1.
Washington (state)
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It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington, Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles, and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States. Washington is a leading lumber producer and its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, shipbuilding and other equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes including irrigation, power, flood control, the Washington Territory was named after George Washington, the first President of the United States. The area was part of a region called the Columbia District after the Columbia River. The area was renamed Washington in order to avoid confusion with the District of Columbia, Washington is the only U. S. state named after a president. To distinguish it from the U. S. capital, which is named for George Washington, Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State, or, in more formal contexts. Washingtonians and other residents of the Pacific Northwest refer to the state simply as Washington, calling the nations capital Washington, D. C. or, often, Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Washington is bordered by Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part, to the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state, from the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly marine west coast climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains, from the north to the south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles south of the city of Seattle and it is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states. Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula and these deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States. Eastern Washington – the part of the state east of the Cascades – has a dry climate. It includes large areas of steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rain shadow of the Cascades. Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches in Pullman, the Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the northeastern quadrant of the state
2.
Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
3.
Umatilla people
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The Umatilla are a Sahaptin-speaking Native American tribe who traditionally inhabited the Columbia Plateau region of the northwestern United States, along the Umatilla and Columbia rivers. The Umatilla nation was bordered by the Teninos to the West, also by their northern border were the Wasco-Wishrams. Because of their homeland lacked natural defenses, the Umatillas were attacked from the south by groups of Bannocks and these included the Nez Percé, Cayuse, Walla Walla, and the Yakima. In 1855 the inland Sahaptin-speaking nations were forced to surrender their historic homelands under treaty to the United States government, today the Umatilla share land and a governmental structure with the Cayuse and the Walla Walla tribes as part of the federally recognized Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation. Their reservation is located near Pendleton, Oregon and the Blue Mountains, a number of places and geographic features have been named after the tribe, such as the Umatilla River, Umatilla County, and Umatilla National Forest. The impoundment of the Columbia River behind the John Day Dam is called Lake Umatilla, shoni Schimmel - WNBA Player Cisco Minthorn, Esq. - Counsel and Senior Advisor on Native American Affairs, Office of Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs U. S. Department of Commerce Kennewick Man Humphrey, Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation homepage
4.
Walla Walla people
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Walla Walla, sometimes Waluulapam, are a Sahaptin indigenous people of the Northwest Plateau. The duplication in their name expresses the diminutive form, the name Walla Walla is translated several ways but most often as many waters. Many Walla Wallas live on the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, the Walla Wallas share land and a governmental structure with the Cayuse and the Umatilla tribes as part of the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla. The reservation is located in the area of Pendleton, Oregon, United States, some Walla Wallas are also enrolled in the federally recognized Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation. The people are a Sahaptin-speaking tribe that inhabited the interior Columbia River region of present-day northwestern United States. From this zone, the Walla Walla followed a pattern of seasonal subsistence practices to that of the Yakama, Palouse, Umatilla. The first encounter with Euro-Americans for the Walla Wallas was the Lewis, first meeting in 1805, the Americans promised to Walla Walla chief Yellepit they would visit with the people after seeing the Pacific Ocean. The party returned in April 1806 and stayed at Yellepits village, during a transaction Yellepit presented Clark with a white horse in return for a copper kettle. The Americans had none in supply however, so Clark gave Yellepit his own sword, along with a quantity of gunpowder and musket balls. Lewis and Clark also gave Yellepit a peace medal engraved with a portrait of President Thomas Jefferson, to be worn around the neck, Yellepit, Washington was later named after him. David Thompson of the Canadian-British North West Company was the next European in the Walla Walla lands, about five miles upriver from Yellepits village on the confluence of the Snake River and the Columbia, Thompson ordered a pole be placed. An attached letter to the pole claimed the territory for the British Crown, Thompsons pole and letter were intended for the traders of the Pacific Fur Company, an American rival of the NWC. Continuing downriver, Thompson stopped at Yellepits village and discovered the flag, Thompson found Yellepit very friendly and intelligent, even encouraging Thompsons plan to set up a nearby trading post. For various reasons the post was not built until 1818, when the NWC established Fort Nez Perces at the mouth of the Walla Walla River, the Walla Wallas eventually adopted maintaining cattle herds, going as far as New Helvetia in California during 1844 to secure additional livestock. An estimated 40 Walla Wallas, Nez Perce and Cayuse under Walla Walla chief Piupiumaksmaks went on the expedition south, en route the party gathered stray horses, not aware the strays were stolen. Negotiations at New Helvetia were held one of Piupiumaksmaks sons, Toayahnu, and an employee of Sutter. The two men entered a dispute, and Toayahnu was killed, despite fears of retribution among Sutters staff by the Walla Wallas, Piupiumaksmaks returned with a small band of warriors and families in 1846 and declared peaceable intentions. The returning party had members infectees of measles, which began to spread across the Columbia Plateau, smallpox and other diseases were also introduced into the area, increasing the Walla Wallas population decline
5.
Nez Perce people
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The Nez Perce /ˌnɛzˈpɜːrs/ are an Indigenous people of the Plateau, who live in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, which is on the Columbia River Plateau. They are federally recognized as the Nez Perce Tribe and govern their reservation in Idaho and they are one of five federally recognized tribes in the state. Anthropologists have written that the Nez Percé descend from the Old Cordilleran Culture and this name was given to this tribe and the nearby Chinook people by French explorers and trappers, meaning pierced nose, but only the Chinook used that form of decoration. Their name for themselves is Nimíipuu, meaning, The People, in their language, Nez Percé is an exonym given by French Canadian fur traders who visited the area regularly in the late 18th century, meaning literally pierced nose. English-speaking traders and settlers adopted the name in turn, since the late 20th century, the Nez Perce identify most often as Niimíipu in Sahaptin. The tribe also uses the term Nez Perce, as does the United States Government in its dealings with them. Older historical ethnological works and documents use the French spelling of Nez Percé, the original French pronunciation is, with three syllables. In his journals, William Clark referred to the people as the Chopunnish /ˈtʃoʊpənɪʃ/, Walker in 1998, writing for the Smithsonian, this term is an adaptation of the term cú·pʼnitpeľu. The term is formed from cú·pʼnit and peľu, by contrast, the Nez Perce Language Dictionary has a different analysis than did Walker for the term cúpnitpelu. The prefix cú- means in single file and this prefix, combined with the verb -piní, to come out. Finally, with the suffix of -pelú, meaning people or inhabitants of, together, these three elements, cú- + -piní + pelú = cúpnitpelu, or the People Walking Single File Out of the Forest. Nez Perce oral tradition indicates the name Cuupnitpeluu meant we walked out of the woods or walked out of the mountains, the interpreter of the Lewis and Clark Expedition mistakenly identified this people as the Nez Perce when the team encountered the tribe in 1805. They did not practice nose piercing or wearing ornaments, the tribe known as pierced nose lived on and around the lower Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest. They are commonly called the Chinook tribe by historians and anthropologists, the Chinook relied heavily upon salmon as a food staple, as did the Nez Perce. The peoples shared fishing and trading sites, but the Chinook had a different culture and more hierarchical social arrangements. The Nez Perce language, or Niimiipuutímt, is a Sahaptian language related to the dialects of Sahaptin. The Sahaptian sub-family is one of the branches of the Plateau Penutian family, the tribal area extended from the Bitterroots in the east to the Blue Mountains in the west between latitudes 45°N and 47°N. In 1800, the Nez Perce had more than 100 permanent villages, ranging from 50 to 600 individuals, depending on the season, archeologists have identified a total of about 300 related sites including camps and villages, mostly in the Salmon River Canyon
6.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Umatilla Indian Reservation
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The Umatilla Indian Reservation is an Indian reservation in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. It lies in northeastern Oregon, east of Pendleton, the reservation is mostly in Umatilla County, with a very small part extending south into Union County. It is managed by the three Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, all the tribes historically inhabited the Columbia Plateau region. The tribes share land and a structure as part of their confederation. The reservation has an area of 271.047 square miles. In addition, some 300 Native Americans from other tribes and 1,500 non-natives live on the reservation. The largest community is Mission, which is the site of the headquarters as well as the Umatilla Agency of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some BIA agency offices serve more than one federally recognized tribe, the tribes developed the Wildhorse Casino Resort on their reservation to generate revenues for their people. The casino is located near Interstate 84, in 2006 it started Cayuse Technologies, to provide software development and related services. These enterprises employ 1,000 persons and have reduced unemployment. Pendleton photographer Walter S. Bowman photographed tribe members in the early 20th century
9.
Pendleton, Oregon
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Pendleton is a city in Umatilla County, Oregon, United States. Developed along the Umatilla River, Pendleton was named in 1868 by the county commissioners for George H. Pendleton, the population was 16,612 at the 2010 census. The city is the county seat of Umatilla County, Pendleton is the smaller of the two principal cities of the Hermiston-Pendleton Micropolitan Statistical Area. This micropolitan area covers Morrow and Umatilla counties and had a population of 87,062 at the 2010 census. A European-American commercial center began to develop here in 1851, when Dr. William C, McKay established a trading post at the mouth of McKay Creek. A United States Post Office named Marshall was established April 21,1865, the city was incorporated by the Oregon Legislative Assembly on October 25,1880. By 1900, Pendleton had a population of 4,406 and was the fourth-largest city in Oregon, the Pendleton Woolen Mills and Pendleton Round Up became features of the city captured in early paintings by Walter S. Bowman. Like many cities in Eastern Oregon, where thousands of Chinese immigrant workers built the transcontinental railroad, the sector is supposed to have been underlain by a network of tunnels, which are now a tourist attraction. The authenticity as a Chinese tunnel system has been questioned, the town is the cultural center of Eastern Oregon. Pendletons Old town is listed as a Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places, the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation have their property nearby. They have established the Wild Horse Casino and golf course on the reservation to generate revenue for development and they have also built the Tamástslikt Cultural Institute, for education and interpretation of their cultures. Pendleton Woolen Mills is a maker of wool blankets, shirts, founded in 1909 by Clarence, Roy and Chauncey Bishop, the company built upon earlier businesses related to the many sheep ranches in the region. A wool-scouring plant opened in Pendleton in 1893 to wash raw wool for shipping, in 1895, the scouring mill was converted into a mill that made wool blankets and robes for Native Americans. Both businesses failed to survive, but the Bishops, with the help of a bond issue, enlarged the mill. They developed a line of garments and blankets with vivid colors. St. Anthony Hospital in Pendleton is a 25-bed medical center, Eastern Oregon Correctional Institution in Pendleton is the only place in Oregon where inmates make Prison Blues denim clothing. The prison also operates a commercial laundry serving customers that include EOCI, the Snake River Correctional Institution, Pendleton High School, a flour mill. In addition, some EOCI inmates work as clerks or have jobs in service or maintenance
10.
Blue Mountains (Pacific Northwest)
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The Blue Mountains are a mountain range in the western United States, located largely in northeastern Oregon and stretching into southeastern Washington. The range has an area of 4,060 square miles, stretching east and southeast of Pendleton, Oregon and they are home to the worlds largest organism and fungal mycelial mat, the Armillaria solidipes. Geologically, the range is a part of the larger rugged Columbia River Plateau, the highest peaks in the range include the Elkhorn Mountains at 9,108 feet, Strawberry Mountain at 9,038 feet, and Mount Ireland at 8,304 feet. The nearby Wallowa Mountains, east of the range near the Snake River, are sometimes included as a subrange of the Blue Mountains. The river valleys and lower levels of the range were occupied by indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The range is traversed by Interstate 84, which crosses the crest of the range at a 4,193 feet summit. The community of Baker City is located along the flank of the range. U. S. Route 26 crosses the southern portion of the range, much of the range is included in the Malheur National Forest, Umatilla National Forest, and Wallowa–Whitman National Forest. The Wenaha–Tucannon Wilderness sits astride the Oregon–Washington border
11.
Cayuse horse
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Cayuse is an archaic term used in the American West, usually referring to a feral or low-quality horse or pony. In British Columbia, the variant word cayoosh refers to a breed of mountain pony with shorter legs and large hindquarters. The origin of the word is a Native American adaptation of the Spanish caballo, a variant adaptation, kiuatan, with a Sahaptian -tan ending, is the main word for horse or pony in the Chinook Jargon, although cayuse or cayoosh was also used in some areas. For this reason, some owned by Native American people were dubbed cayuse. Two cayuses that made history were Nimpo and Stuyve who were depicted in Richmond P. Hobson, both horses had been captured by a local Native American named Thomas Squinas near Nimpo Lake in the Chilcotin District of British Columbia. Hobson described the two cayuses as the best horses that he owned, because of their spirit and hardiness that helped them survive the extreme conditions in northern British Columbia
12.
Snake River
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The Snake River is a major river of the greater Pacific Northwest in the United States. At 1,078 miles long, it is the largest tributary of the Columbia River and its drainage basin encompasses parts of six U. S. states, and its average discharge is over 54,000 cubic feet per second. Rugged mountains divided by rolling plains characterize the physiographically diverse watershed of the Snake River, the Snake River Plain was created by a volcanic hotspot which now lies underneath Yellowstone National Park, where the headwaters of the Snake River arise. Two of these flooding events significantly affected the river and its surrounds. More than 11,000 years ago, prehistoric Native Americans lived along the Snake, Salmon from the Pacific Ocean spawned by the millions in the river. These fish were central to the lives of the people along the Snake below Shoshone Falls, by the time Lewis and Clark crossed the Rockies and sighted the valley of a Snake tributary, the Nez Perce and Shoshone were the most powerful peoples in the region. Some tribes adopted use of horses after contact with Europeans, which reshaped their hunting, later explorers and fur trappers further changed and used the resources of the Snake River basin. At one point, a sign made by the Shoshones representing fish was misinterpreted to represent a snake. By the middle 19th century, the Oregon Trail, a trail of which a major portion followed the Snake River, had been established by aspiring settlers and traders. Steamboats and railroads moved agricultural products and minerals along the river throughout the 19th, several of these have been proposed for removal in order to restore some of the rivers once-tremendous salmon runs. Its first 50-mile run through the valley of Jackson Hole, which cuts between the Teton Range and the Continental Divide, there it is also met by the Salt River at the mouth of Star Valley. Southwest of the city of Rexburg, the Snake receives from the right the Henrys Fork, the confluence with the Henrys Fork takes the river southwards through downtown Idaho Falls, rounding the Fort Hall Indian Reservation and into American Falls Reservoir, receiving the Portneuf River. Close to Twin Falls, the Snake approaches the southernmost point in its entire course, after which it starts to flow generally northwest. Shortly after it passes within 30 miles of the Idaho state capital of Boise, there were hundreds of rapids in Hells Canyon, some of which have been stilled by the three dams of the Hells Canyon Hydroelectric Project, Hells Canyon, Oxbow, and Brownlee. The Salmon River, the largest tributary of the Snake River, meets it in one of the most remote areas of its entire course, the confluence of the Snake and Columbia rivers has been submerged in Lake Wallula, the reservoir of McNary Dam. The Columbia River flows about 325 miles further west to the Pacific Ocean, as recently as 165 million years ago, most of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean. Even larger lava flows of Columbia River basalts issued over eastern Washington, forming the Columbia Plateau southeast of the Columbia River, separate volcanic activity formed the northwestern portion of the plain, an area far from the path of the hotspot which now lies beneath Yellowstone National Park. At this point, the Snake River watershed was beginning to take shape, the Snake River Plain and the gap between the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range formed a moisture channel, running as far inland as the headwaters of the Snake River
13.
Tucannon River
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The Tucannon River is a tributary of the Snake River in the U. S. state of Washington. It flows generally northwest from headwaters in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington to meet the Snake 4 miles upstream from Lyons Ferry Park, the Tucannon is about 62 miles long. Part of the river flows through the Wenaha–Tucannon Wilderness. River flows in the Tucannon basin depend solely on precipitation and groundwater, studies in the early 1990s suggested that these flows would not be able to meet all of the claims, public and private, on the water resources of the lower river. In particular, farm irrigation projects were competing with fisheries for limited water, the Washington Department of Ecology named the Tucannon basin a Watershed Resource Inventory Area and in 1995 began hearings about how to allocate the water. The lower Snake River was home to bands of the Palouse and other Sahaptin-speaking people, including Nez Perce, Yakama, Walla Walla, Umatilla, and Wanapum. The Blue Mountains formed the part of a 17,000, 000-acre region traditional to the aboriginal Nimiipuu people, renamed Nez Perce by Lewis. The horse was central to the lives of both the Palouse and the Nez Perce, the Nez Perce Trail followed part of the Touchet and Tucannon rivers, extending east from Wallula and reaching the Touchet below Waitsburg. From there it followed the bank of the Touchet River to present day Dayton. Here it crossed the river and followed Patit Creek northeast, on October 12,1805, after a difficult passage through Snake River rapids, Lewis and Clark passed through a shorter rapids just east of the mouth of the Tucannon. Lewis wrote, This we called called Kimooenim creek, the expedition did not stop, but continued down the Snake in dugouts. On their return trip to St. Louis on May 2,1806, Lewis and Clark followed the Nez Perce Trail, only 12 miles beyond their campsite they reached the stream. This creek rises in the southwest mountains, and though only twelve yards wide discharges a considerable body of water into Lewis river, N its narrow bottoms are found some cottonwood, willow and the underbrush which grows equally on the east branch of the Wollawollah. Lewis and Clark camped on the Pataha Creek, which is recorded as the first locality for some distance where they were able to find ample firewood, the fur industry was important in the region. The Tucannon River provided an area for beaver and otter trapping. F. A. Shavers 1906 book, An Illustrated History of Southeastern Washington, a party was led by John Work, who served as an agent of the HBC. Starting from Fort Nez Perce in September 1831, Work and a 56-person party followed the Nez Perce Trail to the Upper Snake River country. In the late winter of 1834, Captain Benjamin Bonneville crossed the Tucannon on the Nez Perce Trail, a number of wagon roads were built through the area in the 1860s
14.
Walla Walla River
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The Walla Walla River is a tributary of the Columbia River, joining the Columbia just above Wallula Gap in southeastern Washington in the United States. The river flows through Umatilla County, Oregon, and Walla Walla County and its drainage basin is 1,758 square miles in area. The headwaters of the Walla Walla River lie in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon, the river originates as the North and South Forks of the Walla Walla River. The surrounding forested land holds a network of hiking and mountain-biking trails, the confluence of the North and South Forks lies east of Milton–Freewater, Oregon. The river flows eastward to reach Milton–Freewater, which is built along its banks, irrigation water is drawn from the river here and at numerous locations along the river. The Walla Walla River flows southwest of the city of Walla Walla in the Walla Walla valley, mill Creek, which flows through the city of Walla Walla, joins the Walla Walla River at the Whitman Mission west of the city of Walla Walla. The Touchet River joins the Walla Walla at the town of Touchet, the annual mean discharge of the Walla Walla River just below the Touchet River confluence is 1,212 cu ft/s. The maximum recorded discharge was 20,300 cu ft/s in 1964, the river enters the Columbia a mile south of the town of Wallula just north of Wallula Gap. The section of the Columbia River is called Wallula Lake, the impoundment created by McNary Dam. The Walla Walla tribe occupied the region around the Walla Walla river prior to white settlers entry to the region, British explorer David Thompson was the first European to navigate the entire length of the Columbia River, to the Pacific Ocean, in 1811. Fort Nez Percés was a fur trading post on the Columbia River on the territory of modern-day Wallula. It was in operation from 1818 until 1857 on the shore of the Columbia River. The Oregon Treaty ended joint U. S. A, - British occupation that had been effect since the Treaty of 1818. The fort was abandoned in 1857 when the Hudsons Bay Company gave up its Columbia District business in the Oregon Territory, the Whitman Mission was established in 1836. It lies near the banks of the river to the west of the city of Walla Walla. The Walla Walla River supports populations of spring Chinook salmon, summer steelhead, there is a sport fishery for steelhead in the river. It also holds channel catfish and smallmouth bass in the summer, there have been a wide range of studies on the Walla Walla River and the overall catchment area. Work done by both Oregon and Washington State government, federal and state agencies and local watershed councils
15.
Touchet River
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The Touchet River is a 55-mile tributary of the Walla Walla River in southeastern Washington in the United States. The upper Touchet was a summer meeting place for trade and games for the Palus, Nez Perce. The name Touchet derives from the similarly pronounced Sahaptin term for the river, Nez Perce legend tells that coyote roasted salmon at this river after breaking a fish dam guarded by the seven swallow sisters at Celilo. The USGS cited two variant names, Pouchet River and Toosha River, the Touchet River drains an area of about 740 square miles. The main stem is 55 miles long, the average annual flow of the Touchet is 6.23 m³/s, not including diversions. Its headwaters lie in the Umatilla National Forest which is located in the Blue Mountains in Columbia County and it originates above the town of Dayton, Washington. It then passes through Waitsburg and Prescott before joining the Walla Walla at the town of Touchet, the forks join about 2 miles south of Dayton. The North Fork is about 25 miles long and the South Fork about 20 miles long, other tributaries include Patit Creek, which joins the Touchet at Dayton, Coppei Creek, which enters at Waitsburg, and Whetstone Creek, which joins the Touchet at Prescott. The Touchet is known for its fishing, especially in the upper reaches. The Nine Mile Dam, constructed in 1905 on the Walla Walla River below the confluence with the Touchet River, the Touchet River lay in the traditional range of the Palus American Indian tribe, marking their southern border with the range of the Walla Walla tribe. These peoples were of the Sahaptin-speaking group which traditionally inhabited the Columbia Plateau region of the northwestern United States, roots provided plentiful food along the Touchet Rivers. These included quamash, camas, kouse, bitterroots, serviceberry, chokecherry, huckleberry, gooseberries, rose berries and whortleberries, elderberries, wild strawberries, wild onions, once Euroamerican immigrants began settling the area after 1858, Indian root grounds were displaced by agriculture. As with other Sahaptin-speaking peoples, the Nez Perce were migratory, returning to the same year after year. The Lewis and Clark Trail State Park commemorates their May 1,1806 campsite on the Touchet River, the expedition left the Touchet River to follow a tributary, Patit Creek, at what is now Dayton. They camped about 2 miles above modern-day Dayton on Patit Creek on May 2,1806, before following the trail across country to the Tucannon River. The Whitman Mission catalyzed white settlement of the region, beginning in 1843 when 1,000 people,120 wagons, the initial settlers remained near the current city of Walla Walla and into the Touchet River valley. The Lamar Cabin, built in 1863 of hand-hewn cottonwood logs from the Touchet River valley by George Dudley Goodwin, became the home of the bachelor brothers James and Joseph Lamar in 1872. The brothers initially raised sheep and horses, in years they, mirroring the transitions of many others in the region
16.
Umatilla River
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The Umatilla River is an 89-mile tributary of the Columbia River in the U. S. state of Oregon. Draining a basin of 2,450 square miles, it enters the Columbia near the city of Umatilla in the part of the state. The Umatilla Rivers headwaters lie in the Blue Mountains at the confluence of its north and south forks in the Umatilla National Forest of northeastern Oregon. Flowing generally west, the river receives Lick Creek and Bear Creek, from Gibbon to the river mouth, tracks of the Union Pacific Railroad run parallel to the stream. Between Gibbon and Cayuse, three creeks—Squaw, Buckaroo, and Coonskin—enter the river from the left, downstream of Cayuse, Moonshine, Cottonwood, and Mission creeks also enter from the left. The river flows by Mission at about river mile 61 or river kilometer 98, leaves the Indian reservation, wildhorse Creek enters from the right, then Patawa Creek from the left. The river passes under Interstate 84 and receives McKay Creek from the left, shortly thereafter, Birch Creek enters from the left about 50 miles from the mouth. Coombs Creek enters from the left about 3 miles below that, the Umatilla reaches Stanfield about 23 miles from the mouth, then passes under Oregon Route 207 and receives Butter Creek from the left. The Umatilla River joins the Columbia at what is called Lake Umatilla, the confluence is 289 miles from the Columbias mouth on the Pacific Ocean at Astoria. McNary Dam, another dam on the Columbia, is upstream at about RM292. The Umatilla River supports populations of spring Chinook, fall Chinook, public access to salmon and steelhead fishing is fairly good downstream of the Oregon Route 11 bridge. Upstream of the bridge, the runs through the Umatilla Indian Reservation. List of rivers of Oregon List of longest streams of Oregon McArthur, Lewis A. and McArthur, Lewis L. Oregon Geographic Names, 7th ed. Portland, Umatilla Watershed, EPA Surf Your Watershed Historic photos from the U. S. Forest Service
17.
Grande Ronde River
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For other places with the same name, see Grande Ronde. The Grande Ronde River is a tributary of the Snake River,182 miles long, in northeastern Oregon and it drains an area southeast of the Blue Mountains and northwest of the Wallowa Mountains, on the Columbia Plateau. It flows through the agricultural Grande Ronde Valley in its middle course, approximately 10 miles northwest of Minam it receives the Wallowa River from the southeast, then receives the Wenaha River at Troy just south of the Washington border. It receives Joseph Creek from the south 2 miles upstream from its mouth on the Snake, the mouth of the Grande Ronde River is at the Snakes river mile 169, which is 493 miles from the mouth of the Columbia River. A diversion channel approximately 5 miles long in the Grande Ronde Valley east of La Grande allows the river to bypass a long meandering loop, providing access to its water for irrigation. In the early 19th century, the valley of the river was inhabited by Nez Perce, Umatilla, Walla Walla, numerous archaeological sites are on the public land around the river. The Grande Ronde River was given its name sometime before 1821 by French Canadian voyageurs working for the Montreal-based fur trading North West Company, Grande Ronde is a French name meaning great round. A portion Grande Ronde and its valley were part of the Oregon Trail and it was first used by settlers in 1844 when Moses Black Harris led his party to the river from Fort Hall and then turned northwest to cross the Blue Mountains. Harris navigation would be repeated, becoming a regular part of the Oregon Trail. The river today is a destination for hunting, especially for game animals such as mule deer, elk, black bear, cougar. Fishing, rafting and hiking are popular along the designated Wild. Most of the reaches of the river are inaccessible to motor vehicles. The Grand Ronde River supports populations of spring salmon, summer steelhead, bull trout, mountain whitefish. The river has a sport fishery and has some tribal fishing for spring chinook
18.
Burnt River (Oregon)
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The Burnt River is a 98-mile-long tributary of the Snake River in eastern Oregon, United States. Draining 1,090 square miles, it flows predominately west to east, the river begins at Unity Reservoir at the confluence of the North, West, Middle, and South forks of the river. The reservoir is slightly east of the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest in the Blue Mountains, Unity Lake State Recreation Site adjoins the reservoir. As it leaves the lake, the river flows under Oregon Route 245, then runs east through the upper Burnt River Valley past Hereford and Bridgeport and, through the Burnt River Canyon, to Durkee. Turning generally south at Durkee, the runs along Interstate 84 past Weatherby, Dixie. Shortly thereafter, it passes Huntington and reaches the Snake, List of rivers of Oregon List of longest streams of Oregon
19.
Powder River (Oregon)
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The Powder River is a tributary of the Snake River, approximately 153 miles long, in northeast Oregon in the United States. It drains an area of the Columbia Plateau on the side of the Blue Mountains. It flows almost entirely within Baker County but downstream of the city of North Powder forms part of the border between Baker County and Union County, the name Powder River is first recorded in the journals of Peter Skene Ogden without notation of the origin of the name. Explorer Donald Mackenzie likely named the river and it appears on Lewis and Clarks maps as Port-pel-lah. The Powder Rivers tributaries arise in the southern Blue Mountains in the Umatilla National Forest, after exiting Phillips Reservoir, the river continues east for about 7 miles before turning sharply north through the Bowen Valley and Baker City, Oregon. From here the river meanders the floor of the Baker Valley and passes by the cities of Haines and North Powder, here the river turns again sharply east-southeast, flowing through Thief Valley Reservoir, in a valley along the southern edge of the Wallowa Mountains. Major streams flowing into the Powder are Eagle Creek, Wolf Creek, Rock Creek, the Powder River watershed drains 1,603 square miles of northeastern Oregon. In 1988,11.7 miles of the Powder River was designated Wild, between the Thief Valley Dam and the Oregon Route 203 bridge, this stretch flows through a rugged canyon with spectacular geologic formations. Beaver populations are increasing along the river, with an excellent viewing area just off Oregon Route 7 below Mason Dam, there, a colony of beavers constructed a large dam easily viewed below the footbridge adjacent to the paved parking area. The Powder River was once an important spawning stream for Chinook salmon, the building of two later dams in Hells Canyon on the Snake River – Hells Canyon Dam and Brownlee Dam also permanently block salmon passage. The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife often release Chinook salmon on the Powder River for sportfishing at Mason Dam below Phillips Reservoir, List of rivers of Oregon List of longest streams of Oregon List of National Wild and Scenic Rivers Powder Basin Watershed Council]
20.
John Day River
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The John Day River is a tributary of the Columbia River, approximately 284 miles long, in northeastern Oregon in the United States. Undammed along its length, the river is the third longest free-flowing river in the contiguous United States. There is extensive use of its waters for irrigation and its course furnishes habitat for diverse species, including wild steelhead and Chinook salmon runs. However, the populations are under federal Endangered Species Act protections. The river was named for John Day, a member of the Pacific Fur Companys overland expedition to the mouth of the Columbia River that left Missouri in 1810, Day struggled through eastern Oregon during the winter of 1811–12. The absence of dams on the river causes its flow to greatly fluctuate throughout the year depending on snowpack, the highest flow recorded at a gauge on the lower John Day was 43,300 cubic feet per second on January 2,1997. The lowest flow was no flow at all, which occurred on September 2,1966, from August 15 to September 16,1973, the average flow at the gauge is 2,075 cubic feet per second. It flows through exceptionally scenic canyons in its course, with several significant paleontological sites along its banks. Elevations within the range from 268 feet at the rivers mouth to more than 9,000 feet in the Strawberry Mountains. The main branch of the John Day River rises in the Strawberry Mountains in eastern Grant County, the North Fork heads on the western slope of the Elkhorn Mountains in northeastern Grant County. The Middle Fork rises near the crest of the Blue Mountains on the edge of Grant County. The South Forks source is in northern Harney County, about 10 miles south of the Grant County line. The main, south and middle forks each have their heads in different parts of the Malheur National Forest, the main fork flows initially north, then west through the John Day Valley and through the cities of Prairie City, John Day and Mount Vernon. At Kimberly in northwestern Grant County, it is joined from the east by the North Fork John Day River, the river then flows west across Wheeler County. At the county line with Jefferson County it flows north, past the Clarno Unit of the John Day Fossil Beds National Monument. As it approaches the Columbia River in north-central Oregon it flows in a meandering course. The John Day River joins the Columbia from the southeast approximately 16 miles northeast of Biggs, the mouth of the river is on the narrow Lake Umatilla reservoir, formed on the Columbia by the John Day Dam, approximately 2 miles downstream from the mouth of the John Day. The John Day is navigable by rafts and other river craft by boaters who obtain permits provided by the BLM
21.
Deschutes River (Oregon)
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The Deschutes River /dəˈʃuːts/ in central Oregon is a major tributary of the Columbia River. The river provides much of the drainage on the side of the Cascade Range in Oregon, gathering many of the tributaries that descend from the drier. The Deschutes provided an important route to and from the Columbia for Native Americans for thousands of years, the river flows mostly through rugged and arid country, and its valley provides a cultural heart for central Oregon. Today the river water for irrigation and is popular in the summer for whitewater rafting and fishing. The river flows north, as do several other large Oregon tributaries of the Columbia River, including the Willamette. The headwaters of the Deschutes River are at Little Lava Lake, in central Bend, the river enters Mirror Pond, an impoundment behind Newport hydroelectric dam. The pond extends upstream to the Galveston Bridge and is a feature of Drake Park as well as Harmon, Pageant, and Brooks parks. From April through October, diversions to Central Oregon Irrigation District canals reduce the flow between Bend and Pelton Reregulating Dam, at river mile 100, that is, river kilometer 160). The river continues north from Bend, and just west of Redmond, here it passes by Eagle Crest Resort and Cline Falls State Scenic Viewpoint. As it heads north through the central Oregon high desert, the river carves a gorge bordered by basalt cliffs. By the time it reaches Lake Billy Chinook, a reservoir west of Madras, the river is approximately 300 feet below the surrounding plateau, at Lake Billy Chinook the river is joined by the Crooked and Metolius rivers. Beyond the dam, the continues north in a gorge well below the surrounding countryside. It passes through the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, which includes the city of Warm Springs, the river ends at its confluence with the Columbia River,5 miles southwest of Biggs Junction and 204 miles from the Columbias mouth on the Pacific Ocean. Named tributaries of the Deschutes River from source to mouth include Snow Creek then the Cultus River, Cultus Creek and Deer Creek, further downstream come the Fall River, the Little Deschutes River, and the Spring River followed by Tumalo Creek and Whychus Creek. The Metolius River and the Crooked River are next, both entering at Lake Billy Chinook, then come Seekseequa Creek and Willow Creek followed by Dry Hollow and Campbell, Shitike and Trout creeks, after which comes the Warm Springs River. Further downstream are Swamp, Skookum, Oak, Antoken, Cove, Eagle, Nena, Wapinitia, Spring Creek is next, followed by Oak Springs Creek and the White River. Below that are Winterwater and Elder creeks, prior to 80,000 years ago, the river ran along the east side of Pilot Butte and a lava flow from Lava Top Butte filled in this ancient channel. Previously, the basalt of the Bend lava flow, associated with the Lava River Cave, had diverted the river westward to its present-day location
22.
Celilo Falls
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Celilo Falls was a tribal fishing area on the Columbia River, just east of the Cascade Mountains, on what is today the border between the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington. The name refers to a series of cascades and waterfalls on the river, as well as to the native settlements and trading villages that existed there in various configurations for 15,000 years. Celilo was the oldest continuously inhabited community on the North American continent until 1957 and these features were formed by the Columbia Rivers relentless push through basalt narrows on the final leg of its journey to the Pacific Ocean. Frequently more than a mile in width, the river was squeezed here into a width of only 140 feet, the seasonal flow of the Columbia changed the height of the falls over the course of a year. At low water the drop was about 20 feet, in 1839, Modeste Demers investigated the area in some detail and described not just one fall but a great many, in different channels and with different qualities. He wrote, The number and variety are surprising and they are not all equally deep. The falls are from 3 to 12 and 15 feet high, during the spring freshet in June and July, the falls could be completely submerged. The falls were the sixth-largest by volume in the world and were among the largest in North America, average annual flow was about 190,000 ft³/sec, and during periods of high water or flood, as much as 1,240,000 ft³/sec passed over the falls. Celilo Falls itself was the first in a series of cascades and rapids known collectively as The Narrows or The Dalles, over that length, the river dropped 82 feet at high water and 63 feet at low water. Three miles below Celilo Falls was a stretch of rapids known variously as the Short Narrows, Ten Mile Rapids and these rapids were about 1 mile long and 250 feet wide. Ten miles below Celilo Falls was another stretch of rapids, this one known as the Long Narrows, Five Mile Rapids and this stretch of rapids was about 3 miles long, and the river channel narrowed to 75 feet. Immediately downstream were the Dalles Rapids, about 1.5 miles long, here the river dropped 15 feet in a tumult much commented on by early explorers. The Long Narrows and the Dalles Rapids are sometimes grouped together under names such as Grand Dalles, Les Dalles, Big Dalles, one early observer, Ross Cox, noted a three-mile succession of boiling whirlpools. Explorer Charles Wilkes described it as one of the most remarkable places upon the Columbia and he calculated that the river dropped about 50 feet over 2 miles here. During the spring freshet, the rose as much as 62 feet. Fur trader Alexander Ross wrote, rushes with great impetuosity, the foaming surges dash through the rocks with terrific violence, no craft, either large or small, can venture there safely. During floods, this obstruction, or ledge of rocks, is covered with water, for 15,000 years, native peoples gathered at Wyam to fish and exchange goods. They built wooden platforms out over the water and caught salmon with dipnets and long spears on poles as the fish swam up through the rapids and jumped over the falls
23.
Snake Indians
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Snake Indians is a collective name given to the Northern Paiute, Bannock, and Shoshone Native American tribes. The term was used as early as 1739 by French trader and explorer Pierre Gaultier de Varennes and this is probably the first written mention of the Shoshone people. The term Snakes is also used to refer the Shoshone by British explorers David Thompson and this term was widely used by American immigrants on the Oregon Trail in the Snake River and Owyhee River valleys of southern Idaho and Eastern Oregon. The term Snake Indian later included the Northern Paiute tribes found in the basins between the Cascade Mountains and these valleys in Oregon and northern Nevada and northeastern California and these people were the opponents of the California and Oregon Volunteers and U. S Army, in the Snake War. From the 1688-1720s, when the British Empire first came into prolonged trade contact with the Western Cree and Blackfoot and it is not clear if this term is meant to refer to Northern Paiute people, or if it is inaccurate, or perhaps entirely unrelated
24.
Oregon Trail
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The Oregon Trail is a 2, 170-mile historic east–west, large-wheeled wagon route and emigrant trail that connected the Missouri River to valleys in Oregon. The eastern part of the Oregon Trail spanned part of the state of Kansas. The western half of the trail spanned most of the states of Idaho. The Oregon Trail was laid by fur traders and traders from about 1811 to 1840, by 1836, when the first migrant wagon train was organized in Independence, Missouri, a wagon trail had been cleared to Fort Hall, Idaho. From the early to mid-1830s the Oregon Trail and its offshoots were used by about 400,000 settlers, farmers, miners, ranchers. The eastern half of the trail was used by travelers on the California Trail, Mormon Trail. Use of the trail declined as the first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, making the trip west substantially faster, cheaper, and safer. Today, modern highways, such as Interstate 80 and Interstate 84, follow parts of the same course westward and pass through towns originally established to serve those using the Oregon Trail. Although Lewis and William Clark found a path to the Pacific Ocean, it was not until 1859 that a direct and practicable route, the first land route across what is now the United States was mapped by the Lewis and Clark Expedition between 1804 and 1806. On the return trip in 1806 they traveled from the Columbia River to the Snake River and they then traveled overland up the Blackfoot River and crossed the Continental Divide at Lewis and Clark Pass and on to the head of the Missouri River. This was ultimately a shorter and faster route than the one they followed west and this route had the disadvantages of being much too rough for wagons and controlled by the Blackfoot Indians. They did show the way for the men, who within a decade would find a better way across. Founded by John Jacob Astor as a subsidiary of his American Fur Company in 1810, two movements of PFC employees were planned by Astor, one detachment to be sent to the Columbia River by the Tonquin and the other overland under an expedition led by Wilson Price Hunt. Hunt and his party were to find possible routes and trapping territories for further fur trading posts. Upon arriving at the river in March 1811, the Tonquin crew began construction of what became Fort Astoria, the ship left supplies and men to continue work on the station and ventured north up the coast to Clayoquot Sound for a trading expedition. While anchored there, Jonathan Thorn insulted an elder Tla-o-qui-aht who was elected by the natives to negotiate a mutually satisfactory price for animal pelts. Soon after the vessel was attacked and overwhelmed by the indigenous before being blown up, killing all the crew, from there they went over the Teton Range via Teton Pass and then down to the Snake River into modern Idaho. They abandoned their horses at the Snake River, made dugout canoes, after a few days travel they soon discovered that steep canyons, waterfalls and impassable rapids made travel by river impossible
25.
California Gold Rush
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The California Gold Rush began on January 24,1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutters Mill in Coloma, California. The news of gold brought some 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States, the Gold Rush initiated the California Genocide, with 100,000 Native Californians dying between 1848 and 1868. By the time it ended, California had gone from a thinly populated ex-Mexican territory to the state of the first nominee for the Republican Party. The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial, whole indigenous societies were attacked and pushed off their lands by the gold-seekers, called forty-niners. The first to hear confirmed information of the rush were the people in Oregon, the Sandwich Islands, and Latin America. While most of the newly arrived were Americans, the Gold Rush attracted tens of thousands from Latin America, Europe, Australia, agriculture and ranching expanded throughout the state to meet the needs of the settlers. San Francisco grew from a settlement of about 200 residents in 1846 to a boomtown of about 36,000 by 1852. Roads, churches, schools and other towns were built throughout California, in 1849 a state constitution was written. The new constitution was adopted by vote, and the future states interim first governor. In September,1850, California became a state, at the beginning of the Gold Rush, there was no law regarding property rights in the goldfields and a system of staking claims was developed. Prospectors retrieved the gold from streams and riverbeds using simple techniques, although the mining caused environmental harm, more sophisticated methods of gold recovery were developed and later adopted around the world. New methods of transportation developed as steamships came into regular service, by 1869 railroads were built across the country from California to the eastern United States. At its peak, technological advances reached a point where significant financing was required, Gold worth tens of billions of todays dollars was recovered, which led to great wealth for a few. However, many returned home with more than they had started with. The Mexican–American War ended on February 3,1848, although California was firmly in American hands before that, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided for, among other things, the formal transfer of Upper California to the United States. The California Gold Rush began at Sutters Mill, near Coloma, on January 24,1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River. Marshall brought what he found to John Sutter, and the two tested the metal. However, rumors started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher
26.
Marcus Whitman
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Marcus Whitman was an American physician and missionary in the Oregon Country. Along with his wife, Narcissa, he started a mission to the Cayuse in what is now southeastern Washington state in 1836, the area later developed as a trading post and stop along the Oregon Trail, and the city of Walla Walla, Washington developed near there. Settlers encroached on the Cayuse near the Whitman mission, continuing warfare by settlers reduced the Cayuse numbers further and they eventually joined the Nez Perce tribe to survive. On September 4,1802, Whitman was born in Federal Hollow, New York to Beza and their immigrant paternal ancestor was John Whitman, who immigrated to the Massachusetts Bay Colony before 1639 from England. After his fathers death when Whitman was seven, he was sent to Massachusetts to live with his uncle, Whitman dreamed of becoming a minister but did not have the money for such schooling. As a young man, he had returned to New York and he studied medicine for two years with an experienced physician under the form of apprenticeship approved then, and received his degree from Fairfield Medical College in New York. He practiced medicine for a few years in Canada but was interested in going to the west, in 1834 Whitman applied to the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. They initially denied him for reasons, but he was later accepted as a missionary doctor. In 1835, he traveled with the missionary Samuel Parker to present-day northwestern Montana and northern Idaho, to minister to bands of the Flathead, during this journey, Whitman treated several fur trappers during an outbreak of cholera. At the end of their stay, he promised the Nez Perce that he would return with other missionaries, after his return to New York, Whitman attended a speech by Parker, who then represented the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. He called for missionaries for the west, Whitman volunteered again to go there. In 1836, Whitman married Narcissa Prentiss, a teacher of physics and she had also been eager to travel west as a missionary, but she had been unable to do so as a single woman. They had one daughter, Alice Clarissa, born On March 14,1837 and she was named after her grandmothers. Unfortunately, she drowned in the Walla Walla River at age two, as settlers came in increasing numbers, the Whitmans took in eleven orphaned children, including the adoption of the Sager orphans. They also established a kind of boarding school for children at their mission. On May 25,1836, the Whitmans, and a group of missionaries including Henry and Eliza Spalding, joined a caravan of fur traders. The fur company caravan was led by the mountain men Milton Sublette, the fur traders had seven covered wagons, each pulled by six mules. An additional cart drawn by two mules carried Milton Sublette, who had lost a leg a year earlier and walked on a cork one made by a friend, the combined group arrived at the fur-traders annual rendezvous on July 6
27.
Narcissa Whitman
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Narcissa Prentiss Whitman was an American missionary in the Oregon Country of what would become the state of Washington. Narcissa Prentiss was born in Prattsburgh, New York, on March 14,1808 and she was the third of nine children of Judge Stephen and Clarissa Prentiss. She was the oldest of the five girls, followed by Clarissa, Mary Ann, Jane, like many young women of the era, she became caught up in the Second Great Awakening. She decided that her calling was to become a missionary. She was educated at the Franklin Academy in Prattsburgh before her marriage to Dr. Marcus Whitman on February 18,1836 in Angelica and her birthplace in Prattsburgh is open to the public as the Narcissa Prentiss House. The journey was by sleigh, canal barge, wagon, river sternwheeler, horseback, the founder of Ogden, Utah, Miles Goodyear, traveled with them until Fort Hall. On September 1,1836, they arrived at Fort Walla Walla and they then traveled on to Fort Vancouver where they were hosted by Dr. John McLoughlin before returning to the Walla Walla area to build their mission. Narcissa was one of the first white women to cross the Rocky Mountains and she was something of a novel addition to the community for the local Native Americans, the Cayuse. The Whitman Mission began to shape in 1837, eventually growing into a major stopping point along the Oregon Trail. Methodist missionary Jason Lee would stop off in 1838 at the mission on his way east to gather reinforcements in the United States for his mission in the Willamette Valley. Then, in 1840, mountain man Joseph Meek, whom the Whitmans met on their journey to the area, built at Waiilatpu, the settlement was about six miles from Fort Walla Walla and along the Walla Walla River. At the mission, Narcissa gave Bible classes to the native population, besides the missionary goals of converting the natives, she also ran the household. Her daily activities included cooking, washing and ironing clothes, churning butter, making candles and soap, on March 14,1837, on her twenty-ninth birthday, Narcissa gave birth to the first white American born in Oregon Country. She named her Alice Clarissa after her grandmothers, and she would be their natural child. Unfortunately, she drowned in the Walla Walla River on June 23,1839 at age two, unattended for only a few moments, she had gone down to the river bank to fill her cup with water and fell in. Though her body was found shortly after, all attempts to revive her failed, however, other children came to the mission, including the Sager orphans, to whom Narcissa became a second mother. Just before winter, in late 1842, Marcus traveled back east to more missionaries for the mission. Marcus returned with his nephew, Perrin, from his trip east in 1843, throughout their time in Oregon Country, Narcissa and Marcus encountered trouble with the native tribes
28.
Christian mission
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A Christian mission is an organized effort to spread Christianity. Missions often involve sending individuals and groups, called missionaries, across boundaries, most commonly geographical boundaries and this involves evangelism, and humanitarian work, especially among the poor and disadvantaged. There are a few different kinds of trips, short-term, long-term, relational. Some might choose to dedicate their lives to missions as well. Missionaries have the authority to preach the Christian faith, and provide work to improve economic development, literacy, education, health care. Christian doctrines permit the provision of aid without requiring religious conversion, the earliest examples of Christian missionary activity are those recorded in writings that would eventually come to form the New Testament. Early writings include the letters of Apostle Paul, written in the course of his activity in Asia Minor. His activities were preceded by an expansion of Christianity from the first followers of Jesus in Jerusalem throughout Syro-Palestine and this is also described in the Acts of the Apostles. The earliest Christian mission, then, the Great Commission and Dispersion of the Apostles, was active within Second Temple Judaism, as Christianity had not yet split from Judaism. Whether a Jewish proselytism existed or not that would have served as a model for the early Christians is unclear, soon, the expansion of the Christian mission beyond Judaism to those who were not Jewish became a contested issue, notably at the Council of Jerusalem. The Apostle Paul was a proponent of this expansion, and contextualized the Christian message for the Greek and Roman cultures, permitting it to reach beyond its Hebrew. From Late Antiquity onward, much activity was carried out by members of religious orders. Monasteries followed disciplines and supported missions, libraries, and practical research, all of which were perceived as works to reduce human misery and suffering, for example, Nestorian communities evangelized parts of Central Asia, as well as Tibet, China, and India. Cistercians evangelized much of Northern Europe, as well as developing most of European agricultures classic techniques, st Patrick evangelized many in Ireland. St David was active in Wales, during the Middle Ages, Ramon Llull advanced the concept of preaching to Muslims and converting them to Christianity by means of non-violent argument. A vision for mission to Muslims would die with him. Additional events can be found at the timeline of Christian missions, during the Middle Ages Christian monasteries and missionaries such as Saint Patrick, and Adalbert of Prague propagated learning and religion beyond the boundaries of the old Roman Empire. In the seventh century Gregory the Great sent missionaries, including Augustine of Canterbury, the Hiberno-Scottish mission began in 563
29.
Walla Walla, Washington
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Walla Walla is the largest city in and the county seat of Walla Walla County, Washington, United States. The population of the city itself was 31,731 at the 2010 census, the population of Walla Walla and its two suburbs, the town of College Place and unincorporated East Walla Walla, is about 45,000. Walla Walla is in the region of Washington, approximately four and a half hours away by car from Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington. Recorded history in this begins with the establishment of Fort Nez Perce in 1818 by the North West Company to trade with the Walla Walla people. At the time, the term Nez Perce was used more broadly than today, Fort Nez Perce had its name shift to Fort Walla Walla. It was located significantly west of the present city, on September 1,1836, Marcus Whitman arrived with his wife Narcissa Whitman. Here they established the Whitman Mission in an attempt to convert the local Walla Walla tribe to Christianity. Following a disease epidemic, both were killed by the Cayuse who believed that the missionaries were poisoning the native peoples, Whitman College was established in their honor. The original North West Company and later Hudsons Bay Company Fort Nez Percés fur trading outpost, the fort has been restored with many of the original buildings preserved. The current Fort Walla Walla contains these buildings, albeit in a different location from the original, the origins of Walla Walla at its present site begin with the establishment of Fort Walla Walla by the United States Army here in 1856. The Walla Walla River, where it adjoins the Columbia River, was the point for the Mullan Road. John Mullan, connecting the head of navigation on the Columbia at Walla Walla with the head of navigation on the Missouri-Mississippi at Fort Benton, Walla Walla was incorporated on January 11,1862. As a result of a rush in Idaho, during this decade the city became the largest community in the territory of Washington. Following this period of growth, agriculture became the citys primary industry. In 1846, the Catholic Church established the Diocese of Walla Walla, in 1850, the see of Walla Walla was abandoned and its territory assigned to the new Diocese of Nesqually, with Blanchet as its bishop and its episcopal see in Vancouver. Walla Walla is a Native American name that means Place of Many Waters, the original name of the town was Steptoeville named after Colonel Edward Steptoe. In 1855 the name was changed to Waiilatpu, and then by 1859 had been changed again, Walla Walla is located at 46°3′54″N 118°19′49″W. Walla Walla is also located in the Walla Walla Valley, with the rolling Palouse hills, various creeks meander through town before combining to become the Walla Walla River, which drains into the Columbia River about 30 miles west of town
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Immunity (medical)
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Immunity is the capability of multicellular organisms to resist harmful microorganisms from entering it. Immunity involves both specific and nonspecific components, the nonspecific components act as barriers or eliminators of a wide range of pathogens irrespective of their antigenic make-up. Other components of the immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and are able to generate pathogen-specific immunity, an immune system may contain innate and adaptive components. The innate system in mammalians for example is composed of bone marrow cells that are programmed to recognise foreign substances. The adaptive system is composed of more advanced lymphatic cells that are programmed to recognise self substances, the reaction to foreign substances is etymologically described as inflammation, meaning to set on fire. The non-reaction to self substances is described as immunity, meaning to exempt or as immunotolerance, disease can arise when what is foreign cannot be eliminated or what is self is not spared. Innate immunity, also called native immunity, exists by virtue of an organisms constitution and it is divided into two types, Non-Specific innate immunity, a degree of resistance to all infections in general. Specific innate immunity, a resistance to a kind of microorganism only. As a result some races, specific individuals or breeds in agriculture do not suffer from certain infectious diseases, passive immunity is acquired through transfer of antibodies or activated T-cells from an immune host, it is short lived—usually lasting only a few months. The diagram below summarizes these divisions of immunity, humoral immunity is called active when the organism generates its own antibodies, and passive when antibodies are transferred between individuals or species. Similarly, cell mediated immunity is active when the organisms’ own T-cells are stimulated, the concept of immunity has intrigued mankind for thousands of years. Between the time of Hippocrates and the 19th century, when the foundations of the methods were laid. If someone were exposed to the miasma in a swamp, in evening air, or breathing air in a sickroom or hospital ward, the modern word immunity derives from the Latin immunis, meaning exemption from military service, tax payments or other public services. For no one was attacked a second time, or not with a fatal result. The term immunes, is found in the epic poem Pharsalia written around 60 B. C. by the poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus to describe a North African tribes resistance to snake venom. In the treatise, Al Razi describes the presentation of smallpox. The first scientist who developed full theory of immunity was Ilya Mechnikov after he revealed phagocytosis in 1882, the birth of active immunotherapy may have begun with Mithridates VI of Pontus. To induce active immunity for snake venom, he recommended using a similar to modern toxoid serum therapy
31.
Endemism
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The extreme opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan distribution. An alternative term for a species that is endemic is precinctive, the word endemic is from New Latin endēmicus, from Greek ενδήμος, endēmos, native. Endēmos is formed of en meaning in, and dēmos meaning the people, the term, precinctive, has been suggested by some scientists, and was first used in botany by MacCaughey in 1917. It is the equivalent of endemism, precinction was perhaps first used by Frank and McCoy. That definition excludes artificial confinement of examples by humans in far-off botanical gardens or zoological parks, physical, climatic, and biological factors can contribute to endemism. The orange-breasted sunbird is found in the fynbos vegetation zone of southwestern South Africa. The glacier bear is found only in limited places in Southeast Alaska, political factors can play a part if a species is protected, or actively hunted, in one jurisdiction but not another. There are two subcategories of endemism, paleoendemism and neoendemism, paleoendemism refers to species that were formerly widespread but are now restricted to a smaller area. Neoendemism refers to species that have arisen, such as through divergence and reproductive isolation or through hybridization. Endemics can easily become endangered or extinct if their restricted habitat changes, particularly—but not only—due to human actions, there were millions of both Bermuda petrels and Bermuda cedars in Bermuda when it was settled at the start of the seventeenth century. By the end of the century, the petrels were thought extinct, cedars, already ravaged by centuries of shipbuilding, were driven nearly to extinction in the twentieth century by the introduction of a parasite. Bermuda petrels and cedars are now rare, as are species endemic to Bermuda
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Cayuse War
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Over the next few years the Provisional Government of Oregon and later the United States Army battled the Indians east of the Cascades. In 1836, two missionaries—Marcus and Narcissa Whitman—founded the Whitman Mission among the Cayuse Indians at Waiilatpu, six miles west of present-day Walla Walla, in addition to evangelizing, the missionaries established schools and grist mills and introduced crop irrigation. Their work advanced slowly until in 1842, Marcus Whitman convinced the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions to provide support, returning the following year, he joined approximately a thousand settlers traveling to Oregon Territory. The sudden influx of American settlers led to an escalation of tension between natives and settlers, which owed much to cultural misunderstandings and mutual hostilities, for instance, the Cayuse believed that to plow the ground was to desecrate the spirit of the Earth. The settlers, as agriculturalists, naturally did not accept this, the new settlers brought diseases with them. In 1847 an epidemic of measles killed half the Cayuse, seeking revenge, Cayuse tribesmen attacked the Whitman Mission on November 29,1847. Fourteen settlers were killed, including both of the Whitmans, most of the buildings at Waiilatpu were destroyed. The site is now a National Historic Site, for several weeks,53 women and children were held captive before eventually being released. This event, which known as the Whitman Massacre, started the Cayuse War. A fifty person unit of volunteers was raised immediately and dispatched to The Dalles under the command of Henry A. G. Lee. Called the Oregon Rifles, they were formed on December 8,1847, and then gathered at Fort Vancouver on December 10, the group was to protect the Wascopam Mission at The Dalles and prevent any hostile forces from reaching the Willamette Valley. In addition, the governor appointed a commission, consisting of Joel Palmer, Lee. The Oregon Rifles marched to The Dalles, arriving on December 21, upon arriving there, they drove off a band of Indians, but not before the natives stole 300 head of cattle. There the troops built a stockade and named the post Fort Lee for the commander, in January 1848, a force of over 500 militiamen led by Colonel Cornelius Gilliam marched against the Cayuse and other native inhabitants of central Oregon. These troops arrived at Fort Lee in February, and with a larger force, by March 4 the forces reached the mission after a battle at Sand Hollows. After reaching the mission, Col. Gilliam set out to return to The Dalles with a force to supply that settlement. However, on the journey Gilliam was accidentally killed in camp and these militia forces were later supported by the United States Army. Some Cayuse initially refused to make peace and raided isolated settlements while others, considered friendly to the settlers, the militia forces, eager for action, provoked both friendly and hostile Indians
33.
Hudson's Bay Company
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The Hudsons Bay Company, commonly referred to as The Bay, is a Canadian retail business group. HBCs head office is in the Simpson Tower in Toronto, Ontario, the company is listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange under the symbol HBC. It was once the worlds largest landowner, with the area of the Hudson Bay watershed, known as Ruperts Land, having 15% of North American acreage. From its long-time headquarters at York Factory on Hudson Bay, the company controlled the fur trade throughout much of the English, undertaking early exploration, its traders and trappers forged relationships with many groups of aboriginal peoples. Its network of trading posts formed the nucleus for later official authority in areas of Western Canada. By the mid-19th century, the company evolved into a business selling everything from furs to fine homeware. They quickly introduced a new type of client to the HBC – one that shopped for pleasure and not with skins, in July 2008, HBC was acquired by NRDC Equity Partners, which also owns the upmarket American department store Lord & Taylor. From 2008 to 2012, the HBC was run through a company of NRDC, Hudsons Bay Trading Company. Since 2012, the HBC directly oversees its Canadian subsidiaries Hudsons Bay and Home Outfitters, on 29 July 2013, the HBC announced its takeover of Saks, Inc. operator of the Saks Fifth Avenue brand. The merger was completed on 3 November 2013, in September 2015, HBC acquired the German department store chain Galeria Kaufhof and its Belgian subsidiary from Metro Group for $3.2 billion U. S. In May 2016, HBC announced it would expand to the Netherlands by taking over up to 20 former Vroom & Dreesmann sites by 2017, v&D was an historic Dutch department store chain that went bankrupt and shut down in early 2016. HBC said the expansion would cost CAD $340 million and create 2,500 jobs in the stores, the Dutch stores would operate under the Hudsons Bay and Saks Off Fifth brands. In January 2016, HBC announced it would also expand deeper in the space with its acquisition of online flash sales site. In the 17th century the French had a de facto monopoly on the Canadian fur trade with their colony of New France. Assuming this was Hudson Bay, they sought French backing for a plan to set up a trading post on the Bay, despite this refusal, in 1659 Radisson and Groseilliers set out for the upper Great Lakes basin. A year later returned with premium furs, evidence of the potential of the Hudson Bay region. Subsequently, they were arrested for trading without a licence and fined, determined to establish trade in the Hudson Bay, Radisson and Groseilliers approached a group of businessmen in Boston, Massachusetts to help finance their explorations. The Bostonians agreed on the plans merits but their speculative voyage in 1663 failed when their ship ran into pack ice in Hudson Strait, boston-based English commissioner Colonel George Cartwright learned of the expedition and brought the two to England to raise financing
34.
Walla Walla Council (1855)
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The Walla Walla Council was a meeting in the Pacific Northwest between the United States and sovereign tribal nations of the Cayuse, Nez Perce, Umatilla, Walla Walla, and Yakima. The council occurred from May 29-June 11,1855, the treaties signed at this council on June 9 were ratified by the U. S. Senate in 1859. These treaties codified the constitutional relationship between the living on the Nez Perce, Umatilla, and Yakama reservations. This treaty was one of the earliest treaties obtained in the Pacific Northwest, washingtons first governor Isaac I. Stevens secured this treaty, allowing larger portions of the land to be given to the two largest and most powerful tribes the Yakimas and Nez Perces. These reservations encompassed most of their hunting grounds. The smaller tribes moved to the smaller of the three reservations, Stevens was able to acquire forty-five thousand square miles of land. Yakima War Palouse War Treaty with the Nez Perce 1855, Treaty with the Walla Walla, Cayuse and Umatilla 1855
35.
Tipi
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A tipi is a cone-shaped tent, traditionally made of animal skins upon wooden poles. A tipi is distinguished from other conical tents by the flaps at the top of the structure. Tipi lodges are still in use by these peoples, though now primarily for ceremonial purposes, tipis are stereotypically and incorrectly associated with all Native Americans in the United States and Aboriginal people in Canada, despite their usage being unique to the peoples of the Plains. Native American tribes and First Nation band governments from other regions have used other types of dwellings, the tipi is durable, provides warmth and comfort in winter, is cool in the heat of summer, and is dry during heavy rains. Tipis can be disassembled and packed away quickly when people need to relocate, historically, this portability was important to Plains Indians with their at-times nomadic lifestyle. The word tipi comes into English from the Lakota language, the Lakota word thípi means a dwelling or they dwell, from the verb thí, meaning to dwell. The wigwam or wickiup, a dome-shaped shelter typically made of bark layered on a pole-structure, was used by various tribes. The term wigwam has often been used to refer to a conical skin tipi. A typical family tipi is a conical, portable structure with two adjustable smoke flaps, multiple poles called lodge poles and they are then drawn apart at the large ends and adjusted upon the ground in the rim of a circle usually ten feet in diameter. A number of untanned and tanned buffalo skins, stitched together in a form adjustable to the frame, are drawn around it and lashed together, the lower edges are secured to the ground with tent-pins. At the top there is an extra skin adjusted as a collar, a low opening is left for a doorway, which is covered with an extra skin used as a drop. The fire-pit and arrangements for beds are the same as in the Ojibwa lodge, lodgepole pine is the preferred wood in the Northern and Central Plains and red cedar in the Southern Plains. Tipis have a cover over the structure. The cover has historically made of buffalo hide, an optional skin or cloth lining. Modern lodges are more often made of canvas, ropes and wooden pegs are required to bind the poles, close the cover, attach the lining and door, and anchor the resulting structure to the ground. Tipis were designed to be set up or taken down to allow camps to be moved to follow game migrations. When dismantled the tipi poles were used to construct a dog- or later horse-pulled travois on which additional poles, Tipi covers are made by sewing together strips of canvas or tanned hide and cutting out a semicircular shape from the resulting surface. Trimming this shape yields a door and the flaps that allow the dwellers to control the chimney effect to expel smoke from their fires
36.
Rocky Mountains
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The Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the Pacific Coast Ranges, the Rocky Mountains were initially formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began to slide underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks, at the end of the last ice age, humans started to inhabit the mountain range. The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre in 1752, the Rocky Mountains are commonly defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia south to the Rio Grande in New Mexico. The United States definition of the Rockies includes the Cabinet and Salish Mountains of Idaho and their counterparts north of the Kootenai River, the Columbia Mountains, are considered a separate system in Canada, lying to the west of the huge Rocky Mountain Trench. This runs the length of British Columbia from its beginnings in the middle Flathead River valley in western Montana to the bank of the Liard River. The Rockies vary in width from 70 to 300 miles, also west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, farther north and facing the Muskwa Range across the trench, are the Stikine Ranges and Omineca Mountains of the Interior Mountains system of British Columbia. A small area east of Prince George, British Columbia on the side of the Trench. In Canada geographers define three main groups of ranges, the Continental Ranges, Hart Ranges and Muskwa Ranges, the Muskwa and Hart Ranges together comprise what is known as the Northern Rockies. The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City, the Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these sub-ranges from distinct ranges further to the west, most prominent among which are the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range and Coast Mountains. The Rocky Mountain System within the United States is a United States physiographic region, the Rocky Mountains are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North America. The ranges highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet above sea level, Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 feet, is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies. The Continental Divide of the Americas is located in the Rocky Mountains, triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park is so named because water that falls on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific, but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, see Rivers of the Rocky Mountains for a list of rivers. Human population is not very dense in the Rocky Mountains, with an average of four people per square kilometer, however, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The 40-year statewide increases in range from 35% in Montana to about 150% in Utah
37.
Penutian
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Penutian is a proposed grouping of language families that includes many Native American languages of western North America, predominantly spoken at one time in Washington, Oregon, and California. The existence of a Penutian stock or phylum has been the subject of debate among specialists, Even the unity of some of its component families has been disputed. Some of the problems in the study of languages within the phylum are the result of their early extinction. Subsequently, Marie-Lucie Tarpent reassessed Tsimshianic, an isolated family in northern British Columbia. Some of the recently proposed subgroupings of Penutian have been convincingly demonstrated. The Miwokan and the Costanoan languages have been grouped into an Utian language family by Catherine Callaghan, Callaghan has more recently provided evidence supporting a grouping of Utian and Yokutsan into a Yok-Utian family. There also seems to be convincing evidence for the Plateau Penutian grouping which would consist of Klamath–Modoc, Molala, the name Penutian is based on the words meaning two in the Wintuan, Maiduan, and Yokutsan languages and the Utian languages. Although perhaps originally intended to be pronounced /pɛn. ˈuːtiən/, which is indicated in some dictionaries, the original Penutian hypothesis, offered in 1913 by Roland B. Dixon and Alfred L. Kroeber, focused upon the close relationships among five California language families listed below. Maiduan languages Miwok Costanoan languages Wintuan languages Yokutsan languages That original proposal has since been called alternately Core Penutian, California Penutian, in 1919 the same two authors published their linguistic evidence for the proposal. The grouping, like many of Dixon & Kroebers other phylum proposals, was based mostly on shared typological characteristics, starting from this early date, the Penutian hypothesis was controversial. Prior to the 1913 Penutian proposal of Dixon and Kroeber, Albert S. Gatschet had grouped Miwokan and Costanoan into a Mutsun group and that grouping, now termed Utian, was later conclusively demonstrated by Catherine Callaghan. In 1903 Dixon & Kroeber noted a relationship among Costanoan, Maidu, Wintun. In 1910 Kroeber finally recognized the relationship between the Miwokan and Costanoan languages. California Penutian grouping Maiduan Utian Wintuan Yokutsan II, Oregon Penutian grouping Coosan Siuslaw Takelma Kalapuyan Alsean III. This link, earlier proposed by Stanley Newman, has now shown to be the result of a hoax. Mary Haas states the following regarding this borrowing, Even where genetic relationship is clearly indicated, the evidence of diffusion of traits from neighboring tribes, related or not, is seen on every hand. California Penutian and Takelma–Kalapuyan are no longer accepted as valid nodes by many Penutian researchers, however, Plateau Penutian, Oregon Coast Penutian, and Yok-Utian are increasingly supported. Perhaps because many Penutian languages have ablaut, vowels are difficult to reconstruct, for example, the proto-Yokuts retroflexes */ʈ/ */ʈʼ/ correspond to Klamath /t͡ʃ t͡ʃʼ/, whereas the Proto-Yokuts dental */t̪/ */t̪ʰ/ */t̪ʼ/ correspond to Klamath alveolar /d t tʼ/
38.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
39.
Chinookan languages
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Chinookan is a small family of languages spoken in Oregon and Washington along the Columbia River by Chinook peoples. Chinookan consists of three languages with multiple varieties, there is some dispute over classification, and there are two ISO 639-3 codes assigned, chh and wac. For example, Ethnologue 15e classifies Kiksht as Lower Chinook, while others consider it instead Upper Chinook, Lower Chinook Kathlamet Upper Chinook Consonants The glides, are often analyzed as allophones of the high vowels. Vowels As in many North American Languages, verbs constitute complete clauses in themselves, nominal may accompany the verbs, but they have adjunct status, functioning as appositives to the pronominal affixes. Word order functions purely pragmatically, constituents appear in decreasing order of newsworthiness, clauses are combined by juxtaposition or particles, rather than subordinating inflection. Verbs contain an initial tense or aspect prefix, ergative pronominal prefix, obligatory assaultive prefixed, dative prefix, reflexive/reciprocal/middle, adverbial, directional, the number of tense/aspect prefix distinctions varies among the languages. Kiksht shows six way tense distinctions, mythic past, remote past, recent past, immediate past, present, the pronominal prefixes are obligatory, whether free nominals occur in the clause-or not. Three can be seen in the Kathlamet verb, the ergative refers to agent of a transitive verb, the absolutive to patient of a transitive or single argument of an intransitive, the dative to indirect object. Reflexive prefixes can serve as reciprocals and as medio-passives, when the reflexive follows can ergative-absolutive pronoun sequence, it indicates that one indirectly affected is the same as the ergative. When it follows an absolutive –dative pronoun sequence, it indicates that one indirectly affected is associated with the absolutive, perhaps as the whole in a part-whole relationship, or the owner. Suffixes include repetitive, causatives, a passive, completive, stative, purposive, future, usitative, successful completive. Nouns contain an initial prefix, pronominal prefix, positive prefix, inner normalizer, root, a suffix, plural. Initial prefix serve primarily as nominalizers, masculine prefixes appear with nouns designating male persons, feminine with those denoting female persons. All are used for referring to objects as well. Masculine prefixes appear with the animals, feminine for small ones. Masculine prefixes also appear with nouns expressing qualities, the gender/number prefixes is followed by possessive pronominal prefixes of the verb. These distinguish first, inclusive, second, third, fourth person, the possessive prefixes are followed by noun stem, perhaps including another nominalizer. Nominal suffixes indicate emphasis or contrast, specificity, succession in time, definiteness, plurality, the gender/number prefixes is followed by possessive pronominal prefixes of the verb
40.
Longhouse
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A longhouse or long house is a type of long, proportionately narrow, single-room building built by peoples in various parts of the world including Asia, Europe, and North America. Many were built from timber and often represent the earliest form of permanent structure in many cultures, the Neolithic long house type was introduced with the first farmers of central and western Europe around 5000 BCE—7000 years ago. These were farming settlements built in groups of six to twelve and were home to large extended families. The longhouse is a way of shelter. Located along a slope, a single passage gives access to human and animal shelter under a single roof. The old Frisian Langhuis that developed into the Frisian farmhouse which probably influenced the development of the Gulf house, with these house types the wooden posts originally rammed into the ground were replaced by posts supported on a base. The large and well-supported attic enabled large quantities of hay or grain to be stored in dry conditions and this development may have been driven because the weather became wetter over time. Good examples of houses have been preserved, some dating back to the 16th century. The longhouse was 50 to 60 feet long, the longhouse had a 3 metres -wide central aisle and 2 metres -wide compartments, about 6 to 7 metres long, down each side. The end compartments were used for storage. Hearths were spaced about 6 to 7 metres apart down the aisle and it is possible to infer the population of an Iroquois town from the size and number of longhouses it contained. In South America, the Tucano people of Colombia and northwest Brazil traditionally combine a household in a long house. The Xingu peoples of central Brazil build a series of longhouses in circular formations forming round villages, the ancient Tupi people of Brazilian Coast used to do this as well. The Yanomami people of Brazil and Venezuela build a hut with a thatched roof that has a hole in the middle, called shabono. In Daepyeong, a site of the Mumun pottery period in Korea. Their layout seems to be similar to those of the Iroquois, in these, several fireplaces were arranged along the longitudinal axis of the building. Later, the ancient Koreans started raising their buildings on stilts, so that the inner partitions, the size of the buildings and their placement within the settlements may point to buildings for the nobles of their society or some sort of community or religious buildings. In Igeum-dong, a site in South Korea, the large longhouses,29 and 26 meters long, are situated between the megalithic cemetery and the rest of the settlement
