1.
Newport, Wales
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Newport is a cathedral and university city and unitary authority area in south east Wales. It is located on the River Usk close to its confluence with the Severn Estuary, at the 2011 census it is the third largest city in Wales, with a city population of 145,700 and an urban population of 306,844. The city forms part of the Cardiff-Newport metropolitan area with a population of 1,097,000, Newport has been a port since medieval times, when the first Newport Castle was built by the Normans. The town outgrew the earlier Roman town of Caerleon, immediately upstream and it grew significantly in the 19th century, when its port became the focus of coal exports from the eastern valleys of South Wales. Until the rise of Cardiff from the 1850s, Newport was Wales largest coal-exporting port and it was the site of the last large-scale armed insurrection in Britain, the Newport Rising of 1839 led by the Chartists. During the 20th century, when the docks declined in importance and it was granted city status in 2002. Newport hosted the Ryder Cup in 2010, the city was the venue for the 2014 NATO summit. It is the largest urban area within the county boundaries of Monmouthshire. The City of Newport, which includes surrounding rural areas as well as the built up area, is governed by Newport City Council. Bronze Age fishermen settled around the estuary of the River Usk. In AD75, on the edge of their empire. According to legend, in the late 5th century Saint Woolos church was founded by Saint Gwynllyw, the church was certainly in existence by the 9th century and today has become Newport Cathedral, the seat of the Bishop of Monmouth. The Normans arrived from around 1088–1093 to build the first Newport Castle and river crossing downstream from Caerleon, the settlement of Newport is first mentioned as novo burgus established by Robert, Earl of Gloucester in 1126. The name was derived from the original Latin name Novus Burgus, the city can sometimes be found labelled as Newport-on-Usk on old maps. The original Welsh language name for the city, Casnewydd-ar-Wysg means New castle-on-Usk, the original Newport Castle was a small motte-and-bailey castle in the park opposite Newport Cathedral. It was buried in rubble excavated from the Hillfield railway tunnels that were dug under Stow Hill in the 1840s and no part of it is currently visible. Around the settlement, the new town grew to become Newport, obtaining its first charter in 1314 and was granted a second one, by Hugh Stafford, in the 14th century friars came to Newport where they built an isolation hospital for infectious diseases. After its closure the hospital lived on in the place name Spitty Fields, austin Friars also remains a street name in the city
2.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Golf
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Golf is a club and ball sport in which players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of holes on a course in as few strokes as possible. Golf, unlike most ball games, cannot and does not utilize a standardized playing area, the game is played on a course with an arranged progression of 18 holes. Each hole on the course must contain a tee box to start from, there are other standard forms of terrain in between, such as the fairway, rough, sand traps, and hazards but each hole on a course is unique in its specific layout and arrangement. Stroke play is the most commonly seen format at all levels, while the modern game of golf originated in 15th-century Scotland, the games ancient origins are unclear and much debated. Some historians trace the sport back to the Roman game of paganica, one theory asserts that paganica spread throughout Europe as the Romans conquered most of the continent, during the first century BC, and eventually evolved into the modern game. Others cite chuiwan as the progenitor, a Chinese game played between the eighth and 14th centuries, the game is thought to have been introduced into Europe during the Middle Ages. Another early game that resembled modern golf was known as cambuca in England, the Persian game chaugán is another possible ancient origin. In addition, kolven was played annually in Loenen, Netherlands, beginning in 1297, to commemorate the capture of the assassin of Floris V, a year earlier. The modern game originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James IIs banning of the game in 1457, as an unwelcome distraction to learning archery. James IV lifted the ban in 1502 when he became a golfer himself, with golf clubs first recorded in 1503-1504, to many golfers, the Old Course at St Andrews, a links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage. In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. Golf is documented as being played on Musselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records. The oldest surviving rules of golf were compiled in March 1744 for the Company of Gentlemen Golfers, later renamed The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers, Andrews Golf Club in Yonkers, New York. The levels of grass are varied to increase difficulty, or to allow for putting in the case of the green, while many holes are designed with a direct line-of-sight from the teeing area to the green, some holes may bend either to the left or to the right. This is commonly called a dogleg, in reference to a dogs knee, the hole is called a dogleg left if the hole angles leftwards and dogleg right if it bends right. Sometimes, a holes direction may bend twice, this is called a double dogleg, a regular golf course consists of 18 holes, but nine-hole courses are common and can be played twice through for a full round of 18 holes. Early Scottish golf courses were laid out on links land. This gave rise to the golf links, particularly applied to seaside courses
5.
Spa
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A spa is a location where mineral-rich spring water is used to give medicinal baths. Spa towns or spa resorts offer various health treatments, which are also known as balneotherapy. The belief in the powers of mineral waters goes back to prehistoric times. Such practices have been worldwide, but are especially widespread in Europe. Day spas are also popular, and offer various personal care treatments. The word spa itself denotes fountain, some experts also suggest that the word spa originated from the name of the Belgian town named Spa where a curative natural spring was discovered in the 14th century. Since medieval times, illnesses caused by iron deficiency were treated by drinking chalybeate spring water and it is commonly claimed, in a commercial context, that the word is an acronym of various Latin phrases such as Salus Per Aquam or Sanitas Per Aquam meaning health through water. Spa therapies have existed since the times when taking bath with water was considered as a popular means to treat illnesses. The practice of traveling to hot or cold springs in hopes of effecting a cure of some ailment dates back to pre-historic times, archaeological investigations near hot springs in France and Czech Republic revealed Bronze Age weapons and offerings. In Great Britain, ancient legend credited early Celtic kings with the discovery of the hot springs in Bath, many people around the world believed that bathing in a particular spring, well, or river resulted in physical and spiritual purification. Forms of ritual purification existed among the Native Americans, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, today, ritual purification through water can be found in the religious ceremonies of Jews, Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and Hindus. These ceremonies reflect the ancient belief in the healing and purifying properties of water, complex bathing rituals were also practiced in ancient Egypt, in pre-historic cities of the Indus Valley, and in Aegean civilizations. Most often these ancient people did little building construction around the water, some of the earliest descriptions of western bathing practices came from Greece. The Greeks began bathing regimens that formed the foundation for modern spa procedures and these Aegean people utilized small bathtubs, wash basins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness. The earliest such findings are the baths in the complex at Knossos, Crete. They established public baths and showers within their gymnasium complexes for relaxation, Greek mythology specified that certain natural springs or tidal pools were blessed by the gods to cure disease. Around these sacred pools, Greeks established bathing facilities for those desiring healing, supplicants left offerings to the gods for healing at these sites and bathed themselves in hopes of a cure. The Spartans developed a primitive vapor bath, at Serangeum, an early Greek balneum, bathing chambers were cut into the hillside from which the hot springs issued
6.
Hotel
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A hotel is an establishment that provides paid lodging on a short-term basis. Small, lower-priced hotels may offer only the most basic guest services and facilities, Hotel rooms are usually numbered to allow guests to identify their room. Some boutique, high-end hotels have custom decorated rooms, some hotels offer meals as part of a room and board arrangement. In the United Kingdom, a hotel is required by law to serve food, in Japan, capsule hotels provide a tiny room suitable only for sleeping and shared bathroom facilities. The precursor to the hotel was the inn of medieval Europe. For a period of about 200 years from the mid-17th century, inns began to cater to richer clients in the mid-18th century. One of the first hotels in a sense was opened in Exeter in 1768. Hotels proliferated throughout Western Europe and North America in the early 19th century, Hotel operations vary in size, function, and cost. Most hotels and major hospitality companies have set standards to classify hotel types. Full service hotels often contain upscale full-service facilities with a number of full service accommodations, an on-site full service restaurant. Boutique hotels are independent, non-branded hotels that often contain upscale facilities. Small to medium-sized hotel establishments offer a limited amount of on-site amenities, economy hotels are small to medium-sized hotel establishments that offer basic accommodations with little to no services. Extended stay hotels are small to medium-sized hotels that offer full service accommodations compared to a traditional hotel. Timeshare and destination clubs are a form of property ownership involving ownership of a unit of accommodation for seasonal usage. A motel is a small-sized low-rise lodging with direct access to rooms from the car park. Boutique hotels are typically hotels with an environment or intimate setting. A number of hotels have entered the public consciousness through popular culture, some hotels are built specifically as a destination in itself, for example at casinos and holiday resorts. The organizational chart and volume of job positions and hierarchy varies by size, function and class
7.
2010 Ryder Cup
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The 38th Ryder Cup was held 1–4 October 2010 at the Celtic Manor Resort in Newport, Wales. It was the 17th time the Ryder Cup had been staged in Britain and it was played on the newly constructed Twenty Ten course, specifically designed for the event. The team captains were Colin Montgomerie for Europe and Corey Pavin for the United States, with the U. S. as the defending champion, Europe won by a score of 14½ to 13½ and regained the Cup. It was Europes sixth victory in the last eight contests and their fourth home win. The event was plagued by bad weather with play having to be suspended twice, eventually McDowell defeated Mahan 3 &1 to regain the Cup for Europe. The competition was opened by Carwyn Jones, First Minister for Wales. The Ryder Cup is a match play event, with each match worth one point, all matches were played to a maximum of 18 holes. As a result of the suspension of play on the first day due to heavy rain. However, further heavy rain caused a delayed start on Sunday, because of the changes, there were a number of Ryder Cup firsts. It is also the first time that the competition went into a fourth day, the revised schedule consisted of four sessions as opposed to the usual five. By captains agreement, matches would conclude at sundown Monday if not completed before then, any matches still in progress would be considered halved at that point. The matches were covered live domestically by BBC and Sky Sports, all matches were covered live in the United States, a first for a Ryder Cup in Europe. Mike Tirico and Paul Azinger hosted from the 18th tower, with Curtis Strange, Peter Alliss, and Sean McDonough calling holes, scott Van Pelt and Tom Weiskopf handled recaps during coverage. Most of ESPNs coverage was rained out on Friday, with a 7-hour rain delay during the middle of the day. NBC Sports covered the action, with Dan Hicks and Johnny Miller hosting from the 18th tower, Gary Koch calling holes, and on-course reporters Mark Rolfing, Roger Maltbie. USA Network aired coverage of the live on Monday morning. The coverage was produced by corporate sibling NBC, with NBCs announcers being used on the telecast, in the previous the Ryder Cup had been two wildcard places on the European team, but on 12 May 2009 it was announced that this had been increased to three. The United States team consisted of, The top eight players on the Ryder Cup Points ListPoints gained from money earned in majors in 2009, money earned in 2010 majors counted double and money earned in 2010 events played opposite the majors or World Golf Championships counted half
8.
2014 Newport summit
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Such summits are sporadically held, and allow leaders and officials from NATO member states to discuss current issues of mutual concern and to plan strategic activities going forward. The 2014 summit has been described by Admiral James Stavridis as the most important since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the summit was hosted by British Prime Minister David Cameron. There were another 180 VIPs, and 4,000 delegates, the entrance to the venue was fronted by a full-scale replica of a Eurofighter Typhoon. World leaders met at the Celtic Manor, and informally at other locales in and they discussed ongoing events in the world, such as terrorism, cyber warfare, and other areas of national security interest to the member states. Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko had a joint discussion with EU big four leaders and US President Barack Obama before the start of the Summit. The leaders of NATOs member states reaffirmed their pledge to spend the equivalent of at least 2% of their gross domestic products on defense, for countries which spend less than 2% they agreed upon that these countries aim to move towards the 2% guideline within a decade. In 2015, five of its 28 members met that goal, stützle said that the Russian Federation was not a military threat to NATO but criticized that new NATO members policies were not détente and negotiation with the Russian Federation. Protests, demonstrations and marches took place in Newport and Cardiff involving several hundred people, in both Newport and Cardiff, road closures and security measures, starting weeks in advance of the summit, created widespread disruption. Thirteen miles of security fencing,2.7 m high, was erected around the Newport hotel venue and ten miles of fencing put up around Cardiff city centre, businesses in the vicinity of security fencing in Cardiff reported a drop in trade by up to a third. This fencing was based on, and expanded, the National Barrier Asset which is held in reserve for similar events. Security included around 9,500 police officers patrolling the streets of the two cities, military helicopters including US Osprey V22s and the Royal Navy’s new £1bn Type 45 destroyer HMS Duncan
9.
Christchurch, Newport
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Christchurch is a village located at the top of Christchurch Hill in the Caerleon ward of the city of Newport, South Wales. The top of the hill affords panoramic views both towards the Bristol Channel in the south and through the Vale of Usk and into the Monmouthshire countryside to the north. The road, which runs along the crest of the hill, runs westwards to Newport and eastwards towards Caerleon, the parish church is Holy Trinity. Christchurch has a modern village hall and the Christchurch Music Society is a vibrant amateur musical theatre group. Due to its position, the hill is home to the Christchurch transmitter. The church has a Norman doorway with five feet high. The axis of the chancel is set in a southerly direction to that of the nave. In the churchyard is the grave of Capain William Howe, skipper of the packet Welsh Prince, in 1648, during the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwells troops camped overnight on Christchurch Hill overlooking Newport before their attack on Newport Castle the next day. A cannonball dug up from a garden in nearby Summerhill Avenue, dating from this time, Cromwells men smashed all of the stained glass in the church, except for one tiny orange-coloured pane which remains in the east window. A tombstone in the aisle of the church, near the door, is carved with a womans head, dated 1712. The custom led eventually to a system of bribes and profiteering, until it came to an end, following the intervention of Squire Van of Llanwern. In the early morning of 6 November 1949 the church was discovered to be on fire, although the vicar succeeded in saving the church records and the ancient chalice, the entire building, apart from the walls and tower, was destroyed. A week later St Johns Church in Maindee suffered a similar fate, the fire, Newports most disastrous for many years, was estimated to have done damage valued at £30,000, The roof had recently been thoroughly repaired. The fact that the evening had been Guy Fawkes Night was regarded as mere coincidence. The Beauty of Christchurch survived the fire but was destroyed during the reconstruction of the church. Christchurch is the location of one of Newports large municipal cemeteries, nearby once stood Christchurch Junior School. Christchurch has a War Memorial, to combatants of World War I and World War II, directly in front of the church, grid reference ST345895 Photos of Christchurch and surrounding area on geograph. org. uk
10.
M4 motorway
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The M4 is a motorway which runs between London and South Wales in the United Kingdom. Major towns and cities along the route include Slough, Reading, Swindon, Bristol, Newport, Cardiff, a new Severn bridge, known as the Second Severn Crossing, was opened in 1996 with the M4 rerouted to use it. The M4 runs close to the A4 from London to Bristol, after crossing the River Severn it follows the A48 through South Wales, using the Brynglas Tunnels at Junction 25a, Newport and terminates just north of Pontarddulais. It is one of three motorways in Wales, the other two, the A48 and M48, branch off it. The area of land along the M4, with its towns, european route E30 includes most of the M4, although it is not signed as such. The Maidenhead bypass opened in 1961 whilst J1-J5 opened in 1965, the stretch from J18 to the west of Newport was opened in 1966, including the Severn Bridge. The Port Talbot by-pass, also built in the 1960s and now part of the M4, was originally the A48 motorway, the English section of the motorway was completed on 22 December 1971 when the 50-mile stretch between Junctions 9 and 15 was opened to traffic. The Welsh section was completed in 1993, when the Briton Ferry motorway bridge opened, the Second Severn Crossing opened in 1996, together with new link motorways on either side of the estuary to divert the M4 over the new crossing. The existing route over the Severn Bridge was redesignated the M48, in June 1999 the section of the third lane between Junctions 2 and 3 was converted to a bus lane, first as a pilot scheme and then permanently in 2001. A lower speed limit was introduced along the bus lane section at the same time, between 2007 and January 2010 the section from Castleton to Coryton was widened to six lanes. The scheme was opened on 25 January 2010 by Ieuan Wyn Jones the Deputy First Minister for Wales. During 2009 the Newport section of the motorway between Junctions 23a and 29 was upgraded with a new concrete central barrier. A similar claim was made for a 30-mile section of road in Scotland close to Aberdeen in September 2009 with refuelling points at Bridge of Don, Ellon and Peterhead. Between 2008 and 2010, Junction 11, near Reading, was remodelled with a new four-lane motorway junction. It also involved the movement of the local Highways Agency and Fire Service offices, and the construction of a footbridge network, a new bus-lane. Sound barriers for nearby areas were also installed. In April 2008, the decision to preserve a rare Vickers machine gun pillbox, the table below shows the timeline for the construction of the motorway on a section by section basis. Tolls are charged in one only, westbound
11.
River Usk
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The River Usk rises on the northern slopes of the Black Mountain, Wales, in the westernmost part of the Brecon Beacons National Park. The Monmouthshire and Brecon Canal follows the Usk for most of the length of the canal. The name of the river derives from a Common Brittonic word meaning abounding in fish, the name is cognate with pysg, the Welsh word for fish. The name of the river appears as Wÿsk on the Cambriae Typus map of 1573, the whole river has been designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest. It contains estuary with mudflats and salt marsh, lagoons, bog and marsh, dippers can be seen upriver along with red kites. The Usk has long been a noted salmon and trout fishing river, salmon of over 30 pounds can still be caught. The river has the highest estimated salmon egg deposition of any river south of Cumbria and the Scottish rivers, the river has recently been rated as the best fly fishing water in Wales for salmon and inside the UK Top Ten. The normal tidal limit of the river is just below the bridge at Newbridge-on-Usk, the River Usk has played an important role in the history of Wales and features in some local folk-tales. Evidence of the Usks long-standing use in transport and trade came in the form of the remains of the Newport Ship that were discovered in 2002. This ship, dated to around 1465, was most likely a trading vessel and its presence in the Usk has confirmed what an important trading route the Usk must have been to the many towns and villages along its course. The Usk has also played a role in local legends. Geoffrey of Monmouth writes of Caerleon in the mid 12th century, For it was located in a spot in Glamorgan, on the River Usk. Abounding in wealth more than cities, it was suited for such a ceremony. For the noble river I have named flows along it on one side, upon which the kings, the Newport Transporter Bridge, the lowest crossing point on the river, has the greatest length of any surviving transporter bridge in the world. List of rivers of Wales Usk Valley Walk List of bridges in Wales The Usk Valley Walk - photos A trophy salmon from the Usk in October 1917 Canoe Wales website information on canoe touring the Usk
12.
Wentwood
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Wentwood is a forested area of hills, rising to 309 metres, in Monmouthshire, South Wales. It is located to the north east of, and partly within the boundaries of, Wentwood is underlain by sandstones which are assigned to the Brownstones Formation of the Old Red Sandstone, a suite of sedimentary rocks laid down during the Devonian period. The beds dip gently to moderately in a south-easterly direction, there is a small area of houses in Wentwood that are known as Wentwood Hamlet. There is also a church in Wentwood called Gilgal Chapel and it is the largest ancient woodland in Wales and the ninth largest in the UK. The area contains bronze age burial mounds, a circle. In the Middle ages, the woods belonged to the lordship of Chepstow and provided hunting preserves, the Royal Forest of Wentwood had its own forest laws and courts were held twice yearly at Foresters Oaks, above Wentwood Reservoir. These courts tried luckless locals charged with a range of crimes within the forest boundaries and these crimes were taken so seriously that culprits were hanged from one of the two Foresters Oaks. The last offender dealt with in this way was hanged as recently as 1829. The edges of the wood were cleared and felled away in the 16th century. The tenants of the area, including Rogers, claimed that the ancient rights to the forest belonged to them, henry Somerset, 9th Duke of Beaufort sold 2,244 in Wentwood Forest, described as the largest wood in England, in May 1902. The first conifer plantations were planted at Wentwood in 1880, and most of the trees were felled during World War I to provide timber for props. When the area was replanted by the Forestry Commission in the 1950s and 1960s, more recently, broadleaved trees have been allowed to grow back. Wentwood and its areas are popular with hillwalking and mountain biking enthusiasts. The area is home to thousands of wildlife species. In 2006, the Woodland Trust completed the purchase of some 352 hectares of Wentwood after a high-profile campaign, in April 2007, an illegal rave event took place in Wentwood, with around 3,000 people before it was broken up. Woodland Trust site with more information BBC report on April 2007 rave event www. geograph. co. uk, photos of Wentwood and surrounding areas
13.
Escarpment
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An escarpment is a steep slope or long cliff that forms as an effect of faulting or erosion and separates two relatively level areas of differing elevations. Usually escarpment is used interchangeably with scarp, but some sources differentiate the two terms, where escarpment refers to the margin between two landforms, while scarp is synonymous with a cliff or steep slope. The surface of the slope is called a scarp face. This is a ridge which has a gentle slope on one side. Scarps are generally formed by one of two processes, either by differential erosion of rocks, or by vertical movement of the Earths crust along a geologic fault. Most commonly, an escarpment is a transition from one series of rocks to another series of a different age. Escarpments are also formed by faults. When a fault displaces the ground surface so that one side is higher than the other and this can occur in dip-slip faults, or when a strike-slip fault brings a piece of high ground adjacent to an area of lower ground. More loosely, the term describes the zone between coastal lowlands and continental plateaus which have a marked, abrupt change in elevation caused by coastal erosion at the base of the plateau. Earth is not the planet where escarpments occur. They are believed to occur on other planets when the crust contracts, on other Solar System bodies such as Mercury, Mars, and the Moon, the Latin term rupes is used for an escarpment. When sedimentary beds are tilted and exposed to the surface, erosion, escarpments erode gradually and over geological time. The mélange tendencies of escarpments results in varying contacts between a multitude of rock types and these varying levels of erosion can lead to strange features forming in the exposed rock. Kinver Edge The Lincoln Edge Stanage Edge Wenlock Edge France La Côte dOr is famous for its wines and has given its name to a département, le Pays de Bray, a clay vale enclosed by chalk escarpments
14.
High Sheriff
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The office existed in what is now the Republic of Ireland but was abolished there in 1926. In England and Wales, the term High Sheriff arose to distinguish sheriffs of counties proper from sheriffs of cities and boroughs designated counties-of-themselves but not counties properly speaking. These cities and boroughs no longer have sheriffs except for the City of London, in England and Wales the offices civil enforcement powers exist but are not exercised by convention. The office was termed that of sheriff until 1 April 1974, except in the City of London and their jurisdictions, the shrieval counties, are no longer co-terminous with administrative areas, representing a mix between the ancient counties and more recent local authority areas. The post contrasts with that of sheriff in Scotland, who is a sitting in a sheriff court. The word sheriff is a contraction of the shire reeve. The term, from the Old English scīrgerefa, designated an official responsible for keeping the peace throughout a shire or county on behalf of the king. The term was preserved in England notwithstanding the Norman Conquest, the office of sheriff had its origins in the 10th century, the office reached the height of its power under the Norman kings. While the sheriffs originally had been men of standing at court. The Provisions of Oxford established a yearly tenure of office, the appointments and duties of the sheriffs in England and Wales were redefined by the Sheriffs Act 1887. Under the provisions of the Local Government Act 1972, on 1 April 1974 the office previously known as sheriff was retitled high sheriff, the serving high sheriff submits a list of names of possible future high sheriffs to a tribunal which chooses three names to put to the Sovereign. The nomination is made on 12 November every year and the term of office runs from 25 March, no person may be appointed twice in three years, unless there is no other suitable person in the county. These officers nominate three candidates for each county in England and Wales, which are enrolled on a parchment by the Queens Remembrancer, the practice of pricking is an ancient custom used to appoint the high sheriffs of England and Wales. In February or March of each year, two parchments prepared the previous November are presented to the Sovereign at a meeting of the Privy Council, a further parchment is drawn up in November for Cornwall and presented to the Duke of Cornwall. Certain eligible persons nominate candidates for each county shrievalty, one of whom is chosen for each by the Sovereign. In practice, the first name on the list is always the one chosen. The Sovereign signifies assent by pricking the document with a silver bodkin by the relevant name for each county, the parchment for the Duchy of Lancaster is known as the Lites, and the ceremony of selection known as Pricking the Lites. The term lites, meaning list, was reserved for Yorkshire
15.
Monmouthshire (historic)
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Monmouthshire, also known as the County of Monmouth, is one of thirteen historic counties of Wales and a former administrative county. It corresponds approximately to the present principal areas of Monmouthshire, Blaenau Gwent, Newport and Torfaen, the eastern part of the county is mainly agricultural, while the western valleys had rich mineral resources. This led to the area becoming highly industrialised coal mining. The county or shire of Monmouth was formed parts of the Welsh Marches by the Laws in Wales Act 1535. The historic boundaries are the River Wye on the east, dividing it from Gloucestershire, the boundaries with Herefordshire to the northeast and Brecknockshire to the north were less well-defined. The parish of Welsh Bicknor, was an exclave of Monmouthshire, Usk continued as an unreformed borough until its final abolition in 1886. New forms of government were established in the urban areas of the county with the setting of local boards under the Public Health Act 1848. The Public Health Act 1875 divided the areas into rural sanitary districts. An administrative county of Monmouthshire, governed by a county council, was formed in 1889 under the terms of the Local Government Act 1888. The administrative county had similar boundaries, but included the Beaufort, Dukestown, Llechryd, the county council was based in Newport, rather than the historic county town of Monmouth. In the same year the parish of Fwthog was transferred to both the administrative and geographic county of Monmouthshire, under the Local Government Act 1894, the administrative county was divided into urban and rural districts, based on existing sanitary districts. In 1899 Abergavenny was incorporated as a borough, two further urban districts were formed, Mynyddislwyn in 1903, and Bedwas and Machen in 1912. The County of Monmouth Review Order 1935 revised the number and boundaries of the urban, the last major boundary change to affect the administrative county was in 1938 when the Monmouthshire parish of Rumney was incorporated into the city and county borough of Cardiff. However, maps continued to show the Monmouthshire/Glamorgan and England/Wales border as the Rhymney River, the administrative county of Monmouth and county borough of Newport were abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. The successor authority, with boundary changes, was titled Gwent. Some border parishes became part of the new Rhymney Valley district of Mid Glamorgan, successor districts of Gwent were Blaenau Gwent, Islwyn, Monmouth, Newport and Torfaen. Monmouthshires status was somewhat ambiguous between the 16th and 20th centuries, with it considered by some as part of England, between about the 5th and 10th centuries the Welsh Kingdom of Gwent covered a variable area roughly contiguous with Monmouthshire. It then became part of Morgannwg, and shortly before the Norman conquest had become part of the unified Welsh realm of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn
16.
Manor House
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A manor house was historically the main residence of the lord of the manor. The term is loosely applied to various country houses, frequently dating from the late medieval era. They were sometimes fortified, but this was intended more for show than for defence. Manor houses existed in most European countries where feudalism existed, where they were known as castles, palaces. Many buildings, such as schools, are named Manor, the reason behind this is because the building was or is close to a manor house. The lord of the manor may have several properties within a county or, for example in the case of a feudal baron, spread across a kingdom. A large and suitable building was required within the manor for such purpose, generally in the form of a hall. This also gave the opportunity for the manor house to be cleaned, especially important in the days of the cess-pit. Thus such non-resident lords needed to appoint a steward or seneschal to act as their deputy in such matters, the day-to-day administration was carried out by a resident official in authority at each manor, who in England was called a bailiff, or reeve. Although not typically built with strong fortifications as were castles, many manor-houses were fortified and they were often enclosed within walls or ditches which often also included agricultural buildings. The primary feature of the house was its great hall. A late 16th-century transformation produced many of the smaller Renaissance châteaux of France, the Tudor period of stability in England saw the building of the first of the unfortified great houses, for example Sutton Place in Surrey, circa 1521. During the second half of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and under her successor King James I the first mansions designed by architects not by mere masons or builders, began to make their appearance. Such houses as Burghley House, Longleat House, and Hatfield House are among the best known of this period, nearly every large mediaeval manor house had its own deer-park adjoining, emparked by royal licence, which served primarily as a store of food in the form of venison. Within these licensed parks deer could not be hunted by royalty and this gave them more privacy and space. Court was a suffix which came into use in the 16th century, the obvious origin of the suffix would appear to be that the building was the location where the manorial courts were held. True castles, when not royal castles, were generally the residences of feudal barons, the manor on which the castle was situated was termed the caput of the barony, thus every true ancient defensive castle was also the manor house of its own manor. The suffix -Park came into use in the 18th and 19th centuries, the usage is often a modern catch-all suffix for an old house on an estate, true manor or not
17.
South Wales coalfield
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The South Wales Coalfield is a large region of south Wales that is rich in coal deposits, especially the South Wales Valleys. It supported a large part, but not all, of the industry in Wales. The South Wales Coalfield extends across parts of Pembrokeshire, Carmarthenshire, Swansea, Neath Port Talbot, Bridgend, Rhondda Cynon Taf, Merthyr Tydfil, Caerphilly, Blaenau Gwent, see also the Geology of South Wales. The coal generally increases in grade or rank from east to west, with bituminous coals in the east, the Rhondda Valley was particularly known for steam coals which fuelled steamships of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Communications along the floors provided the main routeways for exporting coal south to ports and docks such as Newport Docks, Cardiff Docks. Early activity was mainly by levels or adits driven into coal seams from outcrops in the valley sides, development of the coalfield proceeded very actively from about 1850, when deep mining became significant in the previously entirely rural Rhondda Valley. Later colliery shafts were sunk as deep as 800 yards in order to reach the thicker, better quality seams, iron ore was also extracted from the coal measures, principally from the north crop area. This trend, which was extended to railway locomotives, was a factor in the economic hardship which struck the coalfield after the First World War. Coal workings were over-expanded in the nineteenth century, but the Welsh coal owners had failed to invest in mechanisation. By the inter-war period the South Wales Coalfield had the lowest productivity, highest costs, hardship continued through the 1926 general strike, the great depression of the 1930s, World War II and thereafter. The 1937 novel The Citadel and the 1939 novel How Green Was My Valley describe such hardship, as do the poems of Idris Davies the miner, teacher and poet of Rhymney. New collieries, particularly in the part of the coalfield where anthracite is found, were developed into the 1960s by the National Coal Board. Following the general collapse of the UK coal industry, most pits closed during the 1980s, with such as exhaustion of reserves. The last deep mine, at Tower Colliery on the north crop, however, a few small licensed mines continue to work seams, mostly from outcrop, on the hillsides. Although some areas of the coalfield are effectively worked out, considerable reserves remain, however, the geological difficulties, which resulted in the closure of Nantgarw colliery, make the cost of significant further extraction high. The coalfield experienced a development when opencast mining was commenced on a large scale. In addition, old tips were reclaimed for their small coal content, most of the old sites have been filled and landscaped, but new operations continue. Landslipping of the valley slopes, and subsidence caused by the coal extraction, have also posed problems
18.
Millionaire
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A millionaire is an individual whose net worth or wealth is equal to or exceeds one million units of currency. It can also be a person who owns one million units of currency in an account or savings account. Depending on the currency, a level of prestige is associated with being a millionaire, which makes that amount of wealth a goal for some. In countries that use the scale number naming system, a billionaire is someone who has at least a thousand times a million dollars, euros. Many national currencies have, or have had at various times and it is obviously much easier, and less significant, to be a millionaire in those currencies. The purchasing power of a million US dollars in 1850 is equivalent to $28.8 million in 2016, thus a millionaire in Hong Kong or Taiwan, for example, may be merely averagely wealthy, or perhaps less wealthy than average. In 2007 a millionaire in Zimbabwe would have been extremely poor, at the end of 2015, there were estimated to be just over 13 million US$ millionaires or high-net-worth individual in the world. The United States of America had the highest number of HNWIs of any country, while London had the most HNWIs among cities as based on data from the Knight Frank Wealth Report. The word was first used in French in 1719 by Steven Fentiman, and is first recorded in English in a letter of Lord Byron of 1816, then in print in Vivian Grey, a novel of 1826 by Benjamin Disraeli. An earlier English word millionary was used in 1786 by Thomas Jefferson while serving as Minister to France, he wrote, the first American printed use of the word is thought to be in an obituary of New York tobacco manufacturer Pierre Lorillard II in 1843. While statistics regarding financial assets and net worth are presented by household and that is, even though the term statistically refers only to households, common usage is often in reference only to an individual. There are multiple approaches to determining a persons status as a millionaire, one of the two most commonly used measurements is net worth, which counts the total value of all property owned by a household minus the households debts. However, according to the net financial assets measurement used for specific applications, equity in ones principal residence is excluded, as are lifestyle assets, such as the car. Therefore, the above example household would only have net assets of $105,000. Another term used is net investable assets or working capital and these practitioners may use the term millionaire to mean somebody who is free to invest a million units of currency through them as broker. For similar reasons, those who market goods, services, in the real estate bubble up to 2007, average house prices in some U. S. regions exceeded $1 million, but many homeowners owed large amounts to banks holding mortgages on their homes. For this reason there are people in million-dollar homes whose net worth is far short of a million—in some cases the net worth is actually negative. The total amount of money held by millionaires can equal the amount of money held by a far higher number of poor people, forbes and Fortune magazines maintain lists of people based on their net worth and are generally considered authorities on the subject
19.
Mansion
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A mansion is a large dwelling house. The word itself derives through Old French from the Latin word mansio dwelling, the English word manse originally defined a property large enough for the parish priest to maintain himself, but a mansion is no longer self-sustaining in this way. Manor comes from the same root—territorial holdings granted to a lord who would remain there—hence it is easy to see how the word Mansion came to have its meaning, within an ancient Roman city, patrician dwellings might be very extensive, and luxurious. Such mansions on one hill in Rome became so extensive that the term palatial was actually derived from the name Palatine hill and is the origin of palace. Following the fall of Rome the practice of building unfortified villas ceased, today, the oldest inhabited mansions around the world usually began their existence as fortified castles in the middle ages. As social conditions slowly changed and stabilised fortifications were able to be reduced and it became fashionable and possible for homes to be beautiful rather than grim and forbidding allowing for the development of the modern mansion. In British English a mansion block refers to a block of flats or apartments designed for the appearance of grandeur, in many parts of Asia, including Hong Kong and Japan, the word mansion also refers to a block of apartments. In Europe, from the 15th century onwards, a combination of politics, as a result, many were transformed into mansions without defences or demolished and rebuilt in a more modern, undefended style. Due to intermarriage and primogeniture inheritance amongst the aristocracy, it common for one noble to often own several country houses. These would be visited throughout the year as their owner pursued the social. Many owners of a house would also own a town mansion in their countrys capital city. These town mansions were referred to as houses in London, hotels in Paris and it might be noted that sometimes the house of a clergyman was called a mansion house. This was a period of social change, as the educated prided themselves on enlightenment. The uses of these edifices paralleled that of the Roman villas and it was vital for powerful people and families to keep in social contact with each other as they were the primary moulders of society. The rounds of visits and entertainments were a part of the societal process. State business was discussed and determined in informal settings. Times of revolution reversed this value, in the great houses of Italy, the number of retainers was often even greater than in England, whole families plus extended relations would often inhabit warrens of rooms in basements and attics. It is doubtful that a 19th-century Marchesa would even know the number of individuals who served her
20.
Safari
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A safari /səˈfɑːri/ is an overland journey, usually a trip by tourists to Africa. In the past, the trip was often a big-game hunt, the Swahili word safari means journey, originally from the Arabic سفر meaning a journey, the verb for to travel in Swahili is kusafiri. These words are used for any type of journey, e. g. by bus from Nairobi to Mombasa or by ferry from Dar es Salaam to Unguja, Safari entered the English language at the end of the 1850s thanks to Richard Francis Burton, the famous explorer. The Regimental March of the Kings African Rifles was Funga Safari, literally tie up the March, or, in other words, Amri ya Bwana Kapteni, Amri ya KAR. Which is, in English, Prepare to March, Prepare to March, on the order of the boss captain, On the order of the KAR. On Kenyas independence from Britain, Funga Safari was retained as the Regimental March of the Kenya Rifles, in 1836 William Cornwallis Harris led an expedition purely to observe and record wildlife and landscapes by the expeditions members. These two books gave rise to a genre of Safari adventure novels and films, ernest Hemingway wrote several fiction and non-fiction pieces about African safaris. His short stories The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber and The Snows of Kilimanjaro are set on African safaris and were written after Hemingways own experience on safari and his books Green Hills of Africa and True at First Light are both set on African safaris. The safari provided countless hours of entertainment in sound films from Trader Horn onwards. The safari was used in adventure films such as the Tarzan, Jungle Jim, and Bomba the Jungle Boy film series up to The Naked Prey where Cornel Wilde. The safari genre films were parodied in the Bob Hope comedies Road to Zanzibar, a short 15-minute helicopter safari was shown in Africa Addio where clients are armed, flown from their hotel and landed in front of an unlucky and baffled elephant. There is a theme or style associated with the word, which includes khaki clothing, belted bush jackets, pith helmets or slouch hats. The term safari chic arose after the release of the film Out of Africa and this not only included clothing but also interior design and architecture
21.
Africa
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Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace
22.
Sir John Wyndham
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Sir John Wyndham was one of the heirs to the large fortune of his uncle Nicholas Wadham and helped to put into effect his plans for the founding of Wadham College. The inscriptions in accomplished verse on all these monuments are believed to have been written by Wyndham himself and his grandfather was Sir John Wyndham of Felbrigg who inherited Orchard, Somerset from his wife Elizabeth Sydenham, daughter and co-heiress of Sir John Sydenham of Orchard, Somerset. The ancestry of Sir John Wyndham is illustrated by the heraldic achievement shown on his monument in Watchet Church, Moorstone was an estate listed in the Domesday Book and in 1406 the Gambons were licensed by the Bishop of Exeter to have a private chapel in their mansion of Morston. Substantial remains of the manor house survive. Tempore Edward IV Elizabeth Gambon the heiress of Moorstone, married John Sydenham of Orchard, which brought the estate to the Wyndhams. 8th, Argent, a chevron sable three escallops gules (Pollard of Kings Nympton, Devon. Sir John Wyndham is the ancestor of every living member of the widespread Wyndham family, however, he was born following a near miraculous rising from the dead by his mother. That night a covetous sexton crept into the church and in attempting to remove a ring, cut the ladys finger. The sexton fled, leaving his lantern behind him, and with its aid she made her way home to her family at Kentsford. The story was composed in verse as Lady Wyndhams Return, by Rev. Lewis H. Court, soon after she gave birth to Sir John, who would be her only child. He was a minor aged twelve at the death of his father and as a tenant-in-chief his wardship and marriage reverted to the crown, Queen Elizabeth I and his grandfather, however, was able to buy-back his wardship, which prevented a forced marriage. He played an important role in the organisation of Somerset. The special census of horses taken on 26 August 1583 shows that their number had increased to forty-seven great horses and 308 light horses. Three months after this event he gave £4,000 each for safe keeping to his eighth and ninth sons, Sir Hugh Wyndham, Bartlett there beinge present only with him my Aunte, Mr. Bartlett and Mr. Arnold. In the presence of them he told me of the care that he had for the erecting of a Colledge in Oxforde. That for the buildinge of a Chappell with buttery sellar and kitchinge he appointed £2,000, whereof one £1,000 was in his Studye, and that also he appointed the moitie of the Parsonage of Abbotsbury unto the Colledge. Felbrigg was the seat of the line of the Wyndham family. In gratitude he placed a monumental brass inlaid in Purbeck marble, Sir Edmund Wyndham was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Wyndham by his first wife Alianore Scrope, daughter and heiress of Richard Scrope of Upsall, Yorks
23.
Entrepreneur
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What appears as a real opportunity ex ante might actually be a non-opportunity or one that cannot be actualized by entrepreneurs lacking the necessary business skills, financial or social capital. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who starts, organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas. They act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise, Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation. For Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur, the ‘norm’ of a healthy economy. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, for example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian, environmental or community goals. In the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration, Entrepreneur, is a loanword from French. First used in 1723, today the term entrepreneur implies qualities of leadership, initiative, economist Robert Reich has called team-building, leadership, and management ability essential qualities for the entrepreneur. Historically the study of entrepreneurship reaches back to the work in the late 17th and early 18th centuries of Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith, which was foundational to classical economics. In the 20th century, entrepreneurship was studied by Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s and other Austrian economists such as Carl Menger, Ludwig von Mises, the term entrepreneurship was coined around the 1920s, while the loan from French of the word entrepreneur dates to the 1850s. According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation, thus, creative destruction is largely responsible for long-term economic growth. The idea that leads to economic growth is an interpretation of the residual in endogenous growth theory. For Schumpeter, entrepreneurship resulted in new industries and in new combinations of currently existing inputs, Schumpeters initial example of this was the combination of a steam engine and then current wagon making technologies to produce the horseless carriage. In this case the innovation, the car, was transformational and it did not immediately replace the horse-drawn carriage, but in time, incremental improvements reduced the cost and improved the technology, leading to the modern auto industry. Despite Schumpeters early 20th-century contributions, traditional microeconomic theory did not formally consider the entrepreneur in its theoretical frameworks, in this treatment, the entrepreneur was an implied but unspecified actor, consistent with the concept of the entrepreneur being the agent of x-efficiency. For Schumpeter, the entrepreneur did not bear risk, the capitalist did, Schumpeter was of the opinion that entrepreneurs shift the Production Possibility Curve to a higher level using innovations. Cantillon emphasized the willingness of the entrepreneur to assume risk and to deal with uncertainty, thus, he draws attention to the function of the entrepreneur, and distinguishes clearly between the function of the entrepreneur and the owner who provides the money
24.
Robert Trent Jones
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Robert Trent Jones Sr. was an English–American golf course architect who designed or re-designed more than 500 golf courses in 45 U. S. states and 35 countries. In reference to this, Jones took pride in saying, The sun never sets on a Robert Trent Jones golf course, Jones received the 1987 Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America, GCSAAs highest honor. Also in 1987, he was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame, Robert Trent Jones was born on June 20,1906, in Ince-in-Makerfield, England, to Welsh parents. At age five or six, Jones immigrated with his parents to the United States, Jones worked as a caddy at The Country Club of Rochester and accepted a job as golf professional at Sodus Bay Heights Golf Club in nearby Sodus Point, New York. He met Donald Ross as a youth and, taking up the game, recorded the best score of all the amateur golfers at the 1927 Canadian Open and set a course record at Rochester. Jones went into business with Canadian architect Stanley Thompson after concluding his studies at Cornell, following his partnership with Thompson, Jones went into business on his own and began designing local courses in the United States in the 1930s. Many of these, such as the 1936 course at Green Lakes State Park, were built using labor provided by the Works Progress Administration. Shortly after World War II, Jones got his first major assignment designing the Peachtree Golf Club in Atlanta in collaboration with golf legend Bobby Jones, at Bobby Jones request, Jones redesigned the 11th and 16th holes at Augusta National Golf Club. Despite the similarity of their names, the two men were not related, to make this distinction clear, Robert began using the middle name Trent shortly afterward. In 1955, Gene Hamm helped Jones build the Duke University Golf Course in Durham and he moved from there to Delaware to continue work with Jones, and then in 1959 moved back to Raleigh where he began his own design career. During the 1950s, Jones annual income was reported as being $600, 000—according to Golf Digest and he was commissioned in 1990 to design a set of 18 courses in Alabama, the Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail, the largest single golf design contract in history. Jones was married to Ione Jones, who died in 1987, Jones continued to design golf courses in his later years until health problems prompted him to retire to Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, where he died on June 14,2000. List of golf designed by Robert Trent Jones Robert Trent Jones Sr. at the World Golf Hall of Fame Robert Trent Jones Society
25.
Aberystwyth
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Aberystwyth is a historic market town, administrative centre, and holiday resort within Ceredigion, West Wales, often colloquially known as Aber. It is located near the confluence of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, historically part of Cardiganshire, since the late 19th century, Aberystwyth has also been a major Welsh educational centre, with the establishment of a university college there in 1872. At the 2001 census, the population was 15,935. During nine months of the year, there is an influx of students—to a total number of 10,400 as of September 2012, including the suburbs of Llanbadarn Fawr, the population is 16,420. The town is situated near the confluence of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, although the name may seem to suggest otherwise, only the River Rheidol passes through the town, following the reconstruction of the harbour, the River Ystwyth skirts the town. Today, it comprises a number of different areas, Aberystwyth town, Llanbadarn Fawr, Waunfawr, Llanbadarn, Trefechan. Aberystwyth is a town, considering the population density of the United Kingdom. The Welsh capital, Cardiff, is over 100 miles away, London is 210 miles distant from Aberystwyth. Aberystwyth experiences a climate similar to almost all of the United Kingdom. This is particularly pronounced due to its west coast location facing the Irish Sea, air undergoes little land moderation and so temperatures closely reflect the sea temperature when winds are coming from the predominant onshore direction. The nearest Met Office weather station is Gogerddan,3 miles to the northeast, the absolute maximum temperature is 34.6 °C, set during July 2006. Typically the warmest day will average 28.0 °C and 5.6 days will achieve a maximum of 25.1 °C or above, the absolute minimum temperature is −13.5 °C, set in January 2010. Typically 39.8 days will register an air frost, rainfall averages 1,112 mm a year, with over 1mm recorded on 161 days. All averages refer to the 1971–2000 period, Aberystwyth is a tourist destination, and forms a cultural link between North Wales and South Wales. Constitution Hill, scaled by the Aberystwyth Cliff Railway, gives access to views and to other attractions at the summit. Scenic Mid Wales landscape within easy reach of the town includes the wilderness of the Cambrian Mountains, whose valleys contain forests, a convenient way to access the interior is by the preserved narrow-gauge Vale of Rheidol Railway. Although the town is modern, there are a number of historic buildings, including the remains of the castle. The Old College was originally built and opened in 1865 as a hotel, the new university campus overlooks Aberystwyth from Penglais Hill to the east of the town centre
26.
Caerleon
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The city of Chester was also historically called Caerleon. For the champion racehorse, see Caerleon II Caerleon is a town and community, situated on the River Usk in the northern outskirts of the city of Newport. Caerleon is a site of importance, being the location of a notable Roman legionary fortress, Isca Augusta. The Wales National Roman Legion Museum and Roman Baths Museum are in Caerleon close to the remains of Isca Augusta, Caerleon is a site of considerable archaeological importance as the location of a Roman legionary fortress or castra. It was the headquarters for Legio II Augusta from about 75 to 300 AD, the Romans called the site Isca after the River Usk. The name Caerleon may derive from the Welsh for fortress of the legion, substantial excavated Roman remains can be seen, including the military amphitheatre, thermae and barracks occupied by the Roman Legion. In August 2011 the remains of a Roman harbour were discovered in Caerleon, according to Gildas, followed by Bede, Roman Caerleon was the site of two early Christian martyrdoms, those of Julius and Aaron. Recent finds suggest Roman occupation of some kind as late as AD380, Roman remains have also been discovered at The Mynde, itself a distinctive historical site. During the Middle Ages, after the Romans had left Britain, the parish church, St Cadocs was founded on the site of the legionary headquarters building probably sometime in the 6th century. A Norman-style motte and bailey castle was built outside the eastern corner of the old Roman fort, probably by the Welsh Lord of Caerleon and it was held in 1086 by Turstin FitzRolf, standard bearer to William the Conqueror at Hastings. From the apparent banishment of Turstin by William II, it was held from 1088 by Wynebald de Ballon, battles raged between the Welsh and Normans and in 1171 Iorwerth ab Owain and his two sons destroyed the town of Caerleon and burned the Castle. Caerleon was an important market and port and presumably became a borough by 1171, both castle and borough were seized by William Marshal in 1217 and Caerleon castle was rebuilt in stone. The remains of many of the old Roman buildings stood to some height until this time and were demolished for their building materials. During the Welsh Revolt in 1402 Rhys Gethin, General for Owain Glyndŵr, took Caerleon Castle together with those of Newport, Cardiff, Llandaff, Abergavenny, Caerphilly, the Tower is a Grade II* listed building. Across the Afon Lwyd from Caerleon, in the region of Penrhos Farm, are two English Civil War forts, in 1648 Oliver Cromwells troops camped overnight on Christchurch Hill, overlooking Newport, before their attack on Newport Castle the next day. The old wooden Caerleon Bridge was destroyed in a storm in 1779, until the Victorian development of the downstream docks at Newport Docks, Caerleon acted as the major port on the River Usk. The wharf was located on the bank, to the west of todays river bridge which marked the limit of navigability for masted ships. A tinplate works and mills were established on the outskirts of the town, in Ponthir, around this time, a plaque on the Mynde wall in High Street references the Newport Rising of 1839 in which John Frost of Newport was a prominent figure in the Chartist movement
27.
Caerwent
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Caerwent is a village and community in Monmouthshire, Wales. It is located five miles west of Chepstow and eleven miles east of Newport. It was founded by the Romans as the town of Venta Silurum. The modern village is built around the Roman ruins, which are some of the best-preserved in Europe and it remained prominent through the Roman era and Early Middle Ages as the site of a road crossing between several important civic centres. It was founded by the Romans in AD75 as Venta Silurum and this is confirmed by inscriptions on the Civitas Silurum stone, now on display in the parish church. Large sections of the Roman town walls are still in place, in 1881, a portion of a highly intricate coloured floor mosaic or tessellated pavement, depicting different types of fish, was unearthed during excavations in the garden of a cottage. Excavations in 1971 dated the north-west polygonal angle-tower to the mid-300s, further excavations were carried out in 2008 by Wessex Archaeology and was featured in the Channel 4 TV programme Time Team. Modern houses are built on top of part of the old Roman market place, the ruins of several Roman buildings are still visible, including the foundations of a 4th-century Roman temple. The fact that most of the houses lacked mosaic or hypocaust-heated floors, however, suggests that despite its size, Caerwent was a centre for the Kingdom of Gwent after the Roman occupation. The name Caerwent translates from Welsh as fort of Gwent, the English town name of Winchester has a parallel derivation, ultimately from the combination of the Latin words Venta, in that case, Venta Belgarum, and castra. Caerwent remained an important centre, where the road between Gloucester and Caerleon met the road from Shrewsbury, via Monmouth and Trellech, to the sea at Portskewett. Excavations at Caerwent have revealed remains and everyday objects from the post-Roman period, metalwork, including elaborate penannular brooches and fastening pins, have been dated to the 5th-7th centuries. A large number of Christian burials, some stone-lined, dating from between the 4th and 9th centuries have also discovered, both around the towns East Gate and close to the parish church. It has been suggested that it may have been the birthplace of St. Patrick, a monastery was established at Caerwent some time before the 10th century, and a pre-Norman cross head was discovered at the site in 1992. The current church is dedicated to Saints Stephen and Tathan, the name possibly having arisen through confusion with Saint Tathyw. The oldest existing part of the dates to the 13th century. The village appears as Venta Siluru and Caer went on the Cambriae Typus map of 1573, during World War II a Royal Navy Propellant Factory was established at Caerwent, immediately north of the A48 road. Caerwent is now a village, largely bypassed by the busy A48 road running between the city of Newport to the west and Chepstow to the east
28.
First Minister of Wales
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The First Minister of Wales is the leader of the Welsh Government, Wales devolved administration, which was established in 1999. The official office of the First Minister is in Tŷ Hywel, previously known as Crickhowell House, an office is also kept at the Crown Buildings, Cathays Park, Cardiff. A change of title occurred after the Liberal Democrats formed a government with Labour in the Welsh Assembly in October 2000. The Government of Wales Act 2006 allowed for the post to be known as the First Minister. Until the Government of Wales Act 2006, these were delegated powers of the UK government, since that Act came into force in May 2007, however, the First Minister is appointed by the monarch and represents the Crown in Wales. The First Minister appoints the Welsh Ministers, Deputy Welsh Ministers, following separation between the legislative and the executive on the enactment of the Government of Wales Act 2006, the Welsh Ministers exercise functions in their own right. Any further transfers of functions from the UK Government will be made directly to the Welsh Ministers by an Order in Council approved by Parliament. The First Minister is accountable and responsible for, Exercise of functions by the Cabinet of the Welsh Government, policy development and coordination of policy. The relationships with the rest of the United Kingdom, Europe, staffing/Civil Service On 16 October 2000, during Rhodri Morgans term of office, the post, previously titled First Secretary for Wales, was retitled First Minister of Wales. Deputy First Minister for Wales Welsh Government Dates are from World Statesmen and various BBC News Online articles from 1999 to 2003
29.
Carwyn Jones
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Carwyn Howell Jones is a Welsh politician who is the First Minister of Wales. The third politician to lead the Welsh Government, Jones has been Assembly Member for Bridgend since 1999, in the coalition government of Welsh Labour and Plaid Cymru, he was appointed Counsel General for Wales and Leader of the House on 19 July 2007. He was elected to succeed Rhodri Morgan as the Leader of Welsh Labour on 1 December 2009, on 9 December he was nominated as First Minister by the National Assembly, and was sworn into office the following day. He is a Welsh speaker, and is also a member of Amnesty International, born in Swansea, he was raised in Bridgend in a Welsh-speaking family. He was a pupil at Brynteg Comprehensive School in Bridgend, and then studied at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth, where he joined the Labour Party during the 1984–5 Miners Strike. Carwyn Jones graduated from Aberystwyth University with an LLB degree in 1988 and he left the Swansea legal practice to become a tutor at Cardiff University for two years on the Bar Vocational Course. Jones has warned students studying for a law degree at Aberystwyth Don’t assume that it’s a passport to a job, ten times more lawyers graduate than can be found jobs. Jones was a County Borough Councillor for Bridgend for five years, Jones became a Member of the National Assembly of Wales for Bridgend in 1999. Jones was appointed Deputy Secretary in the National Assembly for Wales in March 2000, in July 2000, he was appointed to the Cabinet as Secretary for Agriculture and Rural Development in the Welsh Government, before the title was changed to Minister in October 2000. His responsibilities in this included the environment, countryside issues, town and country planning, sustainable development, agriculture. In June 2002, his brief was expanded when he was appointed Minister for Open Government in addition to his other duties, during this time, he was responsible for the Welsh response to the 2001 Foot and Mouth disease outbreak. After his party entered into coalition with Plaid Cymru, Jones was reappointed as Counsel General for Wales, on 1 December 2009, Jones was elected the new Leader with over 50% of the vote. After winning the election in 2009, Carwyn Jones was confirmed as the third First Minister of Wales on 9 December 2009. He was appointed as a Privy Counsellor on 9 June 2010, following the 2011 elections to the Welsh Assembly, Labour increased their number of seats to just one under the amount needed for a majority. Jones opted to form a minority government as opposed to continuing the coalition, following the UK Coalition Governments austerity programme Some members of the UK cabinet sought to criticise Jones. On 8 September 2012 in defending the UK government spending cuts, Clegg said, is very good at blaming London for everything and terrifically stirring in his speeches about how more needs to be done to help the Welsh economy and yet he does exactly the reverse. Mr Clegg further claimed the Coalition Government was doing all the heavy lifting, a spokesman for Carwyn Jones, responded, We’ve again witnessed another graceless visit to Wales by Nick Clegg. People would be right to ask themselves – why does he bother coming to Wales, business leaders right across Wales are telling us they need much more support from the UK Government
30.
Newport City Council
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Newport City Council is the governing body for the city of Newport, one of the subdivisions of Wales within the United Kingdom. It consists of 50 councillors, representing the citys 20 wards, for decades previously it had been controlled by the Labour Party. In the 2012 elections the Labour Party regained control with an overall majority, elections take place every four years. The last election was 3 May 2012, Newport is an ancient mesne borough, occupying an important position on the Welsh Marches. The town grew up round the castle early in the 12th century. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing in 1187, calls it Novus Burgus, probably to distinguish it from Caerleon, the first lord was Robert Fitzhamon, who died in 1107, and from him the lordship passed to the Earls of Gloucester and Stafford and the Dukes of Buckingham. Hugh le Despenser, who held the lordship for a time, obtained in 1323 a charter of liberties for the burgesses, granting them freedom from toll throughout England, Ireland. Hugh, Earl of Stafford granted a charter in 1385, confirmed by his grandson in 1427. On the attainder of the Duke of Buckingham in 1483 the lordship lapsed to the crown, of whom it was held in the 16th and 17th centuries by the Pembrokes, the town was incorporated by Royal Charter of James I in 1623 and confirmed by Charles II in 1685. This created a Corporation which consisted of a mayor and twelve aldermen who governed the Borough and were responsible for law and they were assisted by a Recorder and two Bailiffs. This system of government lasted in essence until the passing of the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 and this reconstituted the Corporation as an elected Borough Council, comprising a mayor, aldermen and councillors. The Newport Borough Police were formed a year later, during the 19th century the Borough grew in size from 239 acres to 4,924 acres by taking in parts of the surrounding parishes of St. Woolos, Christchurch and Nash. When modern local government was introduced by the Local Government Act 1888 it was one of the first places to become a county borough, the new Newport Civic Centre, designed by architect Thomas Cecil Howitt, was opened to the public in 1940. In 1996, another wave of local-government reorganisation reverted the council to its previous status of a county borough, in 2002 it was granted formal city status. For the municipal year 2014—2015, the mayor is The Right Worshipful The Mayor of Newport Councillor Matthew Evans, the city is divided into 20 wards. Most of these wards are coterminous with communities of the same name, each community can have an elected council. The following table lists city council wards, communities and associated geographical areas, the 35-year-old mural commemorated Newports Chartist history, specifically the Newport Rising of 1839. The Guardian suggested it was not just budgets, but a cultural history thats under attack
31.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
32.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
33.
Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
34.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
35.
Zip-line
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It is designed to enable a user propelled by gravity to travel from the top to the bottom of the inclined cable by holding on to, or attaching to, the freely moving pulley. Zip-lines come in forms, most often used as a means of entertainment. They may be short and low, intended for childs play, longer and higher rides are often used as a means of accessing remote areas, such as a rainforest canopy. Zip line tours are becoming popular vacation activities, found at outdoor adventure camps or upscale resorts, the jungles of Costa Rica, Florida, Puerto Vallarta, and Nicaragua are popular destinations for zip line enthusiasts. The zip-wire has been used as a method in some mountainous countries for many years. Referred to as an strong, one appears in The Invisible Man by H. G. Wells, published in 1897. In 1739, Robert Cadman, a steeplejack and ropeslider, died when descending from Shrewsburys St Mary’s Church when his rope snapped. In the Australian outback, zip-lines were occasionally used for delivering food, Australian troops have used them to deliver food, mail and even ammunition to forward positions in several conflicts. With the flying fox, the pulley, attached to the car, are fixed to the cable, childrens versions are usually not set up with a steep incline, so the speeds are kept relatively low, negating the need for a means of stopping. To be propelled by gravity, the needs to be on a fairly steep slope. Even then the car will not travel completely to the end. It can be returned by means, either by simply pushing the car back to the top of the hill on foot or a line leading from the car to the uphill end. The flying fox is usually made with rope instead of cable to make it easier and cheaper to install, uninstall. The riders on the Flying Fox needs safety harness to get support on the zip line, professional versions of a zip-line are most typically used as an outdoor adventure activity. In contrast to flying foxes professional courses are operated at higher speeds. The users are attached to the cable by a harness that attaches to a removable trolley. A helmet is required on almost all courses of any size, cables can be very high, starting at a height of over 9 m, and traveling well over 460 m. All zip-line cables have some degree of sag, the proper tensioning of a cable is important and allows the ability to tune the ride of a zip line
36.
Four-poster bed
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A four-poster bed is a bed with four vertical columns, one in each corner, that support a tester, or upper panel. This tester or panel will often have rails to allow curtains to be pulled around the bed, there are a number of antique four-poster beds extant dating to the 16th century and earlier, many of these early beds are highly ornate and are made from oak. An example of such an early 16th-century four-poster resides in Crathes Castle, the dormitories in the Harry Potter series have four-poster beds in them
37.
Welsh Government
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The Welsh Government is the executive of the devolved National Assembly for Wales. The government consists of cabinet secretaries, who attend meetings, and ministers who do not. It is led by the first minister, usually the leader of the largest party in the National Assembly, the government is responsible for tabling policy in devolved areas for consideration by the assembly and implementing policy that has been approved by it. As initially established, the Welsh Government had no independent executive powers in law, following separation, the Welsh ministers exercise functions in their own right. Further transfers of functions from the British government can be made directly to the Welsh ministers by an Order in Council approved by the British parliament. Separation was designed to clarify the roles of the assembly. The result mirrored much more closely the relationship between the British government and British parliament and that between the Scottish Government and the Scottish Parliament. This separation between the two bodies took effect on the appointment of the First Minister by Queen Elizabeth II following the election on 3 May 2007. Separation was meant to clarify the roles of the assembly. The role of the government is to make decisions, develop and implement policy, exercise executive functions, Assembly measures can now go further than the subordinate legislation which the assembly had the power to make prior to 2007. The assemblys functions, including that of making subordinate legislation, in the main, a third body was also established under the 2006 Act from May 2007, called the National Assembly for Wales Commission. It employs the staff supporting the new National Assembly for Wales, the 2006 Act made new provision for the appointment of Welsh ministers. The First Minister is nominated by the Assembly and then appointed by Her Majesty the Queen, the First Minister then appoints the Welsh Ministers and the Deputy Welsh Ministers, with the approval of Her Majesty. The Act created a new post of Counsel General for Wales, the Counsel General is appointed by the Queen, on the nomination of the First Minister, whose recommendation must be agreed by the National Assembly. The Counsel General may be, but does not have to be, the Act permits a maximum of 12 Welsh Ministers, which includes Deputy Welsh Ministers, but excludes the First Minister and the Counsel General. Accordingly, the size of the Welsh Government is 14. Subject to limitations prescribed by the Government of Wales Act 2006, the government is composed of cabinet secretaries and ministers. The counsel general attends cabinet meetings, the current government is formed by Welsh Labour and also the sole Liberal Democrats Assembly Member, Kirsty Williams
38.
Atrium (architecture)
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In architecture, an atrium is a large open air or skylight covered space surrounded by a building. Atria were a feature in Ancient Roman dwellings, providing light. Modern atria, as developed in the late 19th and 20th centuries, are several stories high and having a glazed roof or large windows. Atria are a design feature because they give their buildings a feeling of space. The atrium has become a key feature of buildings in recent years. Atria are popular with building users, building designers and building developers, users like atria because they create a dynamic and stimulating interior that provides shelter from the external environment while maintaining a visual link with that environment. Designers enjoy the opportunity to new types of spaces in buildings. Fire control is an important aspect of contemporary atrium design due to criticism that poorly designed atria could allow fire to spread to a buildings upper stories more quickly. The Latin word atrium referred to the central court from which enclosed rooms led off. The impluvium was a shallow pool sunken into the floor to catch rainwater from the roof, some surviving examples are beautifully decorated. The opening in the ceiling above the pool called for some means of support for the roof, as the centrepiece of the house, the atrium was the most lavishly-furnished room. Also, it contained the chapel to the ancestral spirits. The term was used for a variety of spaces in public and religious buildings, mostly forms of arcaded courtyards. Byzantine churches were often entered through such a space, the 19th century brought the industrial revolution with great advances in iron and glass manufacturing techniques. Courtyards could then have horizontal glazing overhead, eliminating some of the elements from the space. One of the public spaces at Federation Square, in Melbourne, Australia, is called The Atrium and is a street-like space, five storeys high with glazed walls. The structure and glazing pattern follow the system of fractals used to arrange the panels on the rest of the facades at Federation Square, as of 2016, the Burj Al Arab hotel in Dubai, has the worlds tallest atrium at 590 feet. The Luxor Hotel, in Las Vegas, Nevada, has the largest atrium in the world at 29 million cubic feet, cavaedium Courtyard Quadrangle Roth, Leland M. Understanding Architecture, Its Elements History and Meaning
39.
Culture of Wales
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Wales has a distinctive culture including its own language, customs, holidays and music. Wales is primarily represented by the symbol of the red Welsh Dragon, building on the construction in Wales during the Roman era of occupation, these early kingdoms were also influenced by Ireland, but precise details are unclear prior to the 8th century AD. Several Kingdoms arose at that time, including Gwynedd, Powys, gruffydd was killed by his own men on 5 August 1063 while Harold Godwinson sought to engage him in battle. This was just over three years before the Norman invasion of England, which led to a change of fortune for Wales. By 1070, the Normans had already seen successes in their invasion of Wales with Gwent fallen, the invasion was seemingly complete by 1093. However, the Welsh rebelled against their new overlords the following year, while Gwynedd grew in strength, Powys was broken up after the death of Llywelyn ap Madog in the 1160s and was never reunited. Llywelyn the Great rose in Gwynedd and had reunited the majority of Wales by his death in 1240, after his death, King Henry III of England intervened to prevent Dafydd ap Llywelyn from inheriting his fathers lands outside Gwynedd, leading to war. The claims of his successor, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, conflicted with those of King Edward I of England, maredudds son, Owain ap Maredudd ap Tudur, anglicised his name to become Owen Tudor, and was the grandfather of Henry Tudor. Henry took the throne of England following the Wars of the Roses when his forces defeated those of Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. The House of Tudor continued to reign through several successive monarchs until 1603, official symbols of Wales include the Welsh Dragon, daffodil and leek. Both the dragon and leek date back to the 7th century and he also introduced the Red Dragon standard, although this symbol was most likely introduced to the British Isles by Roman troops. It may also have been a reference to the 6th century Welsh word draig, the standard was appropriated by the Normans during the 11th century, and used for the Royal Standard of Scotland. Richard I of England took a red dragon standard with him on the Third Crusade, the colours of the leek were used for the uniforms of soldiers under Edward I of England. Both symbols were popular with Tudor kings, with Henry VII of England adding the white and it was largely forgotten by the House of Stuart, who favoured a unicorn instead. By the 17th and 18th centuries, it common practice in Great Britain for the gentry to wear leeks on St. Davids Day. In 1807, a a red dragon passant standing on a mound was made the Kings badge for Wales, following an increase in nationalism in 1953, it was proposed to add the motto Y ddraig goch ddyry cychwyn to the flag. This was poorly received, and six years later Queen Elizabeth II intervened to put the current flag in place, the daffodil is a more recent development, becoming popular during the 19th century. It may have linked to the leek, as the Welsh for daffodil translates as St Peters Leek
40.
Restaurant
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A restaurant, or an eatery, is a business which prepares and serves food and drinks to customers in exchange for money. Meals are generally served and eaten on the premises, but many also offer take-out and food delivery services. In Western countries, most mid- to high-range restaurants serve alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, some restaurants serve all the major meals, such as breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Other restaurants may serve a single meal or they may serve two meals or even a kids meal. Restaurants may be classified or distinguished in different ways. The primary factors are usually the food itself, the cuisine and/or the style of offering, beyond this, restaurants may differentiate themselves on factors including speed, formality, location, cost, service, or novelty themes. In the former case, customers usually wear casual clothing, in the latter case, depending on culture and local traditions, customers might wear semi-casual, semi-formal or formal wear. Typically, at mid- to high-priced restaurants, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, after eating, the customers then pay the bill. Another restaurant approach which uses few waiters is the buffet restaurant, customers serve food onto their own plates and then pay at the end of the meal. Buffet restaurants typically still have waiters to serve drinks and alcoholic beverages, fast food restaurants are also considered a restaurant. The travelling public has long been catered for with ships messes and railway restaurant cars which are, in effect, many railways, the world over, also cater for the needs of travellers by providing railway refreshment rooms, a form of restaurant, at railway stations. In the 2000s, a number of travelling restaurants, specifically designed for tourists, have been created and these can be found on trams, boats, buses, etc. A restaurants proprietor is called a restaurateur /ˌrɛstərəˈtɜːr/, like restaurant, professional cooks are called chefs, with there being various finer distinctions. Most restaurant will have various waiting staff to serve food, beverages and alcoholic drinks, including busboys who remove used dishes and cutlery. In finer restaurants, this may include a host or hostess, a maître dhôtel to welcome customers and to them. A new route to becoming a restauranter, rather than working ones way up through the stages, is to operate a food truck, once a sufficient following has been obtained, a permanent restaurant site can be opened. This trend has become common in the UK and the US, a chefs table is a table located in the kitchen of a restaurant, reserved for VIPs and special guests. Patrons may be served a themed tasting menu prepared and served by the head chef, Restaurants can require a minimum party and charge a higher flat fee
41.
Treetops Shooting Ground
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Treetops Sporting Ground is located in Coedkernew, Newport, South Wales. It is a clay pigeon shooting ground. It also has facilities for air rifle owners, Treetops has hosted local competitions between Cardiff, Bristol and Bath Universities clay shooting clubs and the South West clay shooting league. The Celtic Manor Resort in Newport, the host venue of the 2010 Ryder Cup, Treetops hosted the Gwent leg of the National Police Shooting Competition in May 2010. Treetops was voted best UK shooting school 2002 by Shooting Times and it is possible to see the Second Severn Crossing bridge from the entrance gate
42.
Golf course
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A golf course is the grounds where the game of golf is played. It comprises a series of holes, each consisting of a ground, a fairway, the rough and other hazards. A standard round of golf consists of 18 holes, most courses contain 18 holes, some share fairways or greens, and a subset has nine holes, played twice per round. Par-3 courses consist of nine or 18 holes all of which have a par of three strokes, many older courses are links, often coastal. Courses are private, public, and municipally owned, and typically feature a pro shop, many private courses are found at country clubs. Although a specialty within landscape design or landscape architecture, golf course architecture is considered a field of study. While golf courses often follow the landscape, some modification is unavoidable. This is increasingly the case as new courses are likely to be sited on less optimal land. Bunkers and sand traps are almost always artificial, although other hazards may be natural, the layout of a fairway follows certain traditional principles, such as the number of holes, their par values, and the number of holes of each par value per course. It is also preferable to arrange greens to be close to the tee box of the next hole, to minimize travel distance while playing a round. Combined with the need to all the fairways within what is frequently a compact square or rectangular plot of land. In complex areas, two holes may share the same tee box, fairway, or even green and it is also common for separate tee-off points to be positioned for men, women, and amateurs, each one respectively lying closer to the green. Eighteen-hole courses are traditionally broken down into a front 9 and a back 9. On older courses, the holes may be out in one long loop, beginning and ending at the clubhouse, and thus the front 9 is referred to on the scorecard as out. More recent courses tend to be designed with the front 9, a successful design is as visually pleasing as it is playable. Most golf courses have only par-3, -4, and -5 holes, typical distances for the various holes from standard tees are as follows. Terrain can also be a factor, so that a long downhill hole might be rated par 4 and this compensates for the generally longer distance pro players can put on tee and fairway shots as compared to the average bogey golfer. The game of golf is played in what is called a round and this consists of playing a set number of holes in an order predetermined by the course
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