Cellulase is any of several enzymes produced chiefly by fungi and protozoans that catalyze cellulolysis, the decomposition of cellulose and of some related polysaccharides. The name is used for any occurring mixture or complex of various such enzymes, that act serially or synergistically to decompose cellulosic material. Cellulases break down the cellulose molecule into monosaccharides such as beta-glucose, or shorter polysaccharides and oligosaccharides. Cellulose breakdown is of considerable economic importance, because it makes a major constituent of plants available for consumption and use in chemical reactions; the specific reaction involved is the hydrolysis of the 1,4-beta-D-glycosidic linkages in cellulose, hemicellulose and cereal beta-D-glucans. Because cellulose molecules bind to each other, cellulolysis is difficult compared to the breakdown of other polysaccharides such as starch. Most mammals have only limited ability to digest dietary fibres like cellulose by themselves. In many herbivorous animals such as ruminants like cattle and sheep and hindgut fermenters like horses, cellulases are produced by symbiotic bacteria.

Endogenous cellulases are produced by a few types of metazoan animals, such as some termites and earthworms. Cellulases have been found in green microalgae and their catalytic domains belonging to GH9 Family https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycoside_hydrolase_family_9 show highest sequence homology to metazoan endogenous cellulases. Algal cellulases are modular, consisting of putative novel cysteine-rich carbohydrate-binding modules, proline/serine- rich linkers in addition to putative Ig-like and unknown domains in some members. Cellulase from Gonium pectorale consisted of two CDs separated by linkers and with a C-terminal CBM. Several different kinds of cellulases are known, which differ mechanistically. Synonyms and specific enzymes associated with the name "cellulase" include endo-1,4-beta-D-glucanase, carboxymethyl cellulase, celludextrinase, cellulase A, cellulosin AP, alkali cellulase, cellulase A 3, 9.5 cellulase, pancellase SS. Enzymes that cleave lignin have been called cellulases, but this old usage is deprecated.

Five general types of cellulases based on the type of reaction catalyzed: Endocellulases randomly cleave internal bonds at amorphous sites that create new chain ends. Exocellulases or cellobiohydrolases cleave two to four units from the ends of the exposed chains produced by endocellulase, resulting in tetrasaccharides or disaccharides, such as cellobiose. Exocellulases are further classified into type I, that work processively from the reducing end of the cellulose chain, type II, that work processively from the nonreducing end. Cellobiases or beta-glucosidases hydrolyse the exocellulase product into individual monosaccharides. Oxidative cellulases depolymerize cellulose by radical reactions, as for instance cellobiose dehydrogenase. Cellulose phosphorylases depolymerize cellulose using phosphates instead of water. Avicelase has exclusively exo-cellulase activity, since avicel is a micro-crystalline substrate. Within the above types there are progressive and nonprogressive types. Progressive cellulase will continue to interact with a single polysaccharide strand, nonprogressive cellulase will interact once disengage and engage another polysaccharide strand.

Cellulase action is considered to be synergistic as all three classes of cellulase can yield much more sugar than the addition of all three separately. Aside from ruminants, most animals do not produce cellulase in their bodies and can only break down cellulose through fermentation, limiting their ability to use energy in fibrous plant material. Most fungal cellulases have a two-domain structure, with one catalytic domain and one cellulose binding domain, that are connected by a flexible linker; this structure is adapted for working on an insoluble substrate, it allows the enzyme to diffuse two-dimensionally on a surface in a caterpillar-like fashion. However, there are cellulases that lack cellulose binding domains. Both binding of substrates and catalysis depend on the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme which arises as a consequence of the level of protein folding; the amino acid sequence and arrangement of their residues that occur within the active site, the position where the substrate binds, may influence factors like binding affinity of ligands, stabilization of substrates within the active site and catalysis.

The substrate structure is complementary to the precise active site structure of enzyme. Changes in the position of residues may result in distortion of one or more of these interactions. Additional factors like temperature, pH and metal ions influence the non-covalent interactions between enzyme structure; the Thermotoga maritima species make cellulases consisting of 2 beta-sheets surrounding a central catalytic region, the active-site. The enzyme is categorised as an endoglucanase, which internally cleaves β-1,4 -glycosydic bonds in cellulose chains facilitating further degradation of the polymer. Different species in the same family as T. Maritima make cellulases with different structures. Cellulases produced by the species Coprinopsis Cinerea consists of seven protein strands in the shape of an enclosed tunnel called a beta/alpha barrel; these enzymes hydrolyse the subs

The Johnny Miles Running Event is an annual set of road races held in New Glasgow, Nova Scotia, Canada. The event is held each year on the third Sunday of June; the Johnny Miles Marathon was founded in 1975 by local physician Dr. Johnny Miles Williston. Williston named the race after Johnny Miles, the legendary Nova Scotia marathoner for whom he was named. Williston served as co-director of the race until 2000, he died in December 2005. The "Johnny Walk,", part of the event activities, is named for both Johnny Miles and Johnny Miles Williston. On June 20, 2010, the 35th Annual Johnny Miles Marathon and Running Event was held in New Glasgow with a record participation of over 2000 runners. In 2012 the event was named as Run Nova Scotia's event of the year; the popular event sold out in both 2012 and 2013. The event weekend features multiple races including 10K, half marathon and marathon. There is a 5K kids race and a walking event called the "Johnny Walk." David MacLennan of Scotsburn, Nova Scotia holds the record for the most wins at the marathon distance, winning his 9th Johnny Miles Marathon in 2012.

List of marathon races in North America Official Website Official Facebook page

Australian permanent residents are residents of Australia who hold a permanent residency visa but are not citizens of Australia. A holder of a permanent residency visa may remain in Australia indefinitely. A 5-year initial travel facility, which corresponds to the underlying migration program, is granted alongside the permanent residency; until the travel facility expires, the visa holder may re-enter Australia freely. After that period the visa holder needs to re-apply for the travel facility. Permanent residents enjoy many of the rights and privileges of citizens, including access to free or subsidised legal and health services, they do not have the right to vote in federal or state/territory elections, unless they were registered to vote prior to 1984, but may vote in some local government elections. Permanent residents are not entitled to an Australian passport. Most permanent residents are eligible to become citizens after a waiting period; when the waiting period is complete, the process of sitting the citizenship test and attending the ceremony will add three to twelve months to gaining citizenship.

There are a number of programs under which a person may enter and obtain permanent residency in Australia, including: General Skilled Migration Program - for skilled migrants, has made available 129,250 visas for year 2012-2013 Humanitarian Program - for refugees seeking permanent residency, has made available 13,750 visas for year 2012-2013. Family members can be sponsored. An unlimited number of visas can be issued for dependent children. Visas for other family member types are subject to limited. Citizens of New Zealand are allowed to enter Australia to live and work indefinitely under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement, without applying for a visa but instead are automatically granted a Special Category Visa on arrival. Though able to reside with no time limit, SCV holders are not considered as having permanent resident status, the SCV is considered temporary. Since 2001, SCV holders who want to become Australian citizens firstly need to apply for permanent resident status under one of the migration programs.

Benefits of permanent resident status include: Few limitations on employment in Australia. Some job opportunities federal governmental work, require citizenship as opposed to permanent residence; the right to apply for Australian citizenship after fulfilling some criteria. For permanent residents accepted under the humanitarian program and enrolled in a Commonwealth supported place, the right to defer payment of their student contribution under the HECS-HELP scheme; the right to sponsor relatives for permanent residence, subject to fulfilling residence criteria and assurance of support requirements. Children born inside Australia will be Australian citizens by birth; the right to access medical and social security benefits, though there is a 2-year waiting period for some benefits. The right to travel to New Zealand without applying for a New Zealand visa. Unrestricted rights to live and study in New Zealand. Permanent residents do not have the right to vote in federal, state or territory elections, unless they were “British subjects” and registered to vote prior to 1984, but may vote in some local government elections.

Permanent residents are not entitled to an Australian passport. Australian nationality law Permanent residency Guide for a successful application to the Australian residency