cent of the epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu. A Neolithic stone celt with the Indus script on it was discovered at Sembian-Kandiyur near Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu, according to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, this was the first datable artefact bearing the Indus script to be found in Tamil Nadu. Mahadevan claimed that the find was evidence of the use of the Harappan language, the date of the celt was estimated at between 1500 BCE and 2000 BCE. The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil literary sources known as Sangam literature, numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BC to AD300. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu, the Chera ruled the whole of present-day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur. The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur, All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads, Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a description of the Tamil country, besides these three dynasties, the Sangam era Tamilakam was also divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning country
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South India
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The region occupies 19. 31% of Indias land area. Covering the southern part of the peninsular Deccan Plateau, South India is bounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean in the south. The geography of the region is diverse, with two ranges, the Western and Eastern Ghats, bordering the plateau heartland. The Godavari River, Krishna River, Kaveri, Tungabhadra and Vaigai rivers are important non-perennial sources of water, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Coimbatore and Kochi are the largest urban areas. Majority of the people in South India speak one of the four major Dravidian languages, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. During its history, a number of kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history. Major dynasties that were established in South India include the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, Pallavas, Satavahanas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, european countries entered India through Kerala and the region was colonised by Britain and other nations. HDI in the states is high and the economy has undergone growth at a faster rate than most northern states. Literacy rates in the states are higher than the national average with approximately 80% of the population capable of reading and writing. The fertility rate in South India is 1.9, the lowest of all regions in India, South India also known as Peninsular India has been known by several other names. Carnatic derived from Karnād or Karunād meaning high country has also associated with South India. Carbon dating on ash mounds associated with Neolithic cultures in South India date back to 8000 BCE, artefacts such as ground stone axes, and minor copper objects have been found in the region. Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE, iron technology spread through the region, however, the region was in the middle of a trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu linking the Mediterranean and East Asia. Trade with Phoenicians, Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, Jews, the region was part of the ancient Silk Road connecting the Asian continent in the East and the West. C. to 14th century A. D. The Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 14th century A. D. was the last Indian dynasty that ruled over the region. The Europeans arrived in the 15th century and by the middle of the 18th century, the French, the British Empire took control of the region from the British East India Company in 1857. During the British colonial rule, the region was divided into the Madras Presidency, Hyderabad state, Mysore, Travancore, Kochi, Vizianagaram and a number of other minor princely states. After the independence of India in 1947, the region was organised into four states, Madras State, Mysore State, Hyderabad State and Travancore-Cochin
28.
Privateer
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A privateer was a private person or ship that engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, a percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission. Since robbery under arms was common to trade, all merchant ships were already armed. During war, naval resources were auxiliary to operations on land so privateering was a way of subsidizing state power by mobilizing armed ships, the letter of marque of a privateer would typically limit activity to one particular ship, and specified officers. Typically, the owners or captain would be required to post a performance bond, in the United Kingdom, letters of marque were revoked for various offences. Some crews were treated as harshly as naval crews of the time, some crews were made up of professional merchant seamen, others of pirates, debtors, and convicts. Some privateers ended up becoming pirates, not just in the eyes of their enemies, william Kidd, for instance, began as a legitimate British privateer but was later hanged for piracy. The investors would arm the vessels and recruit large crews, much larger than a merchantman or a vessel would carry. Privateers generally cruised independently, but it was not unknown for them to form squadrons, a number of privateers were part of the English fleet that opposed the Spanish Armada in 1588. Privateers generally avoided encounters with warships, as such encounters would be at best unprofitable, for instance, in 1815 Chasseur encountered HMS St Lawrence, herself a former American privateer, mistaking her for a merchantman until too late, in this instance, however, the privateer prevailed. The United States used mixed squadrons of frigates and privateers in the American Revolutionary War, the practice dated to at least the 13th century but the word itself was coined sometime in the mid-17th century. England, and later the United Kingdom, used privateers to great effect and these privately owned merchant ships, licensed by the crown, could legitimately take vessels that were deemed pirates. The increase in competition for crews on armed merchant vessels and privateers was due, in a large part, because of the chance for a considerable payoff. Whereas a seaman who shipped on a vessel was paid a wage and provided with victuals. This proved to be a far more attractive prospect and privateering flourished as a result, during Queen Elizabeths reign, she encouraged the development of this supplementary navy. Over the course of her rule, she had allowed Anglo-Spanish relations to deteriorate to the point where one could argue that a war with the Spanish was inevitable. By using privateers, if the Spanish were to take offense at the plundering of their ships, some of the most famous privateers that later fought in the Anglo-Spanish War included the Sea Dogs. In the late 16th century, English ships cruised in the Caribbean and off the coast of Spain, at this early stage the idea of a regular navy was not present, so there is little to distinguish the activity of English privateers from regular naval warfare
29.
William Dampier
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William Dampier was an English explorer and navigator who became the first Englishman to explore parts of what is today Australia, and the first person to circumnavigate the world three times. He has also described as Australias first natural historian, as well as one of the most important British explorers of the period between Sir Walter Raleigh and James Cook. On a later voyage he rescued Alexander Selkirk, a former crewmate who may have inspired Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe, others influenced by Dampier include James Cook, Horatio Nelson, Charles Darwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace. William Dampier was born at Hymerford House in East Coker, Somerset and he was baptised on 5 September, but his precise date of birth is not recorded. He was educated at Kings School, Bruton, Dampier sailed on two merchant voyages to Newfoundland and Java before joining the Royal Navy in 1673. He took part in the two Battles of Schooneveld in June of that year, Dampiers service was cut short by a catastrophic illness, and he returned to England for several months of recuperation. For the next years he tried his hand at various careers, including plantation management in Jamaica and logging in Mexico. Returning to England, he married Judith around 1679, only to leave for the sea a few months later. This led to his first circumnavigation, during which he accompanied a raid across the Isthmus of Darién in Panama, the pirates then raided Spanish settlements in Peru before returning to the Caribbean. Dampier made his way to Virginia, where in 1683 he was engaged by the privateer John Cooke, Cooke entered the Pacific via Cape Horn and spent a year raiding Spanish possessions in Peru, the Galápagos Islands, and Mexico. This expedition collected buccaneers and ships as it went along, at one time having a fleet of ten vessels, Cooke died in Mexico, and a new leader, Edward Davis, was elected captain by the crew. Dampier transferred to the privateer Charles Swans ship, Cygnet, and on 31 March 1686 they set out across the Pacific to raid the East Indies, calling at Guam, Spanish witnesses saw the predominantly English crew as not only pirates and heretics but also cannibals. Leaving Swan and 36 others behind on Mindanao, the rest of the privateers sailed on to Manila, Poulo Condor, China, the Spice Islands, and New Holland. On 5 January 1688, Cygnet anchored two miles from shore in 29 fathoms on the northwest coast of Australia, near King Sound. Dampier and his ship remained there until March 12, and while the ship was being careened Dampier made notes on the fauna and flora, among his fellows were a significant number of Spanish sailors, most notably Alonso Ramírez, a native of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Later that year, by agreement, Dampier and two shipmates were marooned on one of the Nicobar Islands and they obtained a small canoe which they modified after first capsizing and then, after surviving a great storm at sea, called at Acheen in Sumatra. Dampier returned to England in 1691 via the Cape of Good Hope, penniless and he also had as a source of income a slave known as Prince Jeoly, from Miangas, who became famous for his tattoos. Dampier exhibited Jeoly in London, thereby also generating publicity for a book based on his diaries, the publication of the book, A New Voyage Round the World, in 1697 was a popular sensation, creating interest at the Admiralty
30.
Malabar Coast
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The Malabar Coast is a long and narrow coastline on the south-western shore line of the mainland Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, the term Malabar Coast is also sometimes used to refer to the entire Indian coast from the western coast of Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Kanyakumari. The coast runs south of Goa to Kanyakumari on Indias southern tip. Indias southeastern coast is called the Coromandel Coast, the Malabar Coast is also sometimes used as an all-encompassing term for the entire Indian coast from Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Kanyakumari. It is flanked by the Arabian Sea on the west and the Western Ghats on the east, the southern part of this narrow coast is referred to as the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests. The Malabar Coast, throughout recorded history from about 3000 BC, had been a trading center in commerce with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Jerusalem. Its most famous ports were Naura, Balita, Kochi, Calicut, and Mangalore, the Oddeway Torre settlement, which have served as centers of the Indian Ocean trade, for centuries. During Ming Chinas treasure voyages in the early 15th century, Admiral Zheng Hes fleet often landed at the Malabar Coast, Malabar Portuguese Empire Portuguese India Dutch Malabar Coromandel Coast
31.
Early modern Europe
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Early modern Europe is the period of European history between the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, roughly the late 15th century to the late 18th century. The early modern period was characterized by changes in many realms of human endeavor. Capitalist economies began to develop in a nascent form, first in the northern Italian republics such as Genoa and Venice and in the cities of the Low Countries, later in France, Germany and England. The early modern period saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of mercantilism. As such, the modern period is often associated with the decline and eventual disappearance of feudalism. The Protestant Reformation greatly altered the balance of Christendom, creating a formidable new opposition to the dominance of the Catholic Church. The early modern period also witnessed the circumnavigation of the Earth, the beginning of the early modern period is not clear-cut, but is generally accepted to be in the late 15th century or early 16th century. Movable type, which allowed characters to be arranged to form words. 1453 The conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans signalled the end of the Byzantine empire,1494 French king Charles VIII invaded Italy, drastically altering the status quo and beginning a series of wars which would punctuate the Italian Renaissance. 1513 First formulation of modern politics with the publication of Machiavellis The Prince,1517 The Reformation begins with Martin Luther nailing his ninety-five theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg, Germany. 1526 Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor gains the crowns of Bohemia,1545 The Council of Trent marks the end of the medieval Roman Catholic Church. The role of nobles in the Feudal System had yielded to the notion of the Divine Right of Kings during the Middle Ages, among the most notable political changes included the abolition of serfdom and the crystallization of kingdoms into nation-states. Perhaps even more significantly, with the advent of the Reformation, many kings and rulers used this radical shift in the understanding of the world to further consolidate their sovereignty over their territories. For instance, many of the Germanic states converted to Protestantism in an attempt to out of the grasp of the Pope. The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century movement to reform the Catholic Church in Europe, in November he mailed them to various religious authorities of the day. The Reformation ended in division and the establishment of new church movements, the four most important traditions to emerge directly from the Reformation were Lutheranism, the Reformed tradition, Anglicanism, and the Anabaptists. Subsequent Protestant churches generally trace their roots back to these four schools of the Reformation. This period refers to England 1558–1603, the Elizabethan Era is the period associated with the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and is often considered a golden age in English history
32.
William Petty
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Sir William Petty FRS was an English economist, scientist and philosopher. He first became prominent serving Oliver Cromwell and Commonwealth in Ireland and he developed efficient methods to survey the land that was to be confiscated and given to Cromwells soldiers. He also managed to remain prominent under King Charles II and King James II and he was Member of the Parliament of England briefly and was also a scientist, inventor, and entrepreneur, and was a charter member of the Royal Society. He was the great-grandfather of Prime Minister William Petty Fitzmaurice, 2nd Earl of Shelburne, Petty was a founder member of The Royal Society. He was born and buried in Romsey, and was a friend of Samuel Pepys, Petty is best known for economic history and statistic writings, pre-Adam Smith. Of particular interest were Pettys forays into statistical analysis, Pettys work in political arithmetic, along with the work of John Graunt, laid the foundation for modern census techniques. Moreover, this work in analysis, when further expanded by writers like Josiah Child documented some of the first expositions of modern insurance. Vernon Louis Parrington notes him as an expositor of the labour theory of value as discussed in Treatise of Taxes in 1692. In 1858 Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne, one of Pettys descendants erected a memorial and his grave slab on the floor of the south choir aisle reads HERE LAYES SIR WILLIAM PETY. Pettys father and grandfather were clothiers and he was a precocious and intelligent youngster, and became a cabin boy in 1637, but was set ashore in Normandy after breaking his leg on board. After this setback, he applied in Latin to study with the Jesuits in Caen, after a year, he returned to England, and had by now a thorough knowledge of Latin, Greek, French, mathematics, and astronomy. After an uneventful period in the Navy, he left to study in Holland in 1643, through an English professor in Amsterdam, he became the personal secretary to Hobbes allowing him contact with Descartes, Gassendi and Mersenne. In 1646, he returned to England and, after developing an instrument with little success in sales. He befriended Hartlib and Boyle, and he became a member of the Oxford Philosophical Club, by 1651, Petty was an anatomy instructor at Brasenose College, Oxford, as deputy to Thomas Clayton the younger. He was also Gresham Professor of Music in London, in 1652, he left on a leave of absence and travelled with Oliver Cromwells army in Ireland, as physician-general. His opposition to conventional universities, being committed to new science as inspired by Francis Bacon and imparted by his afore-mentioned acquaintances and he was pulled to Ireland perhaps by sense of ambition and desire for wealth and power. This enormous task he completed in 1656 and became known as the Down Survey, as his reward, he acquired approximately 30,000 acres in Kenmare, in southwest Ireland, and £9000. This personal gain to Petty led to persistent court cases on charges of bribery and breach of trust, back in England, as a Cromwellian supporter, he ran successfully for Parliament in 1659 for West Looe
33.
Yangon
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Yangon is a former capital of Myanmar and the capital of Yangon Region. Although Yangons infrastructure is undeveloped compared to that of major cities in southeast Asia. Yangon is a combination of the two words yan and koun, which enemies and run out of, respectively. It is also translated as End of Strife, Rangoon most likely comes from the British imitation of the pronunciation of Yangon in the Arakanese language, which is. Yangon was founded as Dagon in the early 11th century by the Mon, Dagon was a small fishing village centred about the Shwedagon Pagoda. In 1755, King Alaungpaya conquered Dagon, renamed it Yangon, the British captured Yangon during the First Anglo-Burmese War, but returned it to Burmese administration after the war. The city was destroyed by a fire in 1841, the British seized Yangon and all of Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, and subsequently transformed Yangon into the commercial and political hub of British Burma. Yangon is also the place where the British sent Bahadur Shah II, Yangon became the capital of all British Burma after the British had captured Upper Burma in the Third Anglo-Burmese War of 1885. By the 1890s Yangons increasing population and commerce gave birth to prosperous residential suburbs to the north of Royal Lake, the British also established hospitals including Rangoon General Hospital and colleges including Rangoon University. Colonial Yangon, with its spacious parks and lakes and mix of modern buildings, by the early 20th century, Yangon had public services and infrastructure on par with London. Before World War II, about 55% of Yangons population of 500,000 was Indian or South Asian, karens, the Chinese, the Anglo-Burmese and others made up the rest. After World War I, Yangon became the epicentre of Burmese independence movement, three nationwide strikes against the British Empire in 1920,1936 and 1938 all began in Yangon. Yangon was under Japanese occupation, and incurred heavy damage during World War II, the city was retaken by the Allies in May 1945. Yangon became the capital of Union of Burma on 4 January 1948 when the country regained independence from the British Empire, soon after Burmas independence in 1948, many colonial names of streets and parks were changed to more nationalistic Burmese names. In 1989, the current military junta changed the citys English name to Yangon, since independence, Yangon has expanded outwards. Successive governments have built satellite towns such as Thaketa, North Okkalapa and South Okkalapa in the 1950s to Hlaingthaya, Shwepyitha, today, Greater Yangon encompasses an area covering nearly 600 square kilometres. During Ne Wins isolationist rule, Yangons infrastructure deteriorated through poor maintenance, in the 1990s, the current military governments more open market policies attracted domestic and foreign investment, bringing a modicum of modernity to the citys infrastructure. Some inner city residents were relocated to new satellite towns
34.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
35.
Canvey Island
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Canvey Island is a civil parish and reclaimed island in the Thames estuary in Essex, England. It has an area of 7.12 square miles and a population of 38,170 and it is separated from the mainland of south Essex by a network of creeks. Lying only just above sea level it is prone to flooding at exceptional tides, the island was mainly agricultural land until the 20th century when it became the fastest growing seaside resort in Britain between 1911 and 1951. The North Sea flood of 1953 devastated the island, killing 58 islanders, Canvey is consequently protected by modern sea defences comprising 2 miles of concrete sea walls. Canvey is also notable for its relationship to the petrochemical industry, excavations on Canvey have unearthed a collection of early man-made objects comprising axes from the Neolithic era, a bracelet dating from the Bronze Age, and Iron Age pottery. However, the remains of Roman structures and objects suggests the first settlement of Canvey occurred between 50 and 250 AD, the remains point to a community existing with a farmstead, a garrison, a burial ground, and the operation of a large salt-making industry. In 1607 the Elizabethan antiquarian William Camden noted in his work Britannia that Canvey Island was documented in the 2nd century by the Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy, in his work Geographia Ptolemy mentions a headland in the mouth of the Thames to the east of the Trinovantes region called Counus Island. MacBean and Johnson, 18th century historians contend Counus Island would have existed much further out to sea, the settlement and agricultural development of Essex by the Saxons from the 5th century saw the introduction of sheep-farming which would dominate the islands industry until the 20th century. Apart from the meat and wool produced from the sheep, the milk from the ewes was used for cheese-making, the abundance in later centuries would see the cheeses become a commodity taken for sale at the London markets, and at one stage exported via Calais to the continent. The existence of place names on modern Canvey using the wick suffix shows the influence of the early Saxon culture. Yearsley states the island has its name derived from the Anglo-Saxon Caningaege, the developments of the English language would lead to the more familiar name of Caneveye written in manorial records of 1254. The period of development often produced a confused use of such that comparative spellings would also include Canefe. By the 12th century, Essex and subsequently Canvey were in the possession of Henry de Essex who inherited the land from his grandfather, Swein, during the reign of Henry II the land was confiscated from de Essex and redistributed among the Kings favoured nobles. Two Tree Island to the north is also recognisable, if halved in length, Canas People were descendants of both Cantiaci and the Catuvellauni. If a boundary point, Counus would then be in tribal terms placed at the border of the Trinovantes on the eastern extent of the loose tribes also seen as the Tames. William Camden wrote of the island in 1607 that it was so low that it was often flooded, except the hills. In 1622, Sir Henry Appleton, and Canveys other landowners instigated a project to reclaim the land, the scheme was managed by an acquaintance of Appletons – Joas Croppenburg, a Dutch Haberdasher of Cheapside in London. An agreement was reached in 1623 which stipulated that in return for inning and recovering the island, a broad drainage ditch was dug inland off the area facing the river while smaller inlets were filled in
36.
National Maritime Museum Cornwall
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The National Maritime Museum Cornwall is located in a harbourside building at Falmouth in Cornwall. The building was designed by architect M. J. Long, following an architectural design competition managed by RIBA Competitions. It is an independent charitable trust and, unlike other national museums and its mission is to promote an understanding of boats and their place in peoples lives, and of the maritime heritage of Cornwall. It does this by presenting the story of the sea, boats, the museum is the countrys premier museum for boats and maintains a national register of small boats and invites owners of historic craft to register them. Three galleries are devoted to the history of Cornwall. These cover topics such as Cornish fishing, trading, boatbuilding, wrecks, the museum has a waterside café overlooking the harbour, a shop, space for temporary exhibitions, and the Sunley Lecture Theatre. The Bartlett Library is the centre of the research and provides answers on maritime matters for specialists. As well as holding many of the original port records for Falmouth, it has over 16,000 books and a very large number of magazines, cuttings and illustrations
37.
Surfboard
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A surfboard is an elongated platform used in the sport of surfing. Surfboards are relatively light, but are enough to support an individual standing on them while riding a Ocean surface wave breaking wave. Major advances over the years include the addition of one or more fins on the rear of the board to improve directional stability. Modern surfboards are made of polyurethane or polystyrene foam covered with layers of fiberglass cloth, the result is a light and strong surfboard that is buoyant and maneuverable. Recent developments in technology have included the use of carbon fiber. Each year, approximately 400,000 surfboards are manufactured, the surface of the board that rests on the water, usually concave but sometimes convex. Modern surfboards often contain multiple contours on the bottom of the board and these concaves have different uses and vary among different types of surfboards. Most concaves on the modern shortboard begin about twelve inches back from the nose of the board on the bottom, the purpose of concave is to direct water through the fins of the surfboard. Surfboard shapers sometimes experiment with concaves to create different drive and response characteristics on each individual surfboard, some older and more traditional surfboards along with many modern boards that take inspiration from these older boards utilize a convex rather than concave design on the bottom of the surfboard. These boards displace more water and sit lower in the wave than a surfboard with a concave bottom, the deck is the surface of the board that the surfer stands on. Surfwax is applied to this surface, wax comes in different degrees of hardness allowing its application in differing water temperatures. The surfboard fin is a stabilizing rudder fixed to the rear of the surfboard to prevent it from sliding sideways. In the early days, surfers would stabilize the board by hanging the toes of their foot over the edge of the board. The American surfer Tom Blake was the first to experiment with adding a fin to a surfboard, fastening the keel from an old speedboat to a surfboard in 1935. About one or two later, Woody Spider Brown independently developed a similar design, but Brown himself gave Blake precedence, about 36 or 37, somewhere in there. But, I didnt know anything about and his experiments with adding fins to surfboards, see, we were all separated out. I was in San Diego and he was in L. A. way up there and this innovation revolutionized surfing, allowing surfers to direct the boards momentum and providing more balance when turning. The template of the surfboard fin was developed by George Greenough in the 1960s
38.
Hobart Alter
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Hobart Hobie Alter was a surf and sailing entrepreneur and pioneer, creator of the Hobie Cat catamarans, and founder of the Hobie company. Hobie Alter will be remembered for creating the process of the foam-and-fiberglass surfboard & his subsequent creation of the Hobie Cat catamaran sailing boat line and his label, Hobie, remains one of the top-selling surfboard brands of all time. He is also the creator of the Hobie 33 ultralight-displacement sailboat and a mass-produced radio-controlled glider, during summer vacation 1950 Hobie hit on an idea. Hobie began by building 9-foot balsawood sufboards for his friends and he asked his dad to pull the Desoto out of the familys Laguna Beach, California garage, and converted it into a wood shop for his hobby. By “Making people a toy and giving them a game to play with it”, a couple of years later, Hobie opened up Southern Californias first surf shop in Dana Point, California. 1958 Hobie and Gordon Grubby Clark began experiments making surfboards out of foam, the new boards were lighter, faster and more responsive than wooden ones. Several famous surfers surfed for the Hobie Team, including Joey Cabell, Phil Edwards, Corky Carroll, Gary Propper, Mickey Munoz, Joyce Hoffman and Yancy Spencer. Hobie was born and raised in Ontario, California, but his family had a house in Laguna Beach. Initiated into surfing by Walter Hoffman, he started shaping balsa boards in the early 1950s, in February 1954, with the first stage of the shop completed, Hobie Surfboards opened its doors after a total investment of $12,000. People laughed at me for setting up a shop, Hobie remembers. They said that once Id sold a surfboard to each of the 250 surfers on the coast, but the orders just kept coming. Alter began making skateboards in 1962 and by 1964 he teamed up with the Vita Pakt juice company to create Hobie Skateboards, Alter went on to sponsor the Hobie Super Surfer skateboard team. Alter hired other board-builders, including Phil Edwards and Reynolds Yater, with the introduction of foam-and-fiberglass technology, Alter brought Joe Quigg over from Hawaii to help keep up with demand. Then came the high-volume production shapers like Ralph Parker and Terry Martin, other Hobie shapers included Dewey Weber, Mickey Munoz, Corky Carroll, Don Hansen. Bruce Jones and the Patterson brothers, after experimenting with foam for a couple of years, Hobie made a breakthrough in 1958, finally achieving the right skin hardness for shapeability with the right core density for strength. He decided to set up a separate foam-blowing operation in nearby Laguna Canyon and recruited one of his glassers, Gordon Grubby Clark, almost immediately, Gidget was released, and surfing boomed. If that movie had come out in the era, said Alter. The new foam boards were called Speedo Sponges and Flexi-Fliers, Clark eventually took over the foam operation, renaming it Clark Foam, and he serviced the lions share of the worlds surfboard blank market until abruptly shutting down the company in 2005
39.
Hobie Cat
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The Hobie Cat is a small sailing catamaran manufactured by the Hobie Cat Company. Hobies line of ranges from surfboards to catamaran sailboats to kayaks and stand-up paddle boards. Hobie also designed a very successful monohull, the Hobie 33, the company founder, Hobart Alter, began as a surfboard manufacturer in the late 1950s. According to another source, Alters focus changed in 1961 to designing an easily beached fibreglass catamaran. The impetus of this shift is attributed to a 1961 boat show in Anaheim, CA which placed Alter in a booth selling surfboards, next to Art Javes and that sailboat featured lightweight fibreglass hulls with an aluminium tube structure supporting a trampoline style deck for seating. The AQUA CAT catamaran did well in water, but relied on dagger boards to reduce slippage sidewise under sail. Dagger boards were used by the much heavier Pacific Cat from 1960. That design featured a solid fibreglass deck on a 19 x 8 boat, following the 1961 boat show, Alter contacted Arthur Art Javes, designer of the AQUA CAT to tell him he was also entering the fledgling catamaran market. This design was more readily beached than the AQUA CAT or Pacific Cat, from 1967 on, the new Hobie Cat Company went on to become the largest manufacturer of small catamarans in the world. In 1967, Alter designed the Hobie 14 Catamaran, Alter wanted to make a boat that could be easily launched into the surf. In 1969, Hobie released the Hobie 16, the most popular catamaran ever, over 135,000 Hobie 16 Cats are sailing around the world. Different catamaran models range from 10 feet in length to 21 feet, age target was 12 to 14 years. Double trapeze and spinnaker option to introduce sailors to high performance. Length,1210, Beam,71, Mast Length,21, Sail Area,118 sq ft. Main plus Jib, the Hobie 14 was the original catamaran designed by Hobie Alter. The general shape and design of the boat is similar to the later Hobie 16. They share many of the same parts, the 14 was originally designed to be sailed as a unirig with just a main sail. It is possible to convert a standard 14 into a Hobie 14 Turbo, also known as the JT14, or H14T by adding a jib, trapeze and dolphin striker. No longer manufactured by Hobie North America, the Hobie 14 is still produced in limited numbers by Hobie Europe, the Hobie 14 is known for its forward mast and very bent banana shaped hull
40.
Hobie 16
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The ISAF International Class Hobie 16 is a popular catamaran manufactured by the Hobie Cat Company for racing and day sailing. The craft was the force behind the popularization of beachcats and was recently inducted into the Sailing Hall Of Fame. Introduced in 1971, the Hobie 16 is the second largest boat fleet in existence with over 135,000 boats built to date. The boat is distinctly recognized for its banana shaped hulls. The rudders kick up automatically by lifting up on the tiller crossbar, the Hobie 16 is manufactured in France by the Hobie Cat company, and by the Hobie Cat of America company in the United States. Historically the French boats are preferred as they are perceived to be built to tighter tolerances, the Hobie 16 normally carries two sails, the mainsail and the jib. There is a kit to allow an H16 to fly a spinnaker, each hull has two pylons and the frame fits onto these pylons. The frame consists of four aluminium alloy beams which slot into four aluminium alloy castings and are secured with rivets. The trampoline slots along the inside of the beams and is tensioned by rope or shock cord, racers commonly epoxy the beams into the castings to boost rigidity because the flexing of the boat as it rides over waves saps power. Equally, the joints may be packed with aluminium sheet cut from drink cans, the mast foot casting forms a ball which steps into a cup-shaped shoe riveted onto the forward crossmember and there is a Teflon disk separating the two. The downward compressive force from the mast is partially carried by the crossmember and partially by a stainless steel compression post, the Hobie 16 is noted for its particularly robust construction. The H16 may be equipped with two trapeze wires either side to both the helm and crew to trapeze. Cat seats can be fitted to allow disabled sailors to sail the H16 without too much penalty, the rudder assembly consists of a rudder on each hull fitted to a Hobie-patented automatically releasing stock comprising a casting, a cam, and a spring-loaded plunger. This allows the rudders to spring up when they hit ground, the system can be troublesome until the correct tension is set on the spring. The rudders are connected to two short tillers which are in turn attached via a ball and socket joint to a rod called the tiller bar. The tiller attaches to the centre of the bar and is typically extendable for operation while trapezing. The mainsheet has a maximum of a 6,1 purchase and has a traveller that allows movement over the entire aft crossmember of the frame, the jib sheets are of a 2,1 purchase and attach on the front beams with their own two travellers. The boat has a 3,1 purchase downhaul to tension the mainsail, both the mainsail and jib are fully battened
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Tornado (sailboat)
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The Tornado is a double handed multihull class recognised as an International Class by the International Sailing Federation. It was used for the Olympic Catamaran discipline from 1976 to 2008, the boat was designed in 1967 by Rodney March from the Isle of Sheppey, England. At the IYRU Olympic Catamaran Trials for international status, it defeated the other challengers. An additional trapeze was added, and the jib was made self tacking. The Tornado typically flies one of its two hulls, the crew balancing the boat with their own weight and by controlling the sails, with only one hull in the water, drag is significantly reduced. For the high speeds and apparent wind directions seen by high speed vessel. The Tornado is still among the fastest double handed catamarans, with an ISAF Small Catamaran Handicap Rating System rating of 0.934 and it is the fastest catamaran in the RYA Portsmouth Yardstick scheme, with a 2015 Portsmouth Number of 634. The Tornado was used as the equipment for the discipline in the Olympic Games from 1976 through 2008. Please see the years for results Olympic Sailing Regatta After a break in 2012. List of multihulls International Tornado Association ISAF Tornado Microsite
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Olympic Games
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The Olympic Games are considered the worlds foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years. Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure. The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in changes to the Olympic Games. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, as a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship, World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916,1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games, the Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations, National Olympic Committees, and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, the IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals, gold, silver, the Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to themselves to the world. The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat such as wrestling. It has been written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce and this idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were travelling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus
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Incat
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Incat is a manufacturer of large high-speed craft catamarans, based in the Derwent Park suburb of Hobart, Tasmania, Australia founded by Bob Clifford. The company builds large commercial and military vessels that use aluminium construction, wave-piercing, vessels have been constructed up to 112 metres in length and with cruising speed up to 40 knots. It has since diversified into river going catamaran ferries for Thames Clippers, Bass & Flinders Cruises and Sydney Ferries, seaCat Media related to Incat at Wikimedia Commons Official website
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Austal
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Austal is an Australian-based global ship building company and defence prime contractor that specialises in the design, construction and support of defence and commercial vessels. Austals product range includes naval vessels, high speed passenger and vehicle ferries and specialist utility vessels including offshore windfarm, Austal has three major ship building facilities. Vessel support is provided through service centres located in Australia, the United States of America, corporate headquarters is co-located at the Australian ship building facility in Henderson, Western Australia. In October 2005, Austal/General Dynamics was awarded a contract to build the first unit from its design for a Littoral Combat Ship. The keel of the future USS Independence was laid on 19 January 2006 at Austal USAs yard in Mobile, Alabama, and it is now operating with the fleet at its current location in Norfolk, Virginia. The LCS2 was the first ship built by Austal USA for the US Navy and it is the first naval warship constructed in Mobile, Alabama since World War II. The basis of Austals seaframe design is the 127-metre trimaran hull Benchijigua Express, the originally planned second Austal/GD ship was cancelled on 1 November 2007. On 1 May 2009, the Navy renewed the contract with Austal/GD to build the second LCS, the USS Coronado, with delivery scheduled for May 2012. On 29 December 2010 the U. S Navy, as per a decision in 2010 to award contracts for Littoral Combat Ships to both Austal USA and Lockheed Martin, announced a new contract with Austal USA. The contract called for one ship to be built beginning in 2010, one to be built in 2011, the contract for the LCS6 was for $432 million with a goal of having the average ship cost be $352 million per. Another $20 million was figured in for change orders, and a management reserve is included.6 billion, as prime contractor, Austal was to design and construct the first 103-metre JHSV, with options for 9 additional vessels expected to be exercised between FY09 and FY13. Construction on the ship started in September 2010. Austal now has contracts for three ships, long-lead material contracts for two ships and options for five ships, for a total of ten. The new JHSV is similar to the Austal-built WestPac Express, which the US Marines have used since 2002, the JHSV will be able to carry 700 short tons 1,200 nautical miles at an average speed of 35 knots and be able to unload at roll-on/roll-off discharge facilities. It will be 103 meters long,28.5 meters beam with a crew of 22 to 40, the first four will be named USNS Spearhead, USNS Choctaw County, USNS Millinocket and USNS Fall River. While the JHSV can carry 300 marines and their gear for up to four days, Navy planners envision building up to two dozen of the JHSV ships over the next decade. In early 2014, Austal announced it had awarded a $124.9 million contract for two High Speed Support Vessels for the Royal Navy of Oman. The HSSV has a catamaran hull design as the JHSV
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Ferry
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A ferry is a merchant vessel used to carry passengers, and sometimes vehicles and cargo as well, across a body of water. Most ferries operate regular return services, a passenger ferry with many stops, such as in Venice, Italy, is sometimes called a water bus or water taxi. Ferries form a part of the transport systems of many waterside cities and islands. However, ship connections of much larger distances may also be called ferry services, the profession of the ferryman is embodied in Greek mythology in Charon, the boatman who transported souls across the River Styx to the Underworld. Speculation that a pair of oxen propelled a ship having a wheel can be found in 4th century Roman literature Anonymus De Rebus Bellicis. Though impractical, there is no reason why it could not work and such a ferry, see When Horses Walked on Water, Horse-Powered Ferries in Nineteenth-Century America. The Marine Services Company of Tanzania offers passenger and cargo services in three of the African Great Lakes viz, Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Nyasa. It also operates one of the oldest ferries in the region, Ferries from Great Britain also sail to Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Ireland. Some ferries carry mainly tourist traffic, but most also carry freight, in Britain, car-carrying ferries are sometimes referred to as RORO for the ease by which vehicles can board and leave. The busiest single ferry route is across the part of Øresund. Before the Øresund bridge was opened in July 2000, car and car & train ferries departed up to seven times every hour, in 2013, this has been reduced, but a car ferry still departs from each harbor every 15 minutes during daytime. The route is around 2.2 nautical miles and the crossing takes 22 minutes, today, all ferries on this route are constructed so that they do not need to turn around in the harbors. This also means that the ferries lack natural stems and sterns, due to the same circumstances, starboard and port-side are dynamic and depending of in what direction the ferry sails. Despite the short crossing, the ferries are equipped with restaurants, cafeteria, kiosks, large cruiseferries sail in the Baltic Sea between Finland, Åland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia and Saint Petersburg, Russia and from Italy to Sardinia, Corsica, Spain and Greece. In many ways, these ferries are like cruise ships, also many smaller ferries operate on domestic routes in Finland, Sweden and Estonia. The south-west and southern parts of the Baltic Sea has several routes mainly for heavy traffic, on the longer of these routes, simple cabins are available. In Istanbul, ferries connect the European and Asian shores of Bosphorus, as well as Princes Islands, in 2014 İDO transported 47 million passengers, the largest ferry system in the world. Due to the numbers of freshwater lakes and length of shoreline in Canada
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Navy
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A navy or maritime force is a fleet of waterborne military vessels and its associated naval aviation, both sea-based and land-based. It is the branch of an armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare, namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations. The strategic offensive role of a navy is projection of force into areas beyond a countrys shores, the strategic defensive purpose of a navy is to frustrate seaborne projection-of-force by enemies. The strategic task of the navy also may incorporate nuclear deterrence by use of submarine-launched ballistic missiles. In most nations, the naval, as opposed to navy, is interpreted as encompassing all maritime military forces, e. g. navy, marine / marine corps. First attested in English in the early 14th century, the navy came via Old French navie, fleet of ships, from the Latin navigium, a vessel. The word naval came from Latin navalis, pertaining to ship, cf. Greek ναῦς, ship, ναύτης, seaman, the earliest attested form of the word is in the Mycenaean Greek compound word
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Gross tonnage
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Gross tonnage is a nonlinear measure of a ships overall internal volume. Gross tonnage is different from gross register tonnage, neither gross tonnage nor gross register tonnage should be confused with measures of mass or weight such as deadweight tonnage or displacement. These two measurements replaced gross register tonnage and net register tonnage, the International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969 was adopted by IMO in 1969. The Convention mandated a transition from the measurements of gross register tonnage and net register tonnage to gross tonnage. It was the first successful attempt to introduce a universal tonnage measurement system, various methods were previously used to calculate merchant ship tonnage, but they differed significantly and one single international system was needed. Previous methods traced back to George Moorsom of Great Britains Board of Trade who devised one such method in 1854, the tonnage determination rules apply to all ships built on or after July 18,1982. Ships built before that date were given 12 years to migrate from their existing gross register tonnage to use of GT, the phase-in period was provided to allow ships time to adjust economically, since tonnage is the basis for satisfying manning regulations and safety rules. Tonnage is also the basis for calculating registration fees and port dues, one of the Conventions goals was to ensure that the new calculated tonnages did not differ too greatly from the traditional gross and net register tonnages. Both GT and NT are obtained by measuring ships volume and then applying a mathematical formula, gross tonnage is based on the moulded volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship whereas net tonnage is based on the moulded volume of all cargo spaces of the ship. In addition, a net tonnage is constrained to be no less than 30% of her gross tonnage. The gross tonnage calculation is defined in Regulation 3 of Annex 1 of The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969. It is based on two variables, and ultimately an increasing function of ship volume, V, the ships total volume in cubic meters, and K. The value of the multiplier K varies in accordance with a total volume and is applied as a kind of amplification factor in determining the gross tonnage value. For smaller ships, K is smaller, for larger ships, note that the units of gross tonnage, which involve both meters and log-meters, have no physical significance, but were rather chosen for historical convenience. As an example, we can calculate the gross tonnage of a ship with 10,000 m3 total volume, newtons method may be used for obtaining an approximation to a ships volume given its gross tonnage. The exact formula is, V =50 × ln 10 × G T W where ln is the natural logarithm, Tonnage Compensated gross tonnage Ton List of worlds largest ships by gross tonnage International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969. International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
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