1.
Sail plan
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A sail plan is a set of drawings, usually prepared by a naval architect which shows the various combinations of sail proposed for a sailing ship. Alternatively, as a term of art, it refers to the way such vessels are rigged as discussed below, the combinations shown in a sail plan almost always include three configurations, A light air sail plan. Over most of the Earth, most of the time, the force is Force 1 or less. Thus a sail plan should include a set of huge, lightweight sails that will keep the ship underway in light breezes and this is the set of sails that are changed rapidly in variable conditions. They are much stronger than the light air sails, but still lightweight, an economical sail in this set will include several sets of reefing ties, so the area of the sail can be reduced in a stronger wind. This is the set of small, very rugged sails flown in a gale, to keep the vessel under way. In all sail plans, the attempts to balance the force of the sails against the drag of the underwater keel in such a way that the vessel naturally points into the wind. In this way, if control is lost, the vessel will avoid broaching, broaching always causes uncomfortable motion, and in a storm, the breaking waves can destroy a lightly built boat. The architect also tries to balance the force on each sail plan against a range of loads. The calculation assures that the sail will not knock the vessel sideways with its mast in the water, capsizing, fore-and-aft rig features flat sails that run fore and aft. These types of sails are the easiest to manage, because they often do not need to be relaid when the ship changes course, Bermuda rig is a type of fore-and-aft rig with a triangular mainsail. Gaff rig features fore-and-aft sails shaped like a triangle minus its point, the top of the sail tends to twist away from the wind reducing its efficiency when close-hauled. However, due to the gaff on the top edge of the sail the centre of effort is typically lower, square rig features sails set square to the mast from a yard, a spar running transversely in relation to the hull. In ships built using designs of the square rig, sailors would have to climb the rigging. In a modern square rigged design the crew can furl and unfurl sails by remote control from the deck, lateen rig features a triangular sail set on a long yard, mounted at an angle on the mast and running in a fore-and-aft direction. This is one of the lowest drag sails, each form of rig requires its own type of sails. Among them are, A staysail is a piece of cloth that has one or two attached to a stay, that is, one of the ropes or wires that helps hold the mast in place. A staysail was classically attached to the stay with wooden or steel hoops, sailors would test the hoops by climbing on them
2.
Bermuda rig
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A Bermuda rig, Bermudian rig, or Marconi rig is a configuration of mast and rigging for a type of sailboat and is the typical configuration for most modern sailboats. Originally developed for smaller Bermudian vessels, and ultimately adapted to the larger, ocean-going Bermuda sloop, the Bermuda rigging has largely replaced the older gaff rigged fore-and-aft sails, except notably on schooners. The traditional design as developed in Bermuda features very tall, raked masts, a long bowsprit, in some configurations such as the Bermuda Fitted Dinghy vast areas of sail are achieved with this rig. Elsewhere, however, the design has omitted the bowsprit, and has become less extreme. A Bermuda rigged sloop with exactly one jib is known as a Bermuda sloop, a Bermuda sloop may also be a more specific type of vessel such as a small sailing ships traditional in Bermuda which may or may not be Bermuda rigged. The foot of a Bermuda sail may be attached to the boom along its length and this modern variation of a Bermuda mainsail is known as a loose-footed main. In some early Bermudian vessels, the mainsails were attached only to the mast and deck and this is the case on two of the three masts of the newly built Spirit of Bermuda, a replica of an 1830s British Royal Navy sloop-of-war. Additional sails were often mounted on traditional Bermudian craft, when running down wind, which included a spinnaker, with a spinnaker boom. The main controls on a Bermuda sail are, The halyard used to raise the head, the outhaul used to tension the foot by hauling the clew towards the end of the boom. The sheet used to haul the boom down and towards the center of the boat, the vang or kicking strap which runs between a point partway along the boom and the base of the mast, and is used to haul the boom down when on a run. The Bermuda rig developed from leg-of-mutton sails in Bermuda during the course of the 17th and 18th cnturies, the design was very useful on the gusty Bermudian waters for the boats that were the mainstay of transport around the archipelago into the 20th century. As Bermuda turned to an economy, after the dissolution of the Somers Isles Company in 1684, the rig was adapted to larger, ocean-going ships. The development of the rig is thought to have begun with fore-and-aft rigged boats built by a Dutch-born Bermudian in the 17th Century, the Dutch were influenced by Moorish lateen rigs introduced during Spains rule of their country. The Dutch eventually modified the design by omitting the masts, with the arms of the lateens being stepped in thwarts. By this process, the yards became raked masts, lateen sails mounted this way were known as leg-of-mutton sails in English. The Dutch called a vessel rigged in this manner a bezaanjacht, a bezaan jacht is visible in a painting of King Charles II arriving in Rotterdam in 1660. After sailing on such a vessel, Charles was so impressed that his successor, the Prince of Orange presented him with a copy of his own. The rig had been introduced to Bermuda some decades before this, Ships with somewhat similar rigs were in fact recorded in Holland during the 17th century
3.
Mast (sailing)
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The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sail, spars, and derricks, and giving necessary height to a light, look-out position, signal yard, control position. Large ships have several masts, with the size and configuration depending on the style of ship, nearly all sailing masts are guyed. Until the mid-19th century all vessels masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of a conifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than could be made from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the height, the masts were built from up to four sections, known in order of rising height above the decks as the lower, top, topgallant. Giving the lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a made mast, as opposed to sections formed from pieces of timber. Jigger-mast, typically, where it is the shortest, the aftmost mast on vessels with more than three masts. On a two-masted vessel with the main-mast forward and a smaller second mast, such as a ketch, or particularly a yawl. Although two-masted schooners may be provided with masts of identical size, the aftmost is still referred to as the main-mast, schooners have been built with up to seven masts in all, with several six-masted examples. On square-rigged vessels, each mast carries several horizontal yards from which the sails are rigged. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC. While most of the ancient evidence is iconographic, the existence of foremasts can also be deduced archaeologically from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. The imperial grain freighters travelling the routes between Alexandria and Rome also included three-masted vessels, a mosaic in Ostia depicts a freighter with a three-masted rig entering Romes harbour. Special craft could carry many more masts, Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, although large enough to require full running rigging
4.
Bow (ship)
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The bow /ˈbaʊ/ is the forward part of the hull of a ship or boat, the point that is usually most forward when the vessel is underway. Both of the fore and forward mean towards the bow. The other end of the boat is the stern, from Middle Dutch boech or Old Norse bógr. The bow is designed to reduce the resistance of the cutting through water. On slower ships like tankers, a bow shape is used to maximise the volume of the ship for a given length. A wet bow results from seawater washing over the top of the hull, a raked stem can help to reduce the wetness of the bow. Aside from making the deck slippery, water can corrode the metal of the ship, if the temperature is low enough this water can also freeze on the deck, rails, turrets, and other exposed surfaces, increasing the topside weight. The bow may be reinforced to serve as an ice-breaker, one example being the bow of container-ship Sea Witch whose reinforcement assisted its destruction of another ship in a 1973 collision, the forward part of the bow, usually on the ships centreline, is called the stem. Traditionally, the stem was a timber or metal bar into which side planks or plates were joined. ISBN 0-7566-0944-5 Steward, Robert, Boatbuilding Manual, 3rd ed. International Marine Publishing Company
5.
Centreboard
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A centreboard or centerboard is a retractable keel which pivots out of a slot in the hull of a sailboat, known as a centreboard trunk or centerboard case. A centreboard which consists of just a metal plate is called a centerplate. A daggerboard is similar but slides vertically rather than pivoting, the analog in a scow is a bilgeboard, these are fitted in pairs and used one at a time. Lt. John Schank was an officer of the British Royal Navy and is credited with the invention of the centerboard, Schank, however, gave credit for the idea to British Brigadier General Earl Percy. A centreboard is used to lift to counter the lateral force from the sails. This is required for sailboats to move in directions other than downwind, the more a yacht heels the more asymmetric its hull shape becomes. The centerboard, daggerboard or bilgeboard can be used as a platform upon which to stand, providing increased leverage. The efficiency of a centreboard improves with increasing aspect ratio, a long narrow centreboard produces less drag than a short, wide one for a given amount of lift, resulting in a faster boat that can point closer into the wind. A fore and aft, pivoting centreboard can also be used to move the centre of lateral resistance aft to match a change in sail plan, such as furling or dropping the jib. A retracting centreboard is more complex than a keel. Other types feature a casing under the boat, which does not take up space, for this reason, it is not uncommon to find boats with a combination of shallow keel and centreboard. The keel provides the housing for the centreboard, moving it out of the hull, the centreboard can then be lowered in deeper waters to increase the amount of lift. Ballast is usually provided in the keel, keeping the lighter and easier to handle. Centreboards are often ballasted in keelboats, ballasted centreboards are generally not locked in place when lowered, the mass of the ballast keeps them down. The mass of a ballasted foil means that a system of pulleys may be required to allow the sailor to lift the foil, and a method of latching the board in the upward position is needed. A centreboard differs from a ballast keel in that centreboards do not contribute to the stability of the vessel, in small sailing dinghies it is rare to find a ballasted centreboard. On larger sailing vessels, a design is sometimes incorporated to enable navigation into shallower water than a fixed keel would allow. In these situations the appendage is generally referred to as a keel or a swing keel
6.
Keel
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On boats and ships, keel can refer to either of two parts, a structural element that sometimes resembles a fin and protrudes below a boat along the central line, or a hydrodynamic element. As the laying down of the keel is the step in the construction of a ship, in British. Only the ships launching is considered significant in its creation. The word can also be used as a synecdoche to refer to a complete boat, a structural keel is the bottom-most structural member around which the hull of a ship is built. The keel runs along the centerline of the ship, from the bow to the stern. The keel is often the first part of a hull to be constructed. The most common type of keel is the plate keel. A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the bar keel, which may be fitted in trawlers, tugs, and smaller ferries. Where grounding is possible, this type of keel is suitable with its massive scantlings, if a double bottom is fitted, the keel is almost inevitably of the flat plate type, bar keels often being associated with open floors, where the plate keel may also be fitted. Duct keels are provided in the bottom of some vessels and these run from the forward engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead and are utilized to carry the double bottom piping. The piping is then accessible when cargo is loaded, the keel surface on the bottom of the hull gives the ship greater directional control and stability. In non-sailing hulls, the helps the hull to move forward. In traditional boat building, this is provided by the structural keel, in modern construction, the bar keel or flat-plate keel performs the same function. There are many types of fixed keels, including full keels, long keels, fin keels, winged keels, bulb keels, the rudimentary purpose of the keel is to convert the sideways motion of the wind when it is abeam into forward motion. A secondary purpose of the keel is to provide ballast, keels are different from centreboards and other types of foils in that keels are made of heavy materials to provide ballast to stabilize the boat. Keels may be fixed, or non-movable, or they may retract to allow sailing in shallower waters, retracting keels may pivot or slide upwards to retract, and are usually retracted with a winch due to the weight of the ballast. Since the keel provides far more stability when lowered than when retracted, types of non-fixed keels include swing keels and canting keels. Canting keels can be found on racing yachts, such as competing in the Volvo Ocean Race
7.
Gaff rig
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Gaff rig is a sailing rig in which the sail is four-cornered, fore-and-aft rigged, controlled at its peak and, usually, its entire head by a spar called the gaff. Because of the size and shape of the sail, a gaff rig will have running backstays rather than permanent backstays, the gaff enables a fore and aft sail to be four sided, rather than triangular. A gaff rig typically carries 25 percent more sail than an equivalent bermudian rig for a hull design. A sail hoisted from a gaff is called a gaff-rigged sail, gaff rig remains the most popular fore-aft rig for schooner and barquentine mainsails and other course sails, and spanker sails on a square rigged vessel are always gaff rigged. The gaff is hoisted by two halyards, The throat halyard hoists the throat of the sail at the end of the gaff and bears the main weight of the sail. The peak halyard lifts aft end of the gaff and bears the leech tension. Small craft attach the peak halyard to the gaff with a span with eyes at both ends looped around the gaff and held in place with small wooden chocks, larger craft have more than one span. Peak halyards pull upwards, approaching the gaff at right angles, additionally, a gaff vang may be fitted. It is an attached to the end of the gaff which prevents the gaff from sagging downwind. Gaff vangs are difficult to rig on the aft-most sail, so are only found on schooners or ketches. A triangular fore-and-aft sail called a jib-headed topsail may be carried between the gaff and the mast. Gunter-rigged boats are similar, smaller vessels on which a spar popularly but incorrectly called the gaff is raised until it is vertical, parallel to the mast. Topsails are never carried on gunter rigs, the Spritsail is another rig with a four-sided fore-aft sail. Unlike the gaff rig where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, the forward end of the sprit is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail, with the after end of the sprit attaching to the peak and/or the clew of the sail. For a given sail area a gaff rig has a shorter mast than a bermudian rig, because of its low aspect ratio, the gaff rig is less prone to stalling if oversheeted than something taller and narrower. Whilst reaching, the CE being set back, will encourage a small craft to bear up into the wind. The boat builder can compensate for this at design stage, e. g. by shifting the keel slightly aft, the gaff-cutter is in fact a very popular sailplan for small craft. The helmsman can reduce weather helm significantly, simply by sheeting out the mainsail, sheeting out may appear to create an inefficient belly in the sail, but it is often a pragmatic alternative to having a heavy helm
8.
Beam (nautical)
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The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
9.
Waterline length
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The waterline length is the length of a ship or boat at the point where it sits in the water. It excludes the length of the boat, such as features that are out of the water. Most boats rise outwards at the bow and stern, so a boat may be quite a bit longer than its waterline length. In a ship with raked stems, naturally the waterline length changes as the draft of the ship changes. Length at the waterline is often abbreviated as lwl, w/l and this measure is essential in determining a lot of properties of a vessel, such as how much water it displaces, where the bow and stern waves are, hull speed, amount of bottom-paint needed, etc. In sailing boats, longer waterline length will usually enable a greater speed, because it allows greater sail area. Higher beam and draft causes higher resistance against the water and this maximum speed, also known as theoretical hull speed, can be calculated using the formula x 1.34. Length overall Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
10.
Beetle Cat
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A Beetle Cat is a 12-foot-4-inch catboat first built in 1920 in New Bedford, Massachusetts by members of the Beetle family. Beetle, Inc. now in Wareham, Massachusetts, is the builder of Beetle Cat boats. A new Beetle 14 catboat, with seating, accommodates four adults and has 80% more cockpit interior space. Designed by Bill Sauerbrey in 2006/2007, it underwent a sea trial in late April 2007, the Beetle Cat is named after its designer, John Beetle, who drew the lines for the pleasure boat in 1920. The 12-foot-long, gaff-rigged boats design was based on the 20-to-30-foot catboats used for shallow water fishing along Cape Cod, with interest in the Beetle Cat and the demise of the whaling industry, the family shifted production to the Beetle Cat boat. During World War II, all production of the Beetle Cat was suspended, among the crew was master builder Leo Telesmanick. In 1993, the Beetle Cat division was sold to Charlie York, in October 2003, William L. Womack became the new owner of Beetle Inc. with Charlie York remaining the Master Builder. Womack re-located the operation to Wareham MA, Beetle Cat Inc. also builds other custom wooden sail and power yachts. In 2005–06, Womack accepted a commission to build a scaled-up 28-foot version of a Beetle Cat, hanley Catboat, the yacht Kathleen was featured in the November/December 2006 issue of WoodenBoat magazine. The craft is a wooden boat used for racing purposes. The small cedar-hull and fir-spar boat has a sail of approximately 100 square feet, a new one costs nearly $17,000, while older ones come on the market from time to time. Beetles are built as planks of Atlantic white cedar over white oak frames, the seams are caulked with cotton. Beetle Cats in Massachusetts are often compared to the Herreshoff/Haven 12. 5s, both vessels share old-school style, boat handling, and aesthetic qualities and both attract similar classic wood-boat enthusiasts. Both craft have been included in coffee table books about classic wooden boats. Beetle, Inc. introduced a Bill Sauerbrey designed Beetle 14 in 2007, the Beetle 14-foot catboat is cedar-planked over white oak frames, with a canvas deck and oak coamings similar in style to the Beetle Cat. Two feet longer in length, the cockpit seats four adults, the interior on the first boat had a natural cockpit at the request of the owner, with painted or varnished seats. The developer made the custom stem head fitting, mast band, the spars were built of solid Douglas fir and finished off with bronze hardware and blocks. The Beetle 14 boat carries 163 sq ft. of sail, proportionate to the Beetle Cats rig, however, a topping lift is standard, as well as more purchase on the peak halyard and mainsheet
11.
Nonsuch (sailboat)
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The Nonsuch line of catboats is a series of popular cruising sailboats built between 1978 and the mid-1990s by Hinterhoeller Yachts in St. Catharines, Ontario. They were popular in North America, with over 950 ships built, the Nonsuch class was named after the Nonsuch that was the first trading vessel of Hudsons Bay Company, which in turn was named after the Baroness Nonsuch, a mistress of King Charles II of England. Ellis designed a Ljungstrom-type rig modified with a boom, on a 30-foot modern hull with a plumb bow, fin keel. A beam of nearly 12 feet and cambered house-top created an interior with accommodation equal to a standard yacht several feet longer. George Hinterhoeller, after some initial reservations about the design, agreed to build the boats, additional models were created in 22,26,33,36 and 40 foot lengths, with the 26 and 30 both available in Classic and Ultra configurations. The original boats were built with an unstayed, two-piece aluminum mast, in later years, under new ownership, the factory produced new versions of 3 of its models, all with shoal draft keels one-piece carbon fiber masts. By the time Hinterhoeller closed its doors in January 1996, a total of 975 Nonsuch boats had been built, the Nonsuch series of boats are generally considered to be very sturdily built boats. As of January,2007, Wiggers Custom Yachts, a Canadian yacht builder located in Bowmanville, operating under licensing agreements with designer, Wiggers states they will build boats to order. As of October 2009, five Nonsuch 33s have been delivered, the Nonsuch starts its own class, usually 12-15 boats, in the Spring and Fall Off Soundings race series. Rendezvous are held two years, alternating between Canada and the United States. The 2012 Rendezvous was held in Greenport, New York
12.
Inland cat
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Inland Cat is a class of one- or two-man sailboats, almost exclusively found on Lake George, Indiana/Michigan. The craft is approximately 14.5 feet in length, with a 4.5 foot beam, the sail is a Marconi rig, with the mast far forward on the hull, as is the norm for a cat boat. The boat has a retractable galvanized steel centerboard, and an aluminum rudder similar in shape to New England-style cat boats. The design was created by Norm Bell and John Larimore in the mid-1950s and used then-current polyester resin, the boat was perhaps over-engineered, and is quite robustly built. Many examples, including hull #2 continue to race every Saturday during the summer months, there were 250+ Inland Cats built by Bell/Larimore and a nearby boatbuilder in the 1950s thru early 1970s. The only concentration of boats is on Lake George proper, which has a few dozen surviving craft, of these, 20+ come out to race in the Gold and Silver fleets each week during the Summer. Due to its construction and wide beam, the Inland Cat is very stable in heavy air. The Class has a PHRF rating of 107 and it is not uncommon on balmy summer days to see the entire fleet bobbing in light air, tossed about by Jet Ski and other boat wakes. The Inland Cat logo is a silhouette of a cats head with a red I centered over it
13.
Catamaran
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A catamaran is a multi-hulled watercraft featuring two parallel hulls of equal size. It is a craft, deriving its stability from its wide beam. Being ballast-free and therefore lighter than a monohull, catamarans often have a draft than comparably-sized monohulls. The two hulls combined also often have a smaller hydrodynamic resistance than comparable monohulls, requiring less power from either sails or motors. The catamarans wider stance on the water can reduce both heeling and wave-induced motion, as compared with a monohull, and can give reduced wakes, Catamarans range in size from small to large. The structure connecting a catamarans two hulls ranges from a simple frame strung with webbing to support the crew to a bridging superstructure incorporating extensive cabin and/or cargo space, Catamarans from Polynesia and Maritime Southeast Asia became the inspiration for modern catamarans. Catamaran-type vessels were first developed as early as 1500 BCE by the Polynesian peoples and these early examples were likely related to outrigger canoes and consisted of two canoes bound together with a wooden frame, sometimes accompanied by a sail. Despite their simplicity they were effective, allowing seafaring Polynesians to voyage to distant Pacific islands. Catamarans were seldom constructed in the West before the 19th century, the word catamaran is derived from the Tamil word, kattumaram, which means logs bound together. The 17th-century English adventurer and privateer William Dampier encountered the Tamil people of southeastern India during his first circumnavigation of the globe and he was the first to write in English about the primitive watercraft he observed in use there. In his 1697 account of his trip, A New Voyage Round the World, he wrote and these are but one Log, or two, sometimes of a sort of light Wood. So small, that they carry but one Man, whose legs, however, the unusual design met with skepticism and was not a commercial success. The design remained relatively unused in the West for almost 160 years until the early 19th-century, Crisp described it as a fast sailing fine sea boat, she traded during the monsoon between Rangoon and the Tenasserim Provinces for several years. Later that century, the American Nathanael Herreshoff constructed a sailing boat of his own design. The craft, Amaryllis, raced at her maiden regatta on June 22,1876 and her debut demonstrated the distinct performance advantages afforded to catamarans over the standard monohulls. It was as a result of event, the Centennial Regatta of the New York Yacht Club, that catamarans were barred from regular sailing classes. In 1936 Eric de Bisschop built a Polynesian double canoe in Hawaii, in 1939, he published his experiences in a book, Kaimiloa, which was translated into English in 1940. The Prout Brothers, Roland and Francis, experimented with catamarans in 1949 and converted their 1935 boat factory in Canvey Island, Essex and their Shearwater catamarans won races easily against the monohulls
14.
Hull (watercraft)
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The hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present, the line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type, the uppermost continuous deck may be called the upper deck, weather deck, spar deck, main deck, or simply deck. The particular name given depends on the type of ship or boat. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames and bulkheads, often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, in many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design, shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. Hulls come in varieties and can have composite shape, but are grouped primarily as follows. Examples are the flat-bottom, v-bottom, and multi-bottom hull and these types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length. These hull shapes all have smooth curves, examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull. After this they can be categorized as, Displacement The hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy, vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length. They are often, though not always, heavier than planing types, planing The planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged, the most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with sea keeping. Sail boats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds, semi-displacement, or semi-planing The hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessels weight is still supported through buoyancy. At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull, in the inverted bell shape of the hull, with a smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher
15.
Mystic Seaport
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Mystic Seaport or Mystic Seaport, The Museum of America and the Sea in Mystic, Connecticut is the largest maritime museum in the United States. It is notable for its collection of sailing ships and boats and it consists of more than 60 original historic buildings, most of them rare commercial structures moved to the 19-acre site and meticulously restored. The museum was established in 1929 as the Marine Historical Association and its first fame came with the acquisition in 1941 of the Charles W. Morgan, the only surviving wooden sailing whaler. The seaport was one of the first living history museums in the United States, with a collection of buildings, the seaport now receives about 250,000 visitors each year. In addition, it supports research via a library. Munson Institute of American Maritime Studies, a summer academic program established in 1955 by maritime historian Professor Robert G. Albion of Harvard University. The Seaport also hosts Williams–Mystic in conjunction with Williams College, a program in maritime studies. Outreach includes sailing and history classes for area children, Mystic Seaport is a popular destination for boaters, who pay to dock overnight just a short walk away from ships such as the Charles W. Morgan and the fishing schooner L. A. Dunton. Four vessels at Mystic Seaport have been recognized by the United States Government as National Historic Landmarks The Preservation Shipyard is an important part of the museum. It is where tools and techniques are used to preserve the Museums collection of historic vessels. A replica of the slave ship La Amistad was constructed in the shipyard, the 19th-century seafaring village contains nearly all the types of general and specialized trades associated with building and operating a sailing fleet. They include a chandlery, sail loft, ropewalk, cooperage, shipping agents office, printing office, bank, also included is The Spouter Tavern, open seasonally and serving travelers fare. Demonstrations at the cooperage show how casks are assembled, one is a 1⁄128th scale model of the entire Mystic River area c.1870, complete down to the outhouse behind every residence, a model 40 feet long. Another contains a collection of carved ship figureheads, also among the museums buildings is a planetarium that demonstrates how seamen used stars for navigation. Sailing instruction is here, as well as tourist rides at nominal cost in various historical small craft. Such tours give an overview of historic ships at their moorings. Mystic Seaports music program is unusual as it prominently features sea shanties in their original contexts as work songs, regular sessions find shanty singers keeping museum visitors in line as they haul sails or turn a capstan. The Mystic Seaport Sea Music Festival, held annually in June since 1979, is among the oldest and largest in the United States, john Faunce Leavitt - former curator of Mystic Seaport
16.
Gasoline
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Gasoline /ˈɡæsəliːn/, known as petrol /ˈpɛtrəl/ outside North America, is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the distillation of petroleum. On average, a 42-gallon barrel of oil yields about 19 US gallons of gasoline when processed in an oil refinery. The characteristic of a gasoline blend to resist igniting too early is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating, sometimes, gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic or environmental reasons. Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment. Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from tanks, from spills. As an example of efforts to control leakage, many storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens, Gasoline inhalation can produce an intense high, however the practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental retardation. The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in Germany, the fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point near 85 °C, it was suited for early carburetors. The development of a spray nozzle carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels, further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking. In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Thomas Midgley Jr. and Boyd and this innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasoline. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, the 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems, Gasoline is the term that is used in North America to refer to the most popular automobile fuel. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first use to 1863, when it was spelled gasolene and it was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as Cazeline and Gazeline. Variant spellings of gasoline had been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century, Petrol is the preferred term in most Commonwealth countries
17.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
18.
Cruising (maritime)
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Cruising by boat is a lifestyle that involves living for extended time on a vessel while traveling from place to place for pleasure. Cruising generally refers to trips of a few days or more, boats were almost exclusively used for working purposes prior to the nineteenth century. The modern conception of cruising for pleasure was first popularised by the Scottish explorer and he was introduced to the canoes and kayaks of the Native Americans on a camping trip in 1858, and on his return to the United Kingdom constructed his own double-ended canoe in Lambeth. The boat, nicknamed Rob Roy after a relative of his, was built of lapstrake oak planking. He cruised around the waterways of Britain, Europe and the Middle East and wrote a book about his experiences. In 1866, Macgregor was a force behind the establishment of the Royal Canoe Club. The first recorded regatta was held at on 27 April 1867, the latter part of the century saw cruising for leisure being enthusiastically taken up by the middle class. The author Robert Louis Stevenson wrote An Inland Voyage in 1877 as a travelogue on his trip through France. Stevenson and his companion, Sir Walter Grindlay Simpson travelled in two Rob Roys along the Oise River and witnessed the Romantic beauty of rural Europe. The Canadian-American Joshua Slocum was one of the first people to carry out a long-distance sailing voyage for pleasure, despite opinion that such a voyage was impossible, Slocum rebuilt a derelict 37-foot sloop Spray and sailed her single-handed around the world. His book Sailing Alone Around the World was a classic adventure, other cruising authors have provided both inspiration and instruction to prospective cruisers. Key among these during the post World War II period are Electa and Irving Johnson, Miles and Beryl Smeeton, Bernard Moitessier, Peter Pye, the development of ocean crossing rallies, most notably the ARC, have encouraged less experienced sailors to undertake ocean crossings. These rallies provide a group of crossing the same ocean at the same time with safety inspections, weather information. Many cruisers are long term and travel for many years, the most adventurous among them circle the globe over a period of three to ten years, many others take a year or two off from work and school for shorter trips and the chance to experience the cruising lifestyle. Blue-water cruising is more involved and inherently more dangerous than coastal cruising, before embarking on an open-ocean voyage, planning and preparation will include studying charts, weather reports/warnings, almanacs and navigation books of the route to be followed. In addition, the needs to be well trained at working together. Finally, the sailor must be prepared for dealing with harsh situations. There have been many well-documented cases where sailors had to be rescued simply because they were not sufficiently prepared or lacked experience for their venture, Sailing near the coast gives a certain amount of safety
19.
Sloop
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A sloop is a sailing boat with a single mast and a fore-and-aft rig. A sloop has only one head-sail, if a vessel has two or more head-sails, the cutter is used, and its mast may be set further aft than on a sloop. The most common rig of modern sailboats is the Bermuda-rigged sloop, typically, a modern sloop carries a mainsail on a boom aft of the mast, with a single loose-footed head-sail forward of the mast. Sloops are either masthead-rigged or fractional-rigged, on a masthead-rigged sloop, the forestay attaches at the top of the mast. The mainsail may be smaller than the headsail, which is called a genoa jib. On a fractional-rigged sloop, the forestay attaches to the mast at a point below the top, typically 3/4 of the way to top, or perhaps 7/8 or some other fraction. The mast of a fractional-rigged sloop may be placed forward, compared to a masthead-rigged sloop. After the cat rig, which has only a mainsail, the rig is one of the simpler sailing rig configurations. A sloop typically has two sails, a mainsail and a headsail, while the cutter has a mainsail and two or more headsails, next in complexity are the ketch, the yawl and the schooner, each of which has two masts and a minimum of three sails. A sloop has a system of mast rigging — a forestay. By having only two sails, the sails of a sloop are larger than those of an equivalent cutter. Until the advent of lightweight sailcloth and modern sail-handling systems, the sails of a sloop could be a handful. So, until the 1950s, sailboats over 10 metres Length Over All would typically use a rig or a two-mast rig. After the advent of modern winches and light sailcloth, the became the dominant sailing rig type for all. No rig type is perfect for all conditions, sloops, with their paucity of spars and control lines tend to impart less aerodynamic drag. Compared to other rigs, sloops tend to very well when sailing close hauled to windward. Cutters, ketches and yawls are often preferred to sloops when venturing far offshore, because it is easier to reef small sails as the wind increases, while still keeping the boat balanced. To maximize the amount of sail carried, the classic sloop may use a bowsprit, for downwind sailing, the typical foresail may be replaced by larger curved sails known as spinnakers or gennakers
20.
One-Design
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One-Design is a racing method which may be adopted in sports which use complex equipment, whereby all vehicles, gliders or boats have identical or very similar designs or models. In motor racing, it is known as Spec series. One-Design racing is the result of this. Most often, the members of a One-Design class are identical as a direct consequence of all deriving from the same production line. Sometimes they are checked or measured at stages in their use to guarantee continuing conformity to the standard design, the important factors being measured in One-Design racing help to equalize the vehicles and put more emphasis on the skill of the competitors. One-Design is utilized in a variety of racing sports and it is heavily used in sailboat racing. All competitors in a One-Design race are judged simply on a first to the finish basis using a single start time, in the United States, the One-Design Class Council creates, monitors, and enforces the rules that define what classes of sailboats are One-Design boats. In motorsport, this term is known as one-make racing. There are two methods of competition in sailboat racing, One-Design and handicap. One-design refers to a class that consists of just one model or design of sailboat. In one-design racing, the first boat to finish wins the race and this is contrasted with handicap racing, where time is added or subtracted from the finishing times based on design factors and mathematical formulas to determine the winner. In between One-Design and handicap racing, a number of approaches exist. One-Design can be contrasted with a development class, the example being the Americas Cup 12-metre class, or to the Box Rule used, for example. A further category, the formula based class setup, is confused with one-design. The Mini Transat 6.50, the Volvo Open 70 monohull, the large ORMA trimaran, class-legal boats race each other without any handicap calculations in both setups. As a result, the identifier One-Design has been used more and more exclusively to denote a class that races only identical boats, having a rigid one-design specification keeps design experimentation to a minimum and reduces cost of ownership. The popularity of one-design increased in the 1970s with the introduction of construction using fibre-reinforced plastic. This process allowed the production of identical hulls of virtually any size at a lower price
21.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
23.
John Rousmaniere
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John Rousmaniere is an American writer, sailor and author of 30 historical. Technical, and instructional books on sailing, yachting history, New York history, business history, an authority on seamanship and boating safety, he has conducted tests of equipment and sailing skills, and led or participated in fact-finding inquiries into boating accidents. He has been presented several awards for his writing and his contributions to boating safety. Army general and a cousin of Mayor Andrew Broaddus, who integrated Louisvilles parks in the 1950s and he spent his early years in Cincinnati, Ohio, and at age 11 moved with his family to Oyster Bay, on Long Island, New York. He is an alumnus of St. Pauls School, Concord, New Hampshire, Columbia University, after U. S. Army service as an Infantry OCS-trained, Airborne-qualified officer and Assistant Professor of History at the U. S. Military Academy at West Point, Rousmaniere was an editor at Yachting and he worked in New York City and his home in Stamford, Conn. where he raised his two sons, before moving to Manhattan full-time in 2005. Rousmaniere writes on a range of topics but may be best known for his books on storms at sea, boating safety, yachting history. His sailing manual, The Annapolis Book of Seamanship, has gone through four editions since its publication in 1983. The considerably revised and updated edition was published in January 2014. A video series of the title is based on the book. Rousmenieres Fastnet, Force 10 is his account of sailing in the tragic 1979 Fastnet Race. Published in several languages and still in print in 2016, this was the first of his two storm books. His experiences in and about the Fastnet Race storm led him to attend Union Theological Seminary and he retired as a safety seminar moderator in 2016. Rousmaniere co-organized the Crew Overboard Rescue Seminar at Sausalito, Cal. in 2005 and wrote its final report recommending rescue equipment and he later served as coordinator of the Hanson Rescue Medal Award presented by US SAILING. In 2011 he served on Independent Review Panels in US Sailing Association inquiries into two fatal sailing accidents, one involving the death of a sailor in a 420 dinghy at Annapolis. And the other the deaths of two sailors in the Chicago Yacht Clubs race to Mackinac Island, on Lake Michigan, the reports are available on the US Sailing website. He has also written about maritime photography, for many years he was Consulting Editor of The Dolphin Book Club, the maritime division of the Book of the Month Club. His book reviews have appeared in WoodenBoat, Cruising World, Sea History and he frequently lectures on maritime history and New York history at historical associations, yacht clubs, and other venues
24.
W. W. Norton & Company
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W. W. Norton & Company is an American publishing company based in New York City. It has been owned wholly by its employees since the early 1960s, the company is known for its Norton Anthologies and its texts in the Norton Critical Editions series, the latter of which are frequently assigned in university literature courses. The roots of the date back to 1923, when William Warder Norton founded the firm with his wife Mary Norton. Storer D. Lunt took over in 1945 after Nortons death, and was succeeded by George Brockway, Donald S. Lamm, and now W. Drake McFeely. W. W. Norton & Company is a publisher in the United States, which publishes fiction, nonfiction, poetry, college textbooks, cookbooks, art books. Norton Anthologies Norton Critical Editions Oxford Worlds Classics Verso Books Radical Thinkers Official website Making the Cut - Chronicle of Higher Education
25.
Sailing
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Sailing employs the wind—acting on sails, wingsails or kites—to propel a craft on the surface of the water, on ice or on land over a chosen course, which is often part of a larger plan of navigation. A course defined with respect to the wind direction is called a point of sail. Conventional sailing craft cannot derive power from sails on a point of sail that is too close into the wind, on a given point of sail, the sailor adjusts the alignment of each sail with respect to the apparent wind direction to mobilize the power of the wind. In the 21st century, most sailing represents a form of recreation or sport, recreational sailing or yachting can be divided into racing and cruising. Cruising can include extended offshore and ocean-crossing trips, coastal sailing within sight of land, until the end of the 19th century, sailing ships were the primary means for marine commerce. The earliest representation of a ship under sail appears on a painted disc found in Kuwait dating between 5000 and 5500 BCE, polynesian oceanfarers traveled vast distances of open ocean in outrigger canoes using navigation methods such as stick charts. Advances in sailing technology from the Middle Ages onward enabled Arab, Chinese, Indian and European explorers to make longer voyages into regions with extreme weather and climatic conditions. There were improvements in sails, masts and rigging, improvements in marine navigation including the tree and charts. Sailing has contributed to many great explorations in the world, the air interacting with the sails of a sailing vessel creates various forces, including reaction forces. If the sails are properly oriented with respect to the wind, however, boats propelled by sails cannot sail directly into the wind. They must tack back and forth in order to progress directly upwind, sails are airfoils that work by using an airflow set up by the wind and the motion of the boat. Sails work in two modes to use the wind to force, PUSH, when the boat is going in the same direction as the wind. The force on the sail is mostly aerodynamic drag, and sails acting in this way are aerodynamically stalled. This force manifests itself as pressure differences between the two sides of the sail - there is a region of low pressure on the front side of the sail and a region of high pressure on the back. Another way to say this is that sails generate lift using the air flows around them in the same way as an aircraft wing. The wind that a boat experiences is the combination of the true wind and this combination is the apparent wind, which is the relative velocity of the wind relative to the boat. When sailing upwind the apparent wind is greater than the true wind, iceboats can typically sail at 5 times the speed of the wind. Where there is a difference in motion, then there is energy to be extracted at the interface, the sailboat does this by placing the sail in the air and the hull in the water
26.
Rigging
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According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition rigging derives from Anglo-Saxon wrigan or wringing, to clothe. The same source points out that rigging a sailing vessel refers to putting all the components in place to allow it to function, including the masts, spars, sails and the rigging. Rigging is divided into two classes, standing, which supports the mast, and running, which controls the orientation of the sails, configurations differ for each type of rigging, between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. Standing rigging is cordage which is fixed in position, standing rigging is almost always between a mast and the deck, using tension to hold the mast firmly in place. Due to its role, standing rigging is now most commonly made of steel cable and it was historically made of the same materials as running rigging, only coated in tar for added strength and protection from the elements. Most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment is supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds, running rigging is the cordage used to control the shape and position of the sails. Materials have evolved from the use of Manilla rope to synthetic fibers, running rigging varies between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. They have common functions between them for supporting, shaping and orienting sails, which different mechanisms. For supporting sails, halyards, are used to raise sails, on gaff-riged vessels, topping lifts hold the yards across the top of the sail aloft. Sail shape is controlled by lines that pull at the corners of the sail, including the downhaul at the clew. The orientation of sails to the wind is controlled primarily by sheets, but also by braces, full rigged ship Lateen rig Shipbuilding Superstructure Harland, John. Seamanship in the Age of Sail, the Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625–1860
27.
Crab claw sail
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The crab claw sail or, as it is sometimes known, Oceanic lateen or Oceanic sprit, is a triangular sail with spars along upper and lower edges. The crab claw sail is used in many traditional Pacific Ocean cultures, as can be seen by the traditional proa, the crab claw sail consists of a sail, approximately an isosceles triangle in shape. The equal length sides are longer than the side, with spars along the long sides. The forward intersection of the spars is placed towards the bow, the sail is supported by a short mast attached near the middle of the upper spar, and the forward corner is attached to the hull. The lower spar, or boom, is attached at the forward intersection, the crab claw is a shunting sail. It is used on a boat which has a permanent windward and leeward side, to tack, or switch directions across the wind, the forward corner of the sail is loosened and then transferred to the opposite end of the boat. While remaining attached to the top of the mast, the upper spar tilts to vertical and beyond as the forward corner moves past the mast, meanwhile, the mainsheet is detached and used to rotate the rearward end of the boom through a horizontal half circle. The forward corner is then re-attached at the new end of the boat. The crab claw is often compared with the tacking lateen sail, while it is possible for the sails to be identical, the two rigs are not identical. The crab claw pivots around the leading edge spar, while a lateen sail on a boat such as a Sunfish pivots around a mast. These features give it its distinct, claw-like shape, modern crab claws generally have straighter spars and a less convex leech, which gives more sail area for a given length of spar. The crab-claw sail is something of an enigma and it has been demonstrated to produce very large amounts of lift when reaching, and overall seems superior to any other simple sail plan. One popular but disputed theory is that the crab-claw wing works like a wing, generating vortex lift. Since the crab claw does not lie symmetric to the airflow, like a delta wing, but rather lies with the lower spar nearly parallel to the water. This can clearly be seen in Marchajs wind tunnel photos published in Sail Performance, the vortex on the top spar of the sail is much larger, covering most of the sail area, while the lower vortex is very small and stays close to the spar. Marchaj attributes the large lifting power of the sail to lift generated by the vortices, while others attribute the power to a mix of aspect ratio, camber. Video Hot Buoys Self-Tacking Crab-Claw Trimaran Polynesian Voyaging Society Wind Tunnel results on effects of crabclaw sail orientation - apex position and consistent camber
28.
Fore-and-aft rig
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A fore-and-aft rig is a sailing rig consisting mainly of sails that are set along the line of the keel rather than perpendicular to it. Such sails are described as fore-and-aft rigged, fore-and-aft rigged sails include staysails, Bermuda rigged sails, gaff rigged sails, gaff sails, gunter rig, lateen sails, lug sails, the spanker sail on a square rig and crab claw sails. Northern Europeans were resistant to adopting the fore-and-aft rig, despite having seen its use in the course of trade, the lateen sail was more maneuverable and speedier, while the square rig was clumsy but seaworthy
29.
Junk rig
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The junk rig, also known as the Chinese lugsail or sampan rig, is a type of sail rig in which rigid members, called battens, span the full width of the sail and extend the sail forward of the mast. The junk rig is a simple and effective rig, the rig contrasts starkly with the Bermuda rig which is prevalent on Western sail boats. In its most traditional form the junk rig is carried on an unstayed mast however standing rigging of some kind is not uncommon, performance close-hauled is perhaps the strongpoint of the Bermuda rig - key to winning a race with an upwind leg or outmaneuvering an opponent in battle. The junk rig typically produces more drive than a similarly sized Bermuda rig when running downwind without a spinnaker, a junk rigged boat can let its sails out athwartships On a Bermuda rigged boat the shrouds interfere with sails if the sail was let out until it was athwartship. The junk rig is well suited to travel with its working sails. The junk rig appeals to shorthanded sailing crews for many reasons, to lessen sail all that is required is to let out the halyard. It is typical to run the halyards and sheets to the companionway on a junk rigged boat and this means that typical sailhandling can be performed from the relative safety of the cockpit, or even while the crew is below deck. Junk sails are carried on a mast which rakes forward a few degrees from vertical. The forward rake of the sail encourages the sail to swing out, another way to say this is that the sail is stable when swung out and doesnt return to the middle of the ship when the wind drops. Consequently, the airfoil developed in light wind doesnt have enough camber to develop much lift at low wind speeds, perhaps the chief shortcoming of the junk rig is that it typically produces poor drive to windward in light winds. The sail may remain almost entirely flat in light winds and develop unacceptable drive to windward The fully battened sail is much heavier than a sail made entirely of sailcloth with modern battens. The stiff junk battens disturb laminar wind flow over the sail -especially important when sailing to windward, Junk sails are relatively low aspect ratio, resulting in a lower lift-to-drag ratio, consequently the ship cant tack as close to the wind. A junk sail has more running rigging aloft, adding to weight, providing more wind resistance, a junk mast is normally of solid wood and very heavy for its short length. There were two types of ships with Junk Rig in the Malay Archipelago with local hulls instead of the Chinese Junk hull. A light boat used commonly in the early 19th century to carry goods along rivers, twakow, a type of vessel with one mast and junk rig. They were a common sight in the Singapore river in the mid 19th century, among the ships used on the coast of China, Lorcha, a light Chinese sailing vessel. This ship combined a western-style hull of Portuguese influence, with Chinese-style mast, the lorcha were found in the Gulf of Siam and in Philippine waters as well. The Vũng Tàu shipwreck consists of the remains of a late 17th century lorcha from the South China Sea off the islands of Con Dao, about 160 km from Vũng Tàu, each of the traditional sailing rigs can be achieved using the modern junk sail
30.
Lateen
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A lateen or latin-rig is a triangular sail set on a long yard mounted at an angle on the mast, and running in a fore-and-aft direction. Dating back to Roman navigation, the lateen became the sail of the Age of Discovery. It is common in the Mediterranean, the upper Nile River, and the parts of the Indian Ocean. The lateen is used today in a different form on small recreational boats like the Sailfish and Sunfish. The earliest fore-and-aft rig was the spritsail, appearing in the 2nd century BC in the Aegean Sea on small Greek craft, one theory is that the lateen sail originated during the early Roman empire in the Mediterranean Sea. It evolved out of the dominant square rig by setting the sails more fore-and-aft – along the line of the keel – rather than athwartship, while tailoring the luff and leech. The theory of Roman origin for lateen was begun with Lynn White, John M. H. Brindley.25 The original passage cited from Caesarus is, according to Brindley, no more than an allusion, ‘tres naves, quas Latenas vocant, majores, plenas tritico direxerunt’. The assumption is that labelling these three wheat ships ‘latines’ means that they had lateen sails, there is also reason to doubt Sottas’s interpretation of Procopius’ claim – that three ships of Justinian’s fleet in 533 deployed lateen sails. That the triangular sails refer to triangular top sails, which were standard gear on Roman square-rigged ships after 50 ad’, second, White’s claim that the lateen sail was deployed on a European ship in 880 is problematic. We know that the Persians were sailing to India and beyond via the Persian Gulf from the third, and by the mid-seventh century the Muslims were sailing the length of the Indian Ocean. But even if the Romans had invented the lateen sail, it is important to note that after 50 ce there is no evidence of refinement or further development of sails and rigging. Based on this theory, the lateen sail originated in the Near East, most likely in Persia or Arabia and these sailors were likely responsible for introducing the lateen sails and large three-masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. According to the Belgian maritime historian Basch, the earliest true lateen rig appears as early as the 1st century BC, in a Hellenistic wall painting found in a Hypogeum in Alexandria. The earliest archaeologically excavated lateen-rigged ship, the Yassi Ada II, dates to ca.400 AD, the Kelenderis ship mosaic and the Kellia ship graffito from the early 7th century complement the picture. By the 6th century, the lateen sail had largely replaced the square throughout the Mediterranean. It became the standard rig of the Byzantine dromon war galley and was also employed by Belisarius flagship in the 532 AD invasion of the Vandal kingdom. This is also indicated by the terminology of the lateen among Mediterranean Arabs and it has been suggested that the lateen sail was brought to the Indian Ocean by the Alexandrian merchants who sailed the Red Sea in Roman and later Byzantine and Arab times. Such theories have been superseded by unequivocal depictions of lateen-rigged Mediterranean sailing vessels which pre-date the Arab invasion, searches for lateen sails in India were inconclusive
31.
Mast aft rig
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A mast aft rig, alternately referred to as aft-mast rig, is a sailboat sail-plan that uses a single mast set in the aft half of the hull. The mast supports fore-sails that may consist of a single jib multiple staysails, the mainsail is either small or completely absent. Mast aft rigs are uncommon, but are found on a few custom, many mast-aft rigs utilize a small mainsail and multiple staysails that can resemble some cutter rigs. A mast aft rig could, based on headsail count, be considered a variation of the sloop or cutter, or, based on mast position, in the typical Bermuda rig, the sails located in front of the mast generally deliver a higher percentage of the driving force. The stay that supports the leading edge of the sail causes far less turbulence than a mast, to take advantage of this fact, Bermuda rigs are shifting towards larger fore-sails and smaller mainsails. Fore-sails include jibs, genoas and staysails, the cutter, with its use of multiple foresails, achieves the same goal of placing a higher percentage of the sail area in staysails. By moving the mast toward the back of the sailboat, designers can increase the size, the mainsail is reduced in size or eliminated altogether. An advantage of using foresails, also called staysails, is that they may be rigged for roller furling and this allows the sail to quickly and easily be deployed and reefed by pulling lines. The sail rolls up around the stay and this simplicity and easy operation is one of the main attractions of the mast aft rig. By reducing the mainsail in size or eliminating it altogether, the aft mast rig squarely minimizes or completely solves the problems associated with battens, battens enable designers to increase the size of mainsails by pushing the mainsail away from the mast. However, the forces of the battens pushing against the mast make it difficult to raise or lower the mainsail. On larger rigs, batten cars are needed to overcome these forces, by eliminating the battens and associated batten cars, the material cost savings for a typical 60-ft catamaran can be as much as $12,000 AUD. Aft-mast rigs with no mainsail also require fewer winches to raise and lower sails, when Hot Buoys converted from a Bermuda rig to an aft-mast rig 5 winches were no longer required. For rigs with no mainsail, there is also no boom and this saves the cost of the boom, and hardware and lines associated with the boom. More importantly, eliminating the boom is a matter of safety, the second leading cause of death on sailboats is the boom. Booms cause injuries and deaths directly and indirectly by knocking people overboard, even when stationary, booms represent a hazard. According to a German study, boom strikes were the most common cause of sailing injury overall, another aspect of safety is in regards to the elimination of the lines and hardware to control the boom. With fewer lines and less hardware on the deck there are items to trip over or trap fingers
32.
Square rig
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These spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the square rig is aerodynamically the most efficient running rig, and stayed popular on ocean-going sailing ships until the end of the Age of Sail. The last commercial sailing ships, windjammers, were usually square-rigged four-masted barques, square-rigged masts may also have triangular staysails that are deployed fore-and-aft between masts. Square-rigged is also used for the uniform of a rating in the Royal Navy since 1857 and it is slang and refers to anyone wearing the famous blue square collar on the shoulders and bell-bottomed trousers. The name perhaps reflects the fact that it was men who managed the square-rigged sails. The peaked cap worn by Senior Ratings and Officers is known colloquially as fore-and-aft rig. A mast is considered square-rigged if its lowest sail or course is square-rigged, if the course is fore-and-aft, square topsails can still be carried in front of the mast. In their heyday, square-rigged vessels ranged in size from small boats to full rigged ships, but this rig fell from favour to fore-and-aft gaff rigs and bermuda rigs after the development of steam power and new materials. Ocean-going sailing ships stayed mostly square-rigged, Square rigs allowed the fitting of many small sails to create a large total sail area to drive large ships. 18th century warships would often achieve speeds of 12–13 knots. Some clipper ships that had square rigs and for speed was critical could be much faster. The late windjammers were as fast as the clippers, being much bigger, not only could a smaller sail be managed by a smaller crew but also these smaller sails constrained the impact of weapons on them. A hole from a cannonball affected only one area, whilst a hole in a large sail would eventually tear the whole larger area. This reduced running costs and also enlarged the space available in the ship for profitable cargoes, new materials also changed sail designs, particularly on hybrid vessels carrying some square-rigged sails. The low aspect ratio of square-rigged sails produces much drag for the lift produced, so they have poor performance to windward compared to modern yachts, the Bermuda rig is the undisputed champion of windward performance in soft sails, due to its very low drag and high lift-to-drag ratio. One advantage of square rigs is that they are efficient when running, where the high lift to drag is irrelevant. Square-rigged sails are also prone to broaching when running than Bermuda rigs. Ocean-going vessels take advantage of e. g. the trade winds, on a square-rigged mast the sails had names which indicated their vertical position on the mast
33.
Barque
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A barque, barc, or bark is a type of sailing vessel with three or more masts having the fore- and mainmasts rigged square and only the mizzen rigged fore-and-aft. The word barque entered English via French, which in came from the Latin barca by way of Occitan. The Latin barca may stem from Celtic barc or Greek baris, the Oxford English Dictionary considers the latter improbable. The word barc appears to have come from Celtic languages, the form adopted by English, perhaps from Irish, was bark, while that adopted by Latin as barca very early, which gave rise to the French barge and barque. In Latin, Spanish and Italian the term refers to a small boat. French influence in England led to the use in English of both words, although their meanings now are not the same, well before the 19th century a barge had become interpreted as a small vessel of coastal or inland waters. Somewhat later, a became a sailing vessel of a distinctive rig as detailed below. In Britain, by the century, the spelling had taken on the French form of barque. Francis Bacon used this form of the word as early as 1592, throughout the period of sail, the word was used also as a shortening of the barca-longa of the Mediterranean Sea. The usual convention is that spelling barque refers to a ship and bark to tree hide, barcarole in music shares the same etymology, being originally a folk song sung by Venetian gondolier and derived from barca - boat in Italian. In the 18th century, the British Royal Navy used the bark for a nondescript vessel that did not fit any of its usual categories. She happened to be a sailing vessel with a plain bluff bow. Our Northern Mariners, who are trained in the coal-trade, apply this distinction to a broad-sterned ship, hon. the Earl of Sussex, Lord Deputy of Ireland. By the end of the 18th century, the term came to refer to any vessel with a particular type of sail-plan. This comprises three masts, fore-and-aft sails on the aftermost mast and square sails on all other masts, barques were the workhorse of the Golden Age of Sail in the mid-19th century as they attained passages that nearly matched full rigged ships but could operate with smaller crews. Conversely, the ship rig tended to be retained for training vessels where the larger the crew, another advantage is that a barque can outperform a schooner or barkentine, and is both easier to handle and better at going to windward than a full-rigged ship. Usually the main mast was the tallest, that of Moshulu extends to 58 m off the deck, the four-masted barque can be handled with a surprisingly small crew—at minimum, ten—and while the usual crew was around thirty, almost half of them could be apprentices. Today many sailing ships are barques
34.
Brig
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A brig is a sailing vessel with two square-rigged masts. During the Age of Sail, brigs were seen as fast and they were especially popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Brigs fell out of use with the arrival of the ship because they required a relatively large crew for their small size and were difficult to sail into the wind. They are not to be confused with a brigantine, which has different rigging, in sailing, a full-rigged brig is a vessel with two square rigged masts. The main mast of a brig is the aft one, to improve maneuverability, the mainmast carries a small fore-and-aft sail. Behind the main sail there is a small fore-and-aft sail called the spanker or boom mainsail, on the foremast is a similar sail, called the trysail. Attached to the yards of square-rigged ships are smaller spars. These are called studding sails, and are used with fair, the wings are named after the sails to which they are fastened, i. e. the main studding sails, main top studding sails, and the main top gallant studding sails, etc. The brig’s foremast is smaller than the main mast, the fore mast holds a fore sail, fore top sail, fore top gallant sail, and fore royal. Between the fore mast and the bowsprit are the fore staysail, jib, all the yards are manipulated by a complicated arrangement of cordage named the running rigging. This is opposed to the rigging which is fixed, and keeps mast. A brig is generally built on a scale than a schooner. Brigs vary in length between 75 and 165 ft with tonnages up to 480, a notable exception being the famous designer Colin Mudies Little Brigs, which are only 10m long and weigh only 8 tonnes. Historically, most brigs were made of wood, although some later brigs were built with hulls, a brig made of pine in the 19th century was designed to last for about twenty years. The word brig has been used in the past as an abbreviation of brigantine, the brig actually developed as a variant of the brigantine. Re-rigging a brigantine with two square-rigged masts instead of one gave it greater sailing power, the square-rigged brigs advantage over the fore-and-aft rigged brigantine was that the sails, being smaller and more numerous, are more easily managed, and require fewer men or hands to work them. The variant was so popular that the term came to exclusively signify a ship with this type of rigging. By the 17th century the British Royal Navy defined brig as having two square rigged masts, Brigs were used as small warships carrying about 10 to 18 guns
35.
Brigantine
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The brigantine was a two-masted sailing vessel with a fully square rigged foremast and at least two sails on the main mast, a square topsail and a gaff sail mainsail. The main mast is the second and taller of the two masts, modern American definitions include vessels without the square sails on the main mast. In the Mediterranean Basin during the 13th century, a referred to a sail-. It was lateen rigged on two masts and had eight and twelve oars on each side. Its speed, maneuverability and ease of handling made it a favourite of Mediterranean pirates and its name is derived from the Italian word brigantino, which in turn is derived from brigante brigand. Other than in names, this vessel has no relation to the later developed in Northern Europe. By the 17th century the term was adapted by Atlantic maritime nations, the vessel had no lateen sails but was instead square-rigged on the foremast and had a gaff-rigged mainsail with square rig above it on the mainmast. The main mast of a brigantine is the aft one, the brigantine was the second most popular rig for ships built in the British colonies in North America before 1775. The brigantine could be of various sizes, ranging from 50 to 200 tons burden, the brigantine was generally larger than a sloop or schooner but smaller than a brig. The last sailing true brigantine in the world is the Eye of the Wind, the definition given above describes the international usage of the term brigantine. In modern American terminology, the term now usually means a vessel with the foremast square rigged. Historically, this rig used to be called a schooner brig or hermaphrodite brig, in Europe, the distinction is typically still made. The word brig is an 18th-century shortening of the word brigantine and it is the gaff-rigged mainsail on a brigantine which distinguishes it from the brig, which is principally square rigged on both masts. In addition to the different sail configuration, the main mast is made from two parts and equal to that of a schooner, a quite long mast and a top mast. The main mast of a brig is made from three parts and equal to that of a fully rigged ship, a mast, topmast, with the advent of modern pole masts, this last difference typically no longer exists. Brig Schooner Snow The dictionary definition of brigantine at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of hermaphrodite brig at Wiktionary El bergantín goleta Jaime Soberano segundo
36.
Barquentine
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A barquentine or schooner barque is a sailing vessel with three or more masts, with a square rigged foremast and fore-and-aft rigged main, mizzen and any other masts. The term barquentine is 17th century in origin, formed from barque in imitation of brigantine, a two-masted vessel square-rigged only on the forward mast, concordia, a sail training ship that capsized and sank on 17 February 2010. Mercator of 1932, Belgian training ship, transit, an experimental design of 1800 that could be worked entirely from the deck. Many smaller ships of the late 19th century Royal Navy were rigged as barquentines, endurance, commanded by Sir Ernest Shackleton and crushed by ice in the Weddell Sea during the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–17. Esmeralda, a training ship of the Chilean Navy. Polish-built Pogoria class sail training ships, Pogoria, Kaliakra and Iskra, thor-Heyerdahl Southern Swan, tall ship from 1922 re-rigged as a Barquentine from its original rigging as a Schooner. Sails on Sydney Harbour for cruises, juan Sebastián Elcano 1927 Photo gallery of barquentine Jadran Training Ship
37.
Cutter (boat)
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A cutter is typically a small, but in some cases a medium-sized, watercraft designed for speed rather than for capacity. Traditionally a cutter sailing vessel is a small single-masted boat, fore-and-aft rigged, the cutters mast may be set farther back than on a sloop. In modern usage, a cutter can be either a small- or medium-sized vessel whose occupants exercise official authority, examples are harbor pilots cutters and cutters of the U. S. Coast Guard or UK Border Force. Cutters can also be a small boat serving a one to ferry passengers or light stores between larger boats and the shore. This type of cutter may be powered by oars, sails or a motor, the cutter is one of several types of sailboats. Traditionally the sloop rig was a rig with a single mast located forward of 70% of the length of the sailplan, in this traditional definition a sloop could have multiple jibs on a fixed bowsprit. Cutters had a rig with a single mast more centrally located, which could vary from 50% to 70% of the length of the sailplan, with multiple headsails, a mast located aft of 50% would be considered a mast aft rig. Somewhere in the 1950s or 1960s there was a shift in these definitions such that a sloop only flew one headsail, in this modern idiom, a cutter is a sailing vessel with more than one head sail and one mast. Cutters carry a staysail directly in front of the mast, set from the forestay, a traditional vessel would also normally have a bowsprit to carry one or more jibs from its end via jibstay on travelers. In modern vessels the jib may be set from a permanent stay fixed to the end of a fixed bowsprit, or directly to the stem fitting of the bow itself. In these cases, that may be referred to as the forestay, and the inner one, a sloop carries only one head sail, called either the foresail or jib. These could be managed without the need for crews, winches, or complex tackles, making the cutter especially suitable for pilot, customs. For example, a pilot cutter may only have two people on board for its outward trip—the pilot to be delivered to a ship and an assistant who had to sail the cutter back to port single-handed. The cutter sailing rig became so ubiquitous for these tasks that the modern-day motorised vessels now engaged in these duties are known as cutters, the open cutter carried aboard naval vessels in the 18th Century was rowed by pairs of men sitting side-by-side on benches. The cutter, with its transom, was broader in proportion compared to the longboat, the Watermen of London used similar boats in the 18th Century often decorated as depicted in historical prints and pictures of the River Thames in the 17th & 18th Centuries. The modern Waterman’s Cutter is based on drawings of these boats and they are 34 feet long with a beam of 4 ft 6 in They can have up to six oarsmen either rowing or sculling and can carry a cox and passengers. The organisers of the Great River Race developed the modern version in the 1980s, watermen’s Cutters also compete annually in the Port of London Challenge, and the Port Admirals’ Challenge. Cutter races are also to be found at various town rowing and skiffing regattas, in addition the cutters perform the role of ceremonial Livery Barges with the canopies and armorial flags flying on special occasions
38.
Full-rigged ship
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A full-rigged ship or fully rigged ship is term of art denoting a sailing vessels sail plan with three or more masts, all of them square-rigged. A full-rigged ship is said to have a ship rig or be ship-rigged, the ship-rig sail plan, also differs drastically from the large panoply of one and two masted vessels found as working and recreational sailboats. Alternatively, a ship may be referred to by its function instead, as in collier or frigate. In many languages the word frigate or frigate rig refers to a full-rigged ship, only one five-masted full-rigged ship had ever been built until recent years, when a few modern five-masted cruise sailing ships have been launched. Even a fourth mast is relatively rare for full-rigged ships, ships with five and more masts are not normally fully rigged and their masts may be numbered rather than named in extreme cases. If the masts are of wood, each mast is in three or more pieces and they are, The lowest piece is called the mast or the lower. Topmast Topgallant mast Royal mast, if fitted On steel-masted vessels, note that even a full-rigged ship did not usually have a lateral course on the mizzen mast below the mizzen topmast. Instead, the lowest sail on the mizzen was usually a fore/aft sail—originally a lateen sail, the key distinction between a ship and barque is that a ship carries a square-rigged mizzen topsail whereas the mizzen mast of a barque has only fore-and-aft rigged sails. The cross-jack yard was the lowest yard on a ships mizzen mast, unlike the corresponding yards on the fore and main mast it did not usually have fittings to hang a sail from, its purpose was to control the lower edge of the topsail. In the rare case that the yard did carry a square sail. Above the course sail, in order, are, Topsail, or Lower topsail, Topgallant sail, or Lower topgallant sail, if fitted. The division of a sail into upper and lower sails was a matter of practicality, since undivided sails were larger and, consequently, larger sails necessitated hiring, and paying, a larger crew. Additionally, the size of some late-19th and 20th century vessels meant that their correspondingly large sails would have been impossible to handle had they not been divided. Jibs are carried forward of the foremast, are tacked down on the bowsprit or jib-boom and have varying naming conventions, staysails may be carried between any other mast and the one in front of it or from the foremast to the bowsprit. In light winds studding sails may be carried on either side of any or all of the square rigged sails except royals and skysails and they are named after the adjacent sail and the side of the vessel on which they are set, for example main topgallant starboard stunsail. One or more spritsails may also be set on booms set athwart, one or two spankers are carried aft of the aftmost mast, if two they are called the upper spanker and lower spanker. A fore-and-aft topsail may be carried above the upper or only spanker, to stop a full-rigged ship except when running directly down wind, the sails of the foremast are oriented in the direction perpendicular to those of the mainmast. Thus, the masts cancel out of their push on the ship and this allows the crew to stop and quickly restart the ship without retracting and lowering the sails, and to dynamically compensate for the push of the wind on the masts themselves and the yards
39.
Jackass-barque
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A jackass-barque, sometimes spelled jackass bark, is a sailing ship with three masts, of which the foremast is square-rigged and the main is partially square-rigged and partially fore-and-aft rigged. The mizzen mast is fore-and-aft rigged, a four-masted jackass barque is square-rigged on the two foremost masts and fore-and-aft rigged on the two after masts. Some 19th-century sailors called such a ship a fore-and-aft schooner chasing a brig, in general a jackass barque is a sailing ship which is half square-rigged and half fore-and-aft rigged. The name appears to be a reference to a mule. A well-known example of a four-masted jackass-barque was the Olympic, a 1,402 GRT Down Easter. Said to be the one in the world, she was launched in 1892 at the shipyard of the New England Ship Building Company, Bath, ME, for Captain W. H. Besse of New Bedford. She carried steel, nitrate, and other cargoes, Captain Gibbs was an experienced square-rigged skipper, and took great care of best stowage of the cargo, having the stevedores put 2/3 of it in the tween decks. For her new owner, Hackfield & Co. of Honolulu, managed by Williams, under her new master Captain T. H. Evans she sailed between New Zealand, Australia and the US west coast in the timber trade. Towards the end of World War I she changed hands to Thomas Crowley & Co, in that time she was re-rigged as a four-masted barquentine with a square-rigged foremast and three fore-and-aft rigged other masts. During the slump years cargo space of a sailing ship wasnt needed anymore, after being laid up for some years the 30-year-old ship was converted into a towing barge. A well-known example of a steel four-masted jackass-barque was the California, the use of steel enabled the addition of another hundred feet to the two hundred foot effective maximum length of a wooden vessel. A fourth mast, called the jigger, provided the power for the increased length. The lower and topmast were built in one steel tubular piece, mechanical improvements were introduced to the rigging. The City of Grand Haven had two masts set far apart to accommodate high piles of lumber on the deck and to make it easier to load and unload the vessel and this rig was called the Grand Haven Rig or. It was said to have been the result of a serendipity, when the master of a three-masted schooner had its mainmast removed due to rot, there were at least a dozen craft with this rig many of them in Lake Michigan. Similar rigs might be called a jackass schooner, the Down Easters, American deep-water sailing ships, 1868-1919. Boston, Charles E. Lauriat Co, Dover Pubns
40.
Ketch
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A ketch is a sailing craft with two masts. The distinguishing characteristic of a ketch is that the forward of the two masts is larger than the after mast, historically the ketch was a square-rigged vessel, most commonly used as a freighter or fishing boat in northern Europe, particularly in the Baltic and North seas. In modern usage, the ketch is a rigged vessel used as a yacht or pleasure craft. To assist going to windward, a ketch may carry one or more jibs or foresails, if a ketch has no jibs, it is called a cat ketch or a periauger. On older, larger ketches the main mast may in addition one or more square rigged topsails. The large fore-and-aft sail on the mainmast is the mainsail, while the sail on the mizzen mast is the mizzen and these sails may be any type of fore-and-aft sail, in any combination. Most modern ketches are Bermuda rigged, but other possible rigs on a ketch include gunter rigs, the Scots Zulu, for example, had a dipping lug main with a standing lug mizzen. In northern Europe and among long distance cruisers, the ketch is often preferred to a sloop, since the additional sail allows a balance. An advantage of the ketch is when sudden increases in wind strength require a rapid reefing, the ketch rig also allows sailing only on the mizzen and jib, without introducing excessive lee helm, and in an emergency can be quite well steered without use of the rudder. When running before the wind or reaching across the wind, a ketch may set extra sails such as a spinnaker on the main mast, and a spinnaker or mizzen staysail on the mizzen mast. Another advantage of a ketch is at anchor, where the sail may be used to hold the boat steady in the wind. The square-rigged ketch was largely supplanted by the brig, which differs from the ketch by having a forward mast smaller than the after mast, and by the hoy, other similar craft include the snow and the pink. But the balance of sail area can be an overriding characteristic, if 20% or more of the sail area is in the mizzen sail the rig would be termed a ketch. This is particularly true on center cockpit yachts, compared to a ketch, a similar size yawls mizzen sail is much smaller than the main, because of the limitations of the mizzen sheet. So on a ketch, the purpose of the mizzen sail is to both propel and balance the vessel, while on a yawl, the smaller mizzen mainly serves the purpose of trim or balance. Yawls tend to have mainsails almost as large as those of comparable sloops, a ketch may be distinguished from a cutter or a sloop by virtue of having two masts rather than one, though a ketch with two foresails is sometimes called a cutter-rigged ketch. Both the ketch and the yawl differ from the two-masted schooner, if a vessel has two masts of approximately the same height, the rig with the larger sail forward is called a ketch, while the rig with the larger sail aft is a schooner. The American two-masted schooner is rare in Europe, where the rig is preferred
41.
Schooner
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A schooner /ˈskuːnər/ is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or more masts, the foremast being shorter than the main and no taller than the mizzen if there is one. While the schooner was originally gaff-rigged, modern schooners typically carry a Bermuda rig, such vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century. They were further developed in North America from the early 18th century, the most common type, with two masts, were popular in trades requiring speed and windward ability, such as slaving, privateering, blockade running, and offshore fishing. In the Chesapeake Bay area several distinctive schooner types evolved, including the Baltimore clipper, bugeye, schooners were also popular among pirates in the West Indies during the Golden Age of Piracy, for their speed and agility. They could also sail in shallow waters, and while being smaller than other ships of the time period. Schooners first evolved in the late 17th century from a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast, most were working craft but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy merchants and Dutch nobility. Following the arrival of the Dutch monarch William of Orange on the British throne and this vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented schooner. Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling, North American shipbuilders quickly developed a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the language scholar Walter William Skeat, the term comes from scoon. The Dutch word schoone means nice, good looking, robinson replied, A schooner let her be. The launch is variously described as being in 1713 or 1745, naval architects such as Howard Chapelle have dismissed this invention story as a childish fable, but some language scholars feel that the legend may support a Gloucester origin of the word. Other sources state the etymology as unknown and uncertain, the first detailed definition of a schooner, describing the vessel as two-masted vessel with fore and aft gaff-rigged sails appeared in 1769 in William Falconers, Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Although a schooner may have up to four masts, the schooner has only two, with the foremast shorter than the mainmast. There may be a bowsprit to help balance the rig, the principal issue with a schooner sail plan is how to fill the space between the two masts most effectively. Traditional schooners were rigged, and the trapezoid shape of the foresail occupied the inter-mast space to good effect, with a useful sail area. A Bermuda rigged schooner typically has four sails, a mainsail, a main staysail abaft the foremast, plus a forestaysail. An advantage of the schooner is that it is easily handled and reefed by a small crew. The main staysail will not overlap the mainsail, and so little to prepare the wind for the mainsail
42.
Snow (ship)
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In sailing, a snow, snaw or snauw is a square rigged vessel with two masts, complemented by a snow- or trysail-mast stepped immediately abaft the main mast. The word snow comes from snauw which is an old Dutch word for beak, as such, in the 17th century the snow used to be sometimes classified as a three-masted vessel. The snow dates back to the late 17th century and originally had a loose footed gaff sail and it was a popular type of vessel in the Baltic Sea and was employed by a large number of nations during its time. The snow was considered a handy and fast sailing vessel, typically the largest two masted vessel around and was employed in both navy and merchant service, when used as a military vessel, snows were, in the early 18th century, typically fitted with 5 to 16 guns. Military snows were mostly used for patrols and privateering, while in the merchant service, snows traded all the way to the Mediterranean. Snow, the largest of all old two-masted vessels, while the snow and the brig might appear closely related, this is in fact not the case. The two rigs developed from different directions, the brig evolving from the generally smaller brigantine, the most visible difference between the brig and the snow is in the latters snow-mast, stepped directly behind the main mast. In contrast to the brig, where the gaff and boom attach directly to the main mast, a snows gaff, the use of this characteristic snow-mast offered several advantages over attaching the gaff directly to the main mast. The yoke of the gaff and the lacing of the sail on a snow could move freely on the snow mast, not hindered by the iron bands that held together the mast. As a result of the latter, the gaff could be raised higher than the main yard, the resulting freedom allowed a snow, in contrast to the brigs, to fly a main course without complications, as they typically did. However, in the late 18th century, brigs started to set main courses as well, the twin brigs Lawrence and Niagara, American warships which participated in the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813, were both snow-brigs. Brigantine Brig Full-rigged ship Hans Haalmeijer, Pinassen, fluiten en galjassen Uitgeverij De Alk B. V. Alkmaar, karl Heinz Marquardt, Bemastung und Takelung von Schiffen des 18. John Robinson, George Francis Dow, The Sailing Ships of New England 1607 -1907, marine Research Society, Salem, Mass 1922. Dik Vuik, Hans Haalmeijer, Aken, tjalken en kraken, Uitgeverij De Alk B. V. Alkmaar, the Netherlands 2006
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Yawl
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The mizzen sail is hoisted on the mizzen mast. The yawl was originally developed as a rig for fishing boats. In its heyday, the ability to be trimmed to sail without rudder input made it particularly popular with single-handed sailors, such as circumnavigators Harry Pidgeon. Modern self-steering and navigation aids have made less important. A good example of this was Olin Stephens Finisterre, a small ships boat, usually rowed by four or six oars. To add a sailing rig to a rowboat, the masts must not interfere with the rowers, the mainmast is placed well forward and the mizzen as far back as possible. The mizzen has to be small in size to keep the sail area balanced around the centre of lateral resistance to ensure the boat will sail in a straight line without excessive correction. Both the yawl and the ketch have two masts, with the main mast foremost. On classic yacht types with long overhangs and inboard rudders, the distinction is simple, for boats with shorter overhangs or outboard rudders the distinction is more usefully determined by comparing the purposes and relative sizes of the mizzens. Compared to a ketch, a similar size yawls mizzen sail is much smaller than the main, and is usually situated very far aft, behind the helm station. On a ketch, the purpose of the mizzen sail is to help propel the vessel as part of the working sail. On a yawl, the smaller mizzen mainly serves the purposes of trim and balance, Yawls tend to have mainsails almost as large as those of sloops of comparable sized hulls. The common definition of Yawl and Ketch using the rudder post does not reflect the tradition and was created by much more recent developments of a handicap system for racing yachts. The CCA rating rule was developed following World War II to allow different styles of boats to race against each other with a handicap calculated from measurements of each boat. It was later combined with the RORC rule to become the IOR rule in the late 1950s which was used to handicap international racing until the late 1980s, canoe Yawls have a pointed stern similar to a canoe. Rudders were usually placed on the back of the boat which allows the rudder to be raised to allow the boat to be landed on a beach
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Multihull
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A multihull is a ship, vessel, craft or boat with more than one hull. Multihull ships include multiple types, sizes and applications, hulls range from two to five, of uniform or diverse types and arrangements Catamarans are the most common type, with two symmetric hulls. They are used as racing, sailing, tourist and fishing boats, about 70% of fast passenger and car-passenger ferries are catamarans. About 300 semi-submersible drilling and auxiliary platforms operate at sea, some ships with outriggers are built, including the experimental ship Tritone and the first and second sister-ships of the series of Littoral Combat Ships. About 70 small waterplan area ships whose hulls have a cross section at the waterplane than below the surface exist. Multihull ships can be classified by the number of hulls, by their arrangement, the first multihull vessels were Austronesian canoes. They hollowed out logs to make canoes and stabilized them by attaching outriggers to prevent them from capsizing and this led to the proa, catamaran, and trimaran plus various outriggers throughout the Pacific. Individual hulls are connected by a structure called the platform or above-water bridge. The structure can be partially or fully, or can consist of separate connections. The distance between hulls is called the clearance and can be measured between center planes or between the inner boards. The distance between the design waterplane and the bottom of the platform is called the vertical clearance. The longitudinal distance between a ship is called the longitudinal clearance and can be measured between the middle of the hulls or between their fore perpendiculars. An outrigger is a small side hull attached to the main load-carrying hull by two or more struts, proas have one hull and one outrigger. Engines are commonly placed on the main hull, a ship with one hull of conventional shape and two small side hulls is called an outrigger ship. This type is identified as trimaran in English language publications, three terms from the Malay and Micronesian language group describe hull components. The terms originated as descriptions of the proa, Catamarans and trimarans share the same terminology. Ama − The ama is the outrigger hull, Aka − The aka connects the vaka to the ama. In Hawaiian, this is called the iako, Vaka − The vaka is the main canoe-like hull
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Amatasi
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Amatasi are a type of Samoan double outrigger canoe watercraft. Its sails were woven pandanus leaves tied to 2 spars, the hull was sometimes built of planks. Lashed together, large double canoes 30–60 feet long could carry 25 men on journeys of hundreds of miles. List of multihulls vaa vaa-tele Amatasi Image at Hawaii State Foundation on Culture and the Arts Modern day model by Francis Pimmel Historische Proas - Ancient Outriggers, Plan drawing of an amatasi
