1.
Rigvedic rivers
–
Rivers, such as the Sapta Sindhavah play a prominent part in the hymns of the Rig Veda, and consequently in early Hindu religion. It may have derived from an older Proto-Indo-Iranian hydronym, as a cognate name, hapta həndu. A recurring theme in the Yajurveda is that of Indra slaying Vritra, liberating the rivers, in a variant of the myth, Indra smashes the Vala cave, releasing the cows that were within. The Seven Rivers are a group of seven rivers of uncertain or fluctuating identification - compare the Saptarishi of the Avesta. The Avestas hapta həndu are preemptively equated with the Vedic Sapta Sindhavaḥ or vis-a-vis, note, The term Sapta Sindhava, commonly used in Hindi and other Indian languages, is the nominative plural in Sanskrit. Sapta Sindhu, often seen in English, is in the singular and it is not entirely clear how the Seven Rivers were intended to be enumerated. They are often located in northern India / eastern Pakistan, if the Sarasvati and the five major rivers of India are included, one river is missing, probably the Kubha. Other possibilities include the Arjikiya or Sushoma, compare also the list of ten rivers, in RV10.64.8 and RV10.75.1, three groups of seven rivers are referred to, as well as 99 rivers. The Sapta-Sindhava region was bounded by Saraswati in the east, by the Sindhu in the west, not all researchers agree with this interpretation. In his book Land of the Seven Rivers, writer Sanjeev Sanyal has argued that the Sapta Sindhu refers only to the Sarasvati and its own tributaries. If Sanyal is right, the Sapta Sindhava region only refers to an area including Haryana. Identification of Rigvedic rivers is the single most important way of establishing the geography of the early Vedic civilization, Rivers with certain identifications stretch from eastern Afghanistan to the western Gangetic plain, clustering in the undivided Punjab. Some river names appear to go back to common Indo-Iranian rivers, with cognate river names in Avestan, notably the Sarasvati and the Sarayu. A number of names can be shown to have been re-applied to other rivers as the center of Vedic culture moved eastward from the central Vedic heartland in undivided Punjab. It is possible to establish a clear picture for the latest phase of the Rigveda, thanks to the Nadistuti sukta, the most prominent river of the Rigveda is the Sarasvati, next to the Indus. The Sarasvati river of the Rigveda is commonly identified with the present-day Ghaggar-Hakra, on the other hand, archaeologists like B. B. Northwestern Rivers, Trstama. Susartu Anitabha (listed once, in 5.53.9, with the Afghan rivers Rasa, Kubha, Krumu, the Indus and its minor eastern tributaries, Sindhu (Indus, Susoma Arjikiya. Central Rivers, Vitasta Asikni Parusni Vipas Sutudri Marudvrdha East-central Rivers, Sarasvati Drsadvati, Apaya Eastern Rivers, yamuna Ganges Sarayu in Uttar Pradesh Gomti or Adi Ganga in Uttar Pradesh Gomti Gandaki Silamavati
Rigvedic rivers
–
Geography of the Rigveda; the extent of the
Swat and
Cemetery H cultures are indicated.
Rigvedic rivers
–
Kabul River near Jalalabad
Rigvedic rivers
–
Swat River in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Rigvedic rivers
–
Harī Rūd in Afghanistan
2.
Swat culture
–
The Gandhara grave culture, also called Swat culture, emerged c.1600 BC, and flourished c.1500 BC to 500 BC in Gandhara, which lies in modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. It has been regarded as a token of the Indo-Aryan migrations, relevant finds, artifacts found primarily in graves, were distributed along the banks of the Swat and Dir rivers in the north, Taxila in the southeast, along the Gomal River to the south. Simply made terracotta figurines were buried with the pottery, and other items are decorated with simple dot designs, horse remains were found in at least one burial. The Gandhara grave culture may be an artifact of the Indo-Aryan migrations, according to Kochhar, the Indo-Aryan culture fused with indigenous elements of the remnants of the Indus Valley Civilization and gave rise to the Vedic Civilization. Asko Parpola argues that the Gandhara grave culture is by no means identical with the Bronze Age Culture of Bactria, according to Tusa, the Gandhara grave culture and its new contributions are in line with the cultural traditions of the previous period. According to Kennedy, who argues for a cultural continuity. This suggests a continuum between the ancient populations of Timargarha and Mehrgarh. This is contested by Elena E. Kuzmina, who notes remains that are similar to some from Central Asian populations, antonini, Stacul and other scholars argue that this culture is also not related with the Beshkent culture of Kyrgyzstan and Vakhsh culture of Tajikistan. However, E. Kuzmina argues the opposite on the basis of archaeology and the human remains from the separate cultures
Swat culture
–
Geography of the
Rigveda, with
river names; the extent of the Swat and
Cemetery H cultures are indicated.
3.
Indo-Iranian migration
–
Some scholars now use the term Indo-Iranian to refer to this group, while the term Aryan is used to mean Indo-Iranian by other scholars such as Josef Wiesehofer and Jaakko Häkkinen. Population geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, in his 1994 book The History and Geography of Human Genes, historical linguists broadly estimate that a continuum of Indo-Iranian languages probably began to diverge by 2000 BC, if not earlier, preceding both the Vedic and Iranian cultures. The earliest recorded forms of languages, Vedic Sanskrit and Gathic Avestan, are remarkably similar. The origin and earliest relationship between the Nuristani languages and that of the Iranian and Indo-Aryan groups is complex, two-wave models of Indo-Iranian expansion have been proposed by and Parpola. The Indo-Iranians and their expansion are strongly associated with the Proto-Indo-European invention of the chariot and it is assumed that this expansion spread from the Proto-Indo-European homeland north of the Caspian sea south to the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Iranian plateau, and Northern India. They also expanded into Mesopotamia and Syria and introduced the horse, sumerian texts from EDIIIb Girsu already mention the chariot and Ur III texts mention the horse. Linguistic remains can be found in a Hittite horse-training manual written by one Kikkuli the Mitannian, other evidence is found in references to the names of Mitanni rulers and the gods they swore by in treaties, these remains are found in the archives of the Mitannis neighbors. The time period for this is about 1500 BC, in a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya are invoked. Kikkulis horse training text includes technical terms such as aika, tera, panza, satta, the numeral aika one is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian in general. The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into South Asia is that this first wave went over the Hindu Kush, either into the headwaters of the Indus, the earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, preserved only in the Rigveda, is assigned to roughly 1500 BC. From the Indus, the Indo-Aryan languages spread from c.1500 BC to c.500 BC, over the northern and central parts of the subcontinent, sparing the extreme south. The Indo-Aryans in these areas established several kingdoms and principalities in the region. The latter lasted until the 4th century BC, when it was conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, in eastern Afghanistan and southwestern Pakistan, whatever Indo-Aryan languages were spoken there were eventually pushed out by the Iranian languages. Most Indo-Aryan languages, however, were and still are prominent in the rest of the Indian subcontinent, today, Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Fiji and the Maldives. The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave, the first Iranians to reach the Black Sea may have been the Cimmerians in the 8th century BC, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, who are considered a branch of the Central Asian Sakas. The populous Sarmatian tribe of the Massagetae, dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. In the east, the Saka occupied several areas in Xinjiang, the Medes, Parthians and Persians begin to appear on the Iranian plateau from c.800 BC, and the Achaemenids replaced Elamite rule from 559 BC
Indo-Iranian migration
–
Map of the
Sintashta-Petrovka culture (
red), its expansion into the
Andronovo culture (
orange) during the
2nd millennium BC, showing the overlap with the
BMAC (
chartreuse green) in the south. The location of the earliest
chariots is shown in
magenta.
4.
Andronovo culture
–
The Andronovo culture is a collection of similar local Bronze Age cultures that flourished ca. 2000–900 BCE in western Siberia and the west Asiatic steppe and it is probably better termed an archaeological complex or archaeological horizon. The older Sintashta culture, formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, most researchers associate the Andronovo horizon with early Indo-Iranian languages, though it may have overlapped the early Uralic-speaking area at its northern fringe. According to genetic study conducted by Allentoft et al, the name derives from the village of Andronovo, Krasnoyarsk Krai, where the Russian archaeologist Arkadi Tugarinov discovered its first remains in 1914. Several graves were discovered, with skeletons in crouched positions, buried with richly decorated pottery, the Andronovo culture was first identified by the Russian archaeologist Sergei Teploukhov in the 1920s. On its western fringes, it overlaps with the approximately contemporaneous, to the east, it reaches into the Minusinsk depression, with some sites as far west as the southern Ural Mountains, overlapping with the area of the earlier Afanasevo culture. Additional sites are scattered as far south as the Koppet Dag, the Pamir, the northern boundary vaguely corresponds to the beginning of the Taiga. In the Volga basin, interaction with the Srubna culture was the most intense and prolonged, mallory notes that the Tazabagyab culture south of Andronovo could be an offshoot of the former, alternatively the result of an amalgamation of steppe cultures and the Central Asian oasis cultures. In the initial Sintastha-Petrovka phase, the Andronovo culture is limited to the northern and western steppes in the southern Urals-Kazakhstan, in southern Siberia and Kazakhstan, the Andronovo culture was succeeded by the Karasuk culture. On its western border, it is succeeded by the Srubna culture, both Herodotus and Strabo identify them as Iranian. The Andronovo culture consisted of communities that were largely mobile as well as those settled in small villages. Settlements are especially pronounced in its Central Asian parts, fortifications include ditches, earthen banks as well as timber palisades, of which an estimated twenty have been discovered. Andronovo villages typically contain two to twenty houses, but settlements containing as much as a hundred houses have been discovered. Andronovo houses were constructed from pine, cedar, or birch. Larger homes range in the size from 80 to 300 sqm, and probably belonged to extended families, Andronovo livestock included cattle, horses, sheep, goats and camels. The domestic pig is notably absent, which is typical of a mobile economy, the percentage of cattle among Andronovo remains are significantly higher than among their western Srubna neighbours. The horse was represented on Andronovo sites and was used for riding and traction. Agriculture also played an important role in the Andronovo economy, the Andronovo culture is notable for regional advances in metallurgy
Andronovo culture
–
Andronovo culture
5.
BMAC
–
The Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age civilisation of Central Asia, dated to ca. 2300–1700 BCE, located in present-day northern Afghanistan, eastern Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan and its sites were discovered and named by the Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi. Sarianidis excavations from the late 1970s onward revealed numerous monumental structures in many sites, fortified by impressive walls, there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the well-watered northern foothills of the Kopet Dag during the Neolithic period. This region is dotted with the multi-period hallmarks characteristic of the ancient Near East, at Jeitun, mud brick houses were first occupied c.6000 BCE. The inhabitants were farmers who kept herds of goats and sheep and grew wheat and barley, Jeitun has given its name to the whole Neolithic period in the northern foothills of the Kopet Dag. During the Copper Age, the population of this region grew, by contrast a re-excavation of Monjukli Depe in 2010 found a distinct break in settlement history between the late neolithic and early chalcolithic eras there. Major chalcolithic settlements sprang up at Kara-Depe and Namazga-Depe, in addition, there were smaller settlements at Anau, Dashlyji, and Yassy-depe. Settlements similar to the level at Anau also appeared further east– in the ancient delta of the river Tedzen. About 3500 BCE the cultural unity of the split into two pottery styles, colourful in the west and more austere in the east at Altyn-Depe. This may reflect the formation of two tribal groups and it seems that around 3000 BCE people from Geoksiur migrated into the Murghab delta, where small, scattered settlements appeared, and reached further east into the Zerafshan Valley in Transoxiana. In both areas pottery typical of Geoksiur was in use, in Transoxiana they settled at Sarazm near Pendjikent. To the south the foundation layers of Shahr-i Shōkhta on the bank of the Helmand river in south-eastern Iran contained pottery of the Altyn-Depe, thus the farmers of Iran, Turkmenistan and Afghanistan were connected by a scattering of farming settlements. In the Early Bronze Age the culture of the Kopet Dag oases and this corresponds to level IV at Namazga-Depe. Altyn-Depe was a major centre even then, the height of this urban development was reached in the Middle Bronze Age c.2300 BCE, corresponding to level V at Namazga-Depe. It is this Bronze Age culture which has given the BMAC name. The inhabitants of the BMAC were sedentary people who practised irrigation farming of wheat, with their impressive material culture including monumental architecture, bronze tools, ceramics, and jewellery of semiprecious stones, the complex exhibits many of the hallmarks of civilisation. The complex can be compared to proto-urban settlements in the Helmand basin at Mundigak in western Afghanistan and Shahr-e Sukhteh in eastern Iran, or at Harappa, Sarianidi regards Gonur as the capital of the complex in Margiana throughout the Bronze Age. Each of these structures has been extensively excavated
BMAC
–
Altyn-Depe location on the modern
Middle East map as well as location of other
Eneolithic cultures (
Harappa and
Mohenjo-daro).
BMAC
–
The extent of the BMAC (after
EIEC).
BMAC
–
Seated Female Figure, chlorite and limestone, Bactria, 2500-1500 B.C.
LACMA
BMAC
–
Bird-Headed Man with Snakes, bronze. Northern Afghanistan, 2000-1500 B.C.
LACMA
6.
Yaz culture
–
The Yaz culture was an early Iron Age culture of Margiana, Bactria and Sogdia. It emerge on the top of late Bronze Age sites, and sometime exhibit stone towers, ceramics were mostly hand-made, but there was increasing use of wheel-thrown ware. There have been found bronze or iron arrowheads, also iron sickles or carpet knives among other artifacts, so far, no burials related to the culture have been found, and this is taken as possible evidence of the Zoroastrian practice of exposure or sky burial. In the region of Central Asia, the Bronze Age Oxus civilization was characteristic for irrigation and proto state society based on long distance trade of raw materials and goods. The ceramics, and spherical stone maces, show continuity and contemporaneity between Yaz Depe and Ulug Depe of the Early Iron Age and Tekkem Depe among others of the Namazga-Tepe VI period. Yaz I culture is argued to be related to the sedentarisation of the nomadic Indo-Iranians in the Eurasian Steppe and it extended from the central part of the Kopet Dag mountains to the fertile delta of the Murghab River. It is characterised for total lack of necropolises and tombs, as well painted ceramic with triangle, recent research shows four groups of patterns, the triangular, lozenges, bands, and of additional elements. It seems to be connected to the Chust culture of Fergana Valley, Mundigak V-VI in Sistan, compared to Chust culture, there was not found any tomb from Yaz culture. Asko Parpola and Fred Hiebert argued that these cultures seemingly derive from Haladun culture of Xinjiang and it is dated circa 1000–700 or 1000–550 BCE in Middle Iron Age, however some recent research consider no accurate boundary between the Yaz I and Yaz II. It moved to the north and northeast and it is characterized by wheel-made pottery type, iron metallurgy, large fortified sites, as well as the occupation of previous sites and the continuation of the funerary practices. Asko Parpola associated the change from Yaz I to Yaz II around 1000 BCE with the migration of the Western Iranians and he considered that the Yaz I people spoke Proto-Eastern Iranian or Proto-Saka. At the end of Yaz II/B the Murghab oasis became deserted and it is probably explained by the bloody revolt of Frada mentioned in Behistun Inscription in which reportedly 55,243 Margians were killed and 6,972 taken as prisoners, and the conquest of Bactria. The beak-shaped rim is replaced in form of a roller, vessels are cylindrical-conical. The Yaz Tepe large settlement was the district in the then metropolitcan part of Margiana. It covered 16 ha, and stood on brick platform mound 8 m high, while the excavations in the area revealed Yaz I complex, Yaz II. Other Margian well known sites with Yaz I ceramics are Gonur Tepe, Togoluk, Uch Tepe, Adam Basan, Taip, Garaoj Tepe, kuchuk Tepe settlement in Bactria is also related to the Yaz I culture. It looked like a circular hill with an area of 0.5 hectares. The structures were built on a platform surrounded by a defensive wall
Yaz culture
–
Archaeological cultures associated with
Indo-Iranian migrations (after
EIEC). The Andronovo,
BMAC and Yaz cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. The
GGC, Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and
PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryan movements.
7.
Indo-Iranians
–
Some scholars now use the term Indo-Iranian to refer to this group, while the term Aryan is used to mean Indo-Iranian by other scholars such as Josef Wiesehofer and Jaakko Häkkinen. Population geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, in his 1994 book The History and Geography of Human Genes, historical linguists broadly estimate that a continuum of Indo-Iranian languages probably began to diverge by 2000 BC, if not earlier, preceding both the Vedic and Iranian cultures. The earliest recorded forms of languages, Vedic Sanskrit and Gathic Avestan, are remarkably similar. The origin and earliest relationship between the Nuristani languages and that of the Iranian and Indo-Aryan groups is complex, two-wave models of Indo-Iranian expansion have been proposed by and Parpola. The Indo-Iranians and their expansion are strongly associated with the Proto-Indo-European invention of the chariot and it is assumed that this expansion spread from the Proto-Indo-European homeland north of the Caspian sea south to the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Iranian plateau, and Northern India. They also expanded into Mesopotamia and Syria and introduced the horse, sumerian texts from EDIIIb Girsu already mention the chariot and Ur III texts mention the horse. Linguistic remains can be found in a Hittite horse-training manual written by one Kikkuli the Mitannian, other evidence is found in references to the names of Mitanni rulers and the gods they swore by in treaties, these remains are found in the archives of the Mitannis neighbors. The time period for this is about 1500 BC, in a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya are invoked. Kikkulis horse training text includes technical terms such as aika, tera, panza, satta, the numeral aika one is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian in general. The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into South Asia is that this first wave went over the Hindu Kush, either into the headwaters of the Indus, the earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, preserved only in the Rigveda, is assigned to roughly 1500 BC. From the Indus, the Indo-Aryan languages spread from c.1500 BC to c.500 BC, over the northern and central parts of the subcontinent, sparing the extreme south. The Indo-Aryans in these areas established several kingdoms and principalities in the region. The latter lasted until the 4th century BC, when it was conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, in eastern Afghanistan and southwestern Pakistan, whatever Indo-Aryan languages were spoken there were eventually pushed out by the Iranian languages. Most Indo-Aryan languages, however, were and still are prominent in the rest of the Indian subcontinent, today, Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Fiji and the Maldives. The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave, the first Iranians to reach the Black Sea may have been the Cimmerians in the 8th century BC, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, who are considered a branch of the Central Asian Sakas. The populous Sarmatian tribe of the Massagetae, dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. In the east, the Saka occupied several areas in Xinjiang, the Medes, Parthians and Persians begin to appear on the Iranian plateau from c.800 BC, and the Achaemenids replaced Elamite rule from 559 BC
Indo-Iranians
–
Map of the
Sintashta-Petrovka culture (
red), its expansion into the
Andronovo culture (
orange) during the
2nd millennium BC, showing the overlap with the
BMAC (
chartreuse green) in the south. The location of the earliest
chariots is shown in
magenta.
8.
Gandhara grave culture
–
The Gandhara grave culture, also called Swat culture, emerged c.1600 BC, and flourished c.1500 BC to 500 BC in Gandhara, which lies in modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. It has been regarded as a token of the Indo-Aryan migrations, relevant finds, artifacts found primarily in graves, were distributed along the banks of the Swat and Dir rivers in the north, Taxila in the southeast, along the Gomal River to the south. Simply made terracotta figurines were buried with the pottery, and other items are decorated with simple dot designs, horse remains were found in at least one burial. The Gandhara grave culture may be an artifact of the Indo-Aryan migrations, according to Kochhar, the Indo-Aryan culture fused with indigenous elements of the remnants of the Indus Valley Civilization and gave rise to the Vedic Civilization. Asko Parpola argues that the Gandhara grave culture is by no means identical with the Bronze Age Culture of Bactria, according to Tusa, the Gandhara grave culture and its new contributions are in line with the cultural traditions of the previous period. According to Kennedy, who argues for a cultural continuity. This suggests a continuum between the ancient populations of Timargarha and Mehrgarh. This is contested by Elena E. Kuzmina, who notes remains that are similar to some from Central Asian populations, antonini, Stacul and other scholars argue that this culture is also not related with the Beshkent culture of Kyrgyzstan and Vakhsh culture of Tajikistan. However, E. Kuzmina argues the opposite on the basis of archaeology and the human remains from the separate cultures
Gandhara grave culture
–
Geography of the
Rigveda, with
river names; the extent of the Swat and
Cemetery H cultures are indicated.
9.
Copper Hoard Culture
–
Copper Hoards describe find-complexes which occur in the northern part of India. These occur mostly in large and small and are believed to date to the later 2nd millennium BCE, although very few derive from controlled. A fragment of an anthropomorph came to light in controlled excavations at Lothal, the doab hoards are associated with the so-called Ochre Coloured Pottery which appears to be closely associated with the Late Harappan phase. As early as the 19th century, stray hoard objects became known and these hoard artefacts are a main manifestation of the archaeology of India during the metals age. Many are deposited in the Kanya Gurukul museum in Narela/Haryana, the first Indian Copper Hoard harpoon was published in 1822. In a milestone publication B. B. Lal published 35 from the Gangetic basin, from the central peninsula, in 1985 Paul Alan Yule published 1083 examples from Copper Hoards but also other peninsular prehistoric metal finds. These added a new group, those from southern Haryana and northern Rajasthan, by 1992284 further examples followed specifically of the Copper Hoard types. Yule used European methods to understand the origin and meaning of the Copper hoards, for example, after deposition could the owners retrieve the finds. Moreover, each of the different constituent artefact types of a given hoard must have some meaning, four regional find-groups are identifiable with their characteristic find-types. Characteristic hoard finds from South Haryana/North Rajasthan include flat axes, harpoons, double axes, swords with so-called antenna grips, in the Ganges-Yamuna Doab related types occur. Those from Chota Nagpur differ entirely from these and they include finely worked pieces, and mostly look at first like axe-heads but are probably ingots. Fewer are those known from Madhya Pradesh, although there were some 424 from the Ghangaria hoard alone. Of the four groups, the largest number derives from southern Haryana. Coningham believes that one of the largest hoards is that from Daimabad with 60 kg and it is an isolated contemporary phenomenon with little to do with the four main find-groups. Several writers do not distinguish between any early copper based artefacts and the narrowly defined Copper Hoards. Since most show no signs of antique use-wear, often are over-sized, or paper thin, they appear to be dedicatory. If those very simple ones of the Chota Nagpur group are simply ingots, the copper ore used derives from different ore ranges in Rajasthan, southern Haryana, Bihar/West Bengal/Orissa as well as Madhya Pradesh, to judge from the proximity to the find spots. Hoard objects contain from 78-99% copper, six contain inexplicably up to 32. 9% iron
Copper Hoard Culture
–
Indian Copper hoard artefact from Rewari, Haryana is probably not a use-object but more likely had a religious function.
Copper Hoard Culture
–
Selected hoard artefacts from 1-2 South Haryana, 3-4 Uttar Pradesh, 5 Madhya Pradesh, 6-8 South Bihar-North Orissa-Bengalen.
Copper Hoard Culture
–
Recorded Indian Copper hoards objects, statistic.
10.
Painted Grey Ware culture
–
The Painted Grey Ware culture is an Iron Age culture of the Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BCE to 600 BCE. It is contemporary to, and a successor of the Black, but this point of view may change as fresh surveys by archaeologist Vinay Kumar Gupta suggest Mathura was the largest PGW site around 375 hectares in area. Two periods of PGW were identified recently at Ahichhatra, the earliest from 1500 to 800 BCE, total number of PGW sites discovered so far is more than 1100. It probably corresponds to the middle and late Vedic period, i. e. the Kuru-Panchala kingdom and it is succeeded by Northern Black Polished Ware from c. 700-500 BCE, associated with the rise of the great mahajanapada states, the PGW culture cultivated rice, wheat, and barley, and domesticated cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses. Houses were built of wattle-and-daub, mud, or bricks, ranging in size from small huts to large houses with many rooms, there is a clear settlement hierarchy, with a few central towns that stand out amongst numerous small villages. In the 1950s, archaeologist B. B. Lal associated Hastinapura, Mathura, Ahichatra, Kampilya, Barnava, Kurukshetra and other sites of PGW culture with the Mahabharata period and the Aryans. Furthermore, he pointed out that the Mahabharata mentions a flood, however, B. B. Lal considered his theories to be provisional and based upon a limited body of evidence, and he later reconsidered his statements on the nature of this culture. The pottery style of culture is different from the pottery of the Iranian Plateau. In some sites, PGW pottery and Late Harappan pottery are contemporaneous, the archaeologist Jim Shaffer has noted that at present, the archaeological record indicates no cultural discontinuities separating Painted Grey Ware from the indigenous protohistoric culture. However, the continuity of pottery styles may be explained by the fact that pottery was made by indigenous craftsmen even after the Indo-Aryan migration. According to Chakrabarti and other scholars, the origins of the subsistence patterns, towards the end of the period, many of the PGW settlements grew into the large towns and cities of the Northern Black Polished Ware period. Confirmation of this early PGW came when a team of the Archaeological Survey of India led by B. R, kuru Kingdom Panchala Mahajanapadas Bryant, Edwin. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture, the Aryan hypothesis in Indian archaeology. Indian Studies Past and Present 4, 333-358, the Indo-Aryan Invasions, Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality. “Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric record from South Asia. ”, in George Erdosy. The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, p. 49-54
Painted Grey Ware culture
–
Painted Grey Ware - Sonkh (
Uttar Pradesh) - 1000-600 BCE.
Government Museum, Mathura
Painted Grey Ware culture
–
Map of some PGW sites.
11.
Indo-Aryan peoples
–
Indo-Aryan peoples are a diverse Indo-European ethnolinguistic group of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages. There are over one billion native speakers of Indo-Aryan languages, most of them native to South Asia and these migrations started approximately 1,800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly Inner Asia. 1800–1400 BCE in the steppes around the Aral sea, present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, the proto-Indo-Iranians were influenced by the Bactria-Margiana Culture, south of the Andronovo culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians, whereafter the Indo-Aryans migrated into the Levant, horseplay at Harappa - People Fas Harvard - Harvard University A tale of two horses - Frontline
Indo-Aryan peoples
–
Geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan languages.
12.
Indo-Aryan migration
–
The Iranian languages were brought into Iran by the Iranians, who were closely related to the Indo-Aryans. The proto-Indo-Iranians then migrated southwards to the Bactria-Margiana Culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs, given these similarities, a single source or origin was proposed, which was diffused by migrations from some original homeland. This linguistic argument is supported by archeological and anthropological research, Genetic research reveals that those migrations form part of a complex genetical puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population. Literary research reveals similarities between various, geographically distinct, Indo-Aryan historical cultures, the Indo-Aryan migrations started in approximately 1800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly Inner Asia. The theory posits that these Indo-Aryan speaking people may have been a diverse group of people who were united by shared cultural norms and language, referred to as aryā. The Indo-Aryan Migration theory is part of a theoretical framework. This framework explains the similarities between a range of contemporary and ancient languages. It combines linguistic, archaeological and anthropological research and this provides an overview of the development of indo-European languages, and the spread of these Indo-European languages by migration and acculturation. The linguistic part traces the connections between the various Indo-European languages, and reconstructs proto-Indo-European and this is possible because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Especially sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are important, although grammar, historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between languages which at first sight might seem very different. Various characteristics of the Indo-European languages argue against an Indian origin of these languages, the archaeological part posits an Urheimat at the Pontic steppes, which developed after the introduction of cattle at the steppes around 5,200 BCE. The oldest nucleus may have been the Samara culture, at a bend in the Volga, a wider horizon developed, called the Kurgan culture by Marija Gimbutas in the 1950s. From this area, which included various subcultures, Indo-European languages spread west, south. These languages may have carried by small groups of males. Eastward emerged the Sintashta culture, from which developed the Andronovo culture and this culture interacted with the Bactria-Margiana Culture, out of this interaction developed the Indo-Iranians, which split around 1800 BCE into the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians. The Indo-Aryans migrated to the Levant, northern India, and possibly south Asia, the migration into northern India was not a large-scale immigration, but may have consisted of small groups which were genetically diverse. Their culture and language spread by the mechanisms of acculturalisation. Indo-European languages probably spread through language shifts, small groups can change a larger cultural area, and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India
Indo-Aryan migration
–
A 1910 depiction of Aryan's entering India from Hutchinson's History of the Nations
Indo-Aryan migration
–
Scheme of Indo-European migrations, of which the Indo-Aryan migrations form a part, from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the
Kurgan hypothesis. * The magenta area corresponds to the assumed
Urheimat (
Samara culture,
Sredny Stog culture) and the subsequent
Yamna culture. * The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to c. 2500 BCE. * The orange area to 1000 BCE.
Indo-Aryan migration
–
An early 20th century depiction of Aryans settling in agricultural villages in India
Indo-Aryan migration
–
Language families in the
Indian subcontinent.
13.
History of India
–
Evidence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent is recorded as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period and this civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilisation. The era saw the composition of the Vedas, the texts of Hinduism. The Vedic Civilisation extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plain and witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas, in one of these kingdoms, Magadha, Gautama Buddha and Mahavira propagated their Shramanic philosophies during the fifth and sixth century BCE. Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th, from the 3rd century BCE onwards Prakrit and Pali literature in the north and the Tamil Sangam literature in southern India started to flourish. Wootz steel originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported to foreign countries, various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire stands out. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or Golden Age of India, Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Southern India saw the rise of imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most notable being the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Maldives, the early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and the Hindu numerals were introduced. The 15th century saw the emergence of Sikhism, in the 16th century, Mughals came from Central Asia and gradually covered most of India. From the late 18th century to the century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company of the British Empire. James Mill, in his The History of British India, distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations and this periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods, according to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on significant social and economic changes, which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. The ancient history of the region some of South Asias oldest settlements. The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the Palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley, soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal. The first confirmed semi-permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, early Neolithic culture in the Indian subcontinent is represented by the Bhirrana findings in Haryana, India as well as Mehrgarh findings in Balochistan, Pakistan. The Edakkal Caves are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000 BCE, from the Neolithic man, the Stone Age carvings of Edakkal are rare and are the only known examples from South India
History of India
–
Bhimbetka rock painting,
Madhya Pradesh, India (c. 30,000 years old)
History of India
–
Stone age (5000 BCE) writings of
Edakkal Caves in
Kerala, India.
History of India
–
"Priest King" of
Indus Valley Civilisation
14.
Soanian
–
The Soanian is an archaeological culture of the Lower Paleolithic in Pakistan. Contemporary to the Acheulean, it is named after the Soan Valley in Pakistan, Soanian sites are found along the Sivalik region in present-day India, Nepal and Pakistan. The term Soan Culture was first used by Hellmut De Terra in 1936, further archaeological research was conducted by Stephen Lycett in order to determine the morphometric assessment of the Soanian techno-complex. The result of this experiment concluded that the Soanian techno-complex contains a Mode 3 Levallois technique core component, on Adiyala and Khasala, about 16 km from Rawalpindi terrace on the bend of the river, hundreds of edged pebble tools were discovered. At Chauntra in Himachal Pradesh, hand axes and cleavers were found, tools up to two million years old have been recovered. In the Soan River Gorge, many fossil bearing rocks are exposed on the surface,14 million year old fossils of gazelle, rhinoceros, crocodile, giraffe and rodents have been found there. Some of these fossils are on display at the Pakistan Museum of Natural History in Islamabad, madrasian Culture Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures V. A. Ranov, D. Dorj, Lu Zün-E. History of civilizations of Central Asia, early man, as depicted by leading authorities at the International symposium, the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, March 1937. Ayer Publishing, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the Middle Pleistocene Pebble Tool Site of Durkadi in Central India. The Emergence of the Handaxe Tradition in Asia, with Special Reference to India, in V. N. Misra, Peter S. Bellwood. Recent advances in Indo-Pacific prehistory, proceedings of the symposium held at Poona. A Decade of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology in India, 1951-1960
Soanian
–
Soanian
15.
South Asian Stone Age
–
The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in South Asia. Evidence for the most ancient anatomically modern Homo sapiens in South Asia has been found in the sites of Batadombalena and Belilena in Sri Lanka. In Mehrgarh, in what is today western Pakistan, the Neolithic began c.7000 BCE and lasted until 3300 BCE and the first beginnings of the Bronze Age. In South India, the Mesolithic lasted until 3000 BCE, the Iron Age began roughly simultaneously in North and South India, around 1200 to 1000 BCE. Homo erectus lived on the Pothohar Plateau, in upper Punjab, soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan and Nepal. Biface handaxes and cleaver traditions may have originated in the middle Pleistocene, the beginning of the use of Acheulian and chopping tools of the lower Paleolithic may also be dated to approximately the middle Pleistocene. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA dates the immigration of Homo sapiens to South Asia to 75,000 to 50,000 years ago, an analysis of Y chromosome haplogroups found one man in a village west of Madurai to be a direct descendant of these migrators. These populations spread further to Southeast Asia, reaching Australia by 40,000 years ago, cave sites in Sri Lanka have yielded the earliest non-mitochondrial record of modern Homo sapiens in South Asia. They were dated to 34,000 years ago, for finds from the Belan in southern Uttar Pradesh, radiocarbon data have indicated an age of 18-17kya. At the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka humans lived throughout the Upper Paleolithic, chert, jasper and quartzite were often used by humans during this period. The aceramic Neolithic lasts c.7000 -5500 BCE, the ceramic Neolithic lasts up to 3300 BCE, blending into the Early Harappan period. One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganges region and Jhusi near the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers, in South India the Neolithic began by 3000 BCE and lasted until around 1400 BCE. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BCE in the Andhra-Karnataka region that later into Tamil Nadu. Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in the Thirunelveli District and in Northern India have provided evidence of a migration of the Megalithic culture. Archaeologists have made plans to return to Adhichanallur as a source of new knowledge in the future
South Asian Stone Age
–
Pre Historic Sites of Middle Krishna-
Tungabhadra River Valley of
South India are probably the efficient paleolithic cultural area's as per the evidences found over the valley
South Asian Stone Age
–
Bhimbetka rock painting,
Madhya Pradesh,
India.
South Asian Stone Age
–
Stone age writing of
Edakkal Caves in
Kerala,
India.
South Asian Stone Age
–
Ketavaram rock paintings,
Kurnool district,
Andhra Pradesh
16.
Indus Valley Civilization
–
The Indus Valley Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread, at its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft, the Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj, excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, as of 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan. The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered, a relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistans northwestern Frontier Province as well, other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan, many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, Harappan Civilisation remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilisation after its first findspot. John wrote, I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway and they were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, convinced there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles of the track running from Karachi to Lahore. In 1872–75, Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal and it was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600–2450 BCE.
LACMA
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Excavated ruins of
Mohenjo-daro, with the
Great Bath in the front
Indus Valley Civilization
–
Indus Valley pottery, 2500–1900 BCE
17.
Vedic Period
–
The Vedic period was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, scholars consider Vedic civilisation to have been a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of the so-called Hindu synthesis. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE, after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c.1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda-samhita, which was composed between c and they brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the zone between the Zeravshan River and Iran. It was a mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra, Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug probably borrowed from the BMAC religion and his rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. These migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who inhabited this region. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus, the Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices or obey the commandments of gods. Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. Internecine military conflicts between the tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni. The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes— Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin. Bharatas lived around the regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their western neighbours. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab, division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war
Vedic Period
–
Aryans settling in India
Vedic Period
–
Vedic period
Vedic Period
–
Modern replica of utensils and
falcon shaped altar used for
Agnicayana, an elaborate
srauta ritual originating from the
Kuru Kingdom, around 1000 BCE.
Vedic Period
–
Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli,
Malwa, 1300 BCE.
18.
List of Rigvedic tribes
–
The tribes mentioned in the Rigveda are described as semi-nomadic pastoralists. During the Rigvedic period, they formed a society, engaging in endemic warfare and cattle raids among themselves and against their enemies. When not on the move, they were subdivided into temporary tribal settlements composed of several villages and these settlements were headed by a tribal chief assisted by warriors and a priestly caste. The amateur historian S. Talageri identifies them with the Greeks, Anu is a Vedic Sanskrit term for one of the 5 major tribes in the Rigveda, RV1.108.8, RV8.10.5 and, much later also in the Mahabharata. In the late Vedic period, one of the Anu kings, Ānava, the vrddhi derivation of Anu, is the name of a ruler in the Rigvedic account of the Battle of the Ten Kings and at 8.4.1 with the Turvaśa. The meaning ánu living, human cannot be substantiated for the Rigveda, Āyu Bhajeratha Bhalanas- The Bhalanas are one of the tribes that fought against Sudas in the Dasarajna battle. Some scholars have argued that the Bhalanas lived in Eastern Afghanistan Kabulistan, Bharatas - The Bharatas are an Aryan tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, especially in Mandala 3 attributed to the Bharata sage Vishvamitra and in and Mandala 7. Bharatá is also used as a name of Agni, and as a name of Rudra in RV2.36.8. In one of the river hymns RV3.33, the entire Bharata tribe is described as crossing over, with their chariots and wagons, at the confluence of the Vipash and Shutudri. Hymns by Vasistha in Mandala 7 mention the Bharatas as the protagonists in the Battle of the Ten Kings, bhārata today is the official name of the Republic of India. Bhrigus Chedi Dasa Dasyu Dṛbhīka Druhyus - The Druhyu were a people of Vedic India and they are mentioned in the Rigveda, usually together with the Anu tribe. Some early scholars have placed them in the northwestern region, the later texts, the Epic and the Puranas, locate them in the north, that is, in Gandhara, Aratta and Setu. The Druhyus were driven out of the land of the seven rivers, the sons of the later Druhyu king Pracetas too settle in the northern region. Recently, some writers have asserted that the Druhyu are the ancestors of the Iranian, Greek or European peoples. The word Druid, however, is derived from Proto-Indo-European vid to see, to know It has also alleged that the Rg Veda. However, there is nothing of this in the Rigveda and the Puranas merely mention that the Druhyu are adjacent to the North, gandhari Guṅgu Iksvaku Krivi Kīkaṭa Kuru Mahīna Maujavant Matsya Nahuṣa Paktha. Puru Ruśama Sārasvata Srñjaya Tritsu The Tritsus are a sub-group of the Puru who are distinct from the Bharatas mentioned in Mandala 7 of the Rigveda, under king Sudas they defeated the confederation of ten kings led by the Bharatas at the Battle of the Ten Kings. Turvasa Yadu Indo-Aryan migration Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni
List of Rigvedic tribes
–
Geography of the Rigveda, with
river names; the extent of the
Swat and
Cemetery H cultures are also indicated.
19.
Janapadas
–
The Janapadas were the realms, republics and kingdoms of the Indian Vedic period late Bronze Age into the from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE. Concluding with the rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas, most of the states were annexed by more powerful neighbours. The Sanskrit term janapada is a compound term, composed of two words, janas and pada. The word pada means foot, from its earliest attestation, the word has had a meaning of realm, territory. Linguist George Dunkel compares the Greek andrapodon slave, to PIE *pédom fetters, Sanskrit padám, usually taken to mean footprint, trail, diverges in accent from the PIE reconstruction. For the sense of population of the land, padasya janas, a primary meaning of place of the people, janasya padam, would not explain why the compound is of masculine gender. An original dvandva land and people is conceivable, but a dual inflection would be expected, literary evidence suggests that the janapadas flourished between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. The earliest mention of the term occurs in the Aitareya. In the Vedic samhitas, the term denotes a tribe. The janas were headed by a king, the samiti was a common assembly of the jana members, and had the power to elect or dethrone the king. The sabha was an assembly of wise elders, who advised the king. The janas were originally semi-nomadic pastoral communities, but gradually came to be associated with specific territories as they became less mobile, various kulas developed within the jana, each with its own chief. Gradually, the necessities of defence and warfare prompted the janas to form military groupings headed by janapadins and this model ultimately evolved into the establishment of political units known as the janapadas. While some of the janas evolved into their own janapadas, others appear to have mixed together to form a common Janapada, according to the political scientist Sudama Misra, the name of the Panchala janapada suggests that it was a fusion of five janas. Some janas mentioned in the earliest texts do not find a mention in the later texts, Misra theorizes that these smaller janas were conquered by and assimilated into the larger janas. Janapadas were gradually dissolved around 500 BCE and their disestablishment can be attributed to the rise of imperial powers within India, as well as in the Northwest of South Asia by foreign invaders. The Janapada were highest political unit in Ancient India during this period these polities were usually monarchical, the head of a kingdom was called a or king. A chief or priest and a or commander of administrating the army who would assist the king, there were also two other political bodies, the thought to be a council of elders and the a general assembly of the entire people
Janapadas
–
This detailed map shows the locations of Kingdoms mentioned in the Indian epics.
Janapadas
–
Late vedic era map showing the boundaries of
Āryāvarta or "Northern India" which contained most of the janapadas others were outside this region in
Dakshinapatha or "Southern India"..
20.
Parshvanatha
–
Parshvanatha, also known as Parshva, was the twenty-third Tirthankara of Jainism. He is the earliest Jain leader for whom there is evidence of having been a historical figure. Circumstantial evidence including a description of the teachings of Parshvanatha in the Sayings of the Seers, Parshvanatha was born on the tenth day of the dark half of the month of Paush to King Asvasena and Queen Vamadevi of Benaras. He belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty and he assumed and began to practice the twelve basic vows of the adult Jain householder when he reached the age of eight. Parshvanatha lived as formal prince of Benaras and at the age of thirty and he meditated for eighty-four days before attaining Kevala Jnana under a Dhaataki tree near Benaras. His first disciples were his mother and wife, after preaching for 70 years, he achieved moksha at the age of one hundred atop Shikharji, which is known today as the Parasnath Hills after him. Parshvanatha was called purisādāṇīya, a name which shows that he must have been a genial personality, Marubhuti - Visvabhuti, the prime minister of King Aravinda had two sons, elder one named Kamath and younger one named Marubhuti. Kamath killed Marubhuti and died as a criminal, elephant - He was then reborn as an elephant in the forests of Vindyachal. Meanwhile, King Aravinda, after death of his minister Marubhuti, when the elephant came near Aravinda, he recalled his previous human life by the blessings of Aravinda and became calm. Kamath was reborn as a serpent this time, one day, when the elephant went to a river to quench his thirst, the serpent attacked him and he died the peaceful death of absolute renunciation. Sasi-prabha - Vajraghosha was reborn as Sasi-prabha in the twelfth heaven, Agnivega - After spending a luxurious life in heaven, he was reborn as prince Agnivega. He ascended the throne of his father which he renounced to lead an ascetic life. Kamath was reborn as a serpent again after hell and again killed the ascetic in Himalayas during penance, when he was a prince he saved two snakes that had been trapped in a log in an Kamath’s fire. Later, the snakes were reborn as Dharnendra, the lord of the kingdom of the nāgas. Dharnendra and Padmavati sheltered Parshvanatha from a storm sent by a Meghmali, according to the Kalpa Sūtra, Parshvanatha had 164,000 śrāvakas and 327,000 śrāvikās and 16,000 sādhus and 38,000 sādhvīs. He had eight ganadharas, Śubhadatta, Āryaghoṣa, Vasiṣṭha, Brahmacāri, Soma, Śrīdhara, Vīrabhadra, after his death, the ganadhara Śubhadatta became the head of the monastic order. He was then succeeded by Haridatta, Āryasamudra and Keśī, one of the question as mentioned in Śvētāmbara text was The Law taught by Parsva, recognizes but four vows, whilst that of Vardhamana enjoins five. Therefore, according to texts, Parshvanatha taught four vows instead of the presently famous five vows
Parshvanatha
–
India, deccan, jina parshvanatha, 1100-1300
Parshvanatha
–
Parsvanath Temple,
Khajuraho Group of Monuments
Parshvanatha
–
Parsva endures torments from evil God Kamath and is protected by serpent god Dharnendra and his consort Padmavati devi. Folio 60 from Kalpasutra series, loose leaf manuscript, Patan, Gujarat. c. 1472
Parshvanatha
–
Parshvanatha temple in
Ranakpur
21.
Gautama Buddha
–
Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni Buddha, or simply the Buddha, after the title of Buddha, was an ascetic and sage, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in the part of ancient India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE. Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the śramaṇa movement common in his region and he later taught throughout other regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala. Gautama is the figure in Buddhism. He is recognized by Buddhists as a teacher who attained full Buddhahood. Accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death, various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later. Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the facts of the Buddhas life. Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddhas lifetime coincided with the flourishing of influential schools of thought like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jainism. Brahmajala Sutta records sixty-two such schools of thought, thus, Buddha was just one of the many śramaṇa philosophers of that time. The times of Gautamas birth and death are uncertain, most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE. These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet accepted by all historians. It was either a republic, or an oligarchy, and his father was an elected chieftain. He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, no written records about Gautama were found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One Edict of Asoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, another one of his edicts mentions the titles of several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era. These texts may be the precursor of the Pāli Canon and they are written in the Gāndhārī language using the Kharosthi script on twenty-seven birch bark manuscripts and date from the first century BCE to the third century CE. The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different and these include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā. Of these, the Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, a poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa in the first century CE. The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE, the Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE
Gautama Buddha
–
A statue of the Buddha from
Sarnath, 4th century CE
Gautama Buddha
–
Buddha by
Otgonbayar Ershuu
Gautama Buddha
–
Māyā miraculously giving birth to Siddhārtha.
Sanskrit,
palm-leaf manuscript.
Nālandā,
Bihar, India.
Pāla period
Gautama Buddha
–
Maya dream of the Birth of Gautama Siddharta
22.
Mahajanapadas
–
A Mahājanapada is one of the sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India from the sixth centuries BCE to fourth centuries BCE. Two of them were most probably ganas i. e. republics, the 6th century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. Archaeologically, this corresponds in part to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. The term Janapada literally means the foothold of a tribe, the fact that Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of the Buddha, the Pre-Buddhist north-west region of the Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Pāṇinis Ashtadhyayi, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry, each of these Janapadas was named after the Kshatriya tribe who had settled therein. Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations which were in existence before the time of the Buddha and they do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara, the more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable. The first reference to the Angas is found in the Atharva-Veda where they find mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis, the Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of Aryan people. It mentions the cities of ancient India. It was also a center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant Suvarnabhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara and this was the one and only conquest of Bimbisara. The Country of Assaka or the Ashmaka tribe was located in Dakshinapatha or southern India, in Buddhas time, the Assakas were located on the banks of the river Godavari. The capital of the Assakas was Potana or Potali, which corresponds to Paudanya of Mahabharata, the Ashmakas are also mentioned by Pāṇini. They are placed in the north-west in the Markendeya Purana and the Brhat Samhita, the river Godavari separated the country of the Assakas from that of the Mulakas. The commentator of Kautiliyas Arthashastra identifies Ashmaka with Maharashtra, the country of Assaka lay outside the pale of Madhyadesa. It was located on a high road, the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included Mulaka and abutted Avanti, the country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India in the post era of Mahavira and Buddha
Mahajanapadas
–
This detailed map shows the locations of Kingdoms mentioned in the Indian epics.
Mahajanapadas
–
Map of the 16 Mahajanapada
23.
Nanda Empire
–
The Nanda dynasty originated from the region of Magadha in ancient India during the 4th century BCE and lasted between 345–321 BCE. At its greatest extent, the empire ruled by the Nanda Dynasty extended from Bengal in the east, to the Punjab region in the west, the rulers of this dynasty were famed for the great wealth which they accumulated. The Nanda Empire was later conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Maurya Empire and he expanded his territory south of the Vindhya Range into the Deccan Plateau. The Nandas, who usurped the throne of the Shishunaga dynasty c.345 BCE, were thought to be of low origin and he was the son of Mahanandin, and a Shudra mother. The Nanda kings built on the foundations laid by their Haryanka, to achieve this objective they built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry,20,000 cavalry,2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants. According to the Greek historian Plutarch, the size of the Nanda army was larger, numbering 200,000 infantry,80,000 cavalry,8,000 war chariots. A possible indication of Nanda military victories in Kalinga is suggested by the later Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, the existence of a place called Nau Nand Dehra on the Godavari is taken by some scholars as reflecting Nanda rule over the Deccan. The evidence for the extension of Nanda rule into trans-Vindhyan India is not, however, the Nandas were also renowned for their immense wealth. They undertook irrigation projects and invented standardized measures for trade across their empire, the Nanda Dynasty was also mentioned in the ancient Sangam literature of the Tamil people. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described the capital city Pataliputra of the Nanda Dynasty and their unpopularity, possibly due to their financial extortion, facilitated a revolution, leading to their overthrow by Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya. Nevertheless, the greatness attained in the Maurya Age would hardly have been possible but for the achievements of their predecessors, the advisors of the king were fewer in number but were most respected on account of their high character and wisdom. They are mentioned by the Greek observers who wrote about conditions in the fourth century BCE, next to the advisors were the generals of the army. Bhadrasala, one of such generals, is mentioned in the Milinda-Panho, a passage of the Kathasaritsagara refers to the kataka of Nanda in Ayodhya. Mookerji, Radha Kumud, Chandragupta Maurya and his times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0433-3 Panda, Harihar, Raychaudhuri, as a Historian, Northern Book Centre, ISBN 81-7211-210-6 Raychaudhuri, H. C. Political History of Ancient India, From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty, Oxford University Press Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, the Early History of India, Atlantic Publishers and distributors, ISBN 978-81-7156-618-1
Nanda Empire
–
Asia in 323 BC, showing borders of the Nanda Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbours.
Nanda Empire
–
The Nanda dynasty at its greatest extent under
Dhana Nanda c. 325 BC.
24.
Classical India
–
Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. This period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, the Middle period lasts for some 1500 years, and ends in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate and the end of the Later Cholas. The period is known as the period of India, during which India is estimated to have had the largest economy of the world controlling between one third and one fourth of the worlds wealth. During the 2nd century BCE, the Maurya Empire became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries, the whole northwest attracted a series of invaders between 200 BCE and 300 CE. The Puranas speak of many of these tribes as foreigners and impure barbarians, over time, the invaders became Indianized as they influenced society and philosophy across the Gangetic plains and were conversely influenced by it. This period is marked by intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and syncretism as the new kingdoms straddle the Silk Road. The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara, Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with the last of the Western Satraps, Rudrasimha III, in 395 CE. The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as the Indo-Scythian invasion, played a significant part in the history of India as well as nearby countries. The Indo-Greek Kingdom covered various parts of the Northwestern South Asia during the last two centuries BCE, and was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings, often in conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when Demetrius I of Bactria invaded the Hindu Kush early in the 2nd century BCE, the Greeks in India were eventually divided from the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria. The expression Indo-Greek Kingdom loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities, there were numerous cities, such as Taxila Pakistans Punjab, or Pushkalavati and Sagala. Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius a Magnesian Greek and his son, Demetrius, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek descent from his father at minimum. A marriage treaty was arranged for Demetrius with a daughter of Antiochus III the Great, the ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear. For example, Artemidoros Aniketos may have been of Indo-Scythian descent, intermarriage also occurred, as exemplified by Alexander the Great, who married Roxana of Bactria, or Seleucus I Nicator, who married Apama of Sogdia. The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, the Yavana or Yona people, literally Ionian and meaning Western foreigner, were described as living beyond Gandhara. Yavanas, Sakas, the Pahlavas and Hunas were sometimes described as mlecchas, kambojas and the inhabitants of Madra, the Kekeya Kingdom, the Indus River region and Gandhara were sometimes also classified as mlecchas. This name was used to indicate their cultural differences with the culture of the Kuru Kingdom, the Indo-Parthian Kingdom was founded by Gondophares around 20 BCE. The kingdom lasted only briefly until its conquest by the Kushan Empire in the late 1st century CE and was a framework where many smaller dynasts maintained their independence
Classical India
–
Silver coin of the founder of the
Indo-Greek Kingdom,
Demetrius (r. c. 205–171 BC).
Classical India
–
Kushan Empire
Classical India
–
Billon drachma of the
Huna King Napki Malka (Afghanistan or Gandhara, c. 475–576).
Classical India
–
Silver coin of the
Gupta King
Kumara Gupta I (414–455).
25.
Mauryan Empire
–
The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between c. 322 and 187 BCE. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the side of the Indian subcontinent. The empire was the largest to have existed in the Indian subcontinent. By 316 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander, Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Macedonian general from Alexanders army, gaining additional territory west of the Indus River. The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world in its time and it declined for about 50 years after Ashokas rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace, Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, the population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50–60 million, making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of Antiquity. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware, the Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath has been made the national emblem of India, the Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, at Takshashila. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire, meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus River, soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. Chandragupta Mauryas rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy, on one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, however, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as Sandrokottos, as a young man he is said to have met Alexander. He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, Chanakyas original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandraguptas command. The Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta as well as the Jaina work Parishishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. These men included the general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu. The Macedonians may then have participated, together with other groups, the Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often identified with Porus
Mauryan Empire
–
Aśoka pillar at Sarnath. ca. 250 BCE.
Mauryan Empire
–
Maurya Empire at its maximum extent
Mauryan Empire
–
Ashoka pillar at
Vaishali
Mauryan Empire
–
Bas relief at
Sanchi Stupa, 3rd century BCE.
26.
Shunga Empire
–
The Shunga Empire was an ancient Indian dynasty from Magadha that controlled vast areas of the Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire and its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Besnagar in eastern Malwa. Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra, the empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought the Kalinga, the Satavahana dynasty, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi script and was used to write Sanskrit, the Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronizing culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. Patanjalis Mahābhāṣya was composed in this period, artistry also progressed with the rise of the Mathura art style. The Kanva dynasty succeeded the Shungas around 73 BCE, Pushyamitra Shunga then ascended the throne. Pushyamitra Shunga became the ruler of Magadha and neighbouring territories, the empire of Pushyamitra was extended to the Narmada River in the south, controlled Jalandhar and Sialkot in the Punjab region in the northwest and the city of Ujjain in Central India. Kabul and much of the Punjab passed into the hands of the Indo-Greeks, Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years. He was succeeded by son Agnimitra and this prince is the hero of a famous drama by one of Indias greatest playwrights, Kālidāsa. Agnimitra was viceroy of Vidisha when the story takes place, the power of the Shungas gradually weakened. It is said there were ten Shunga emperors. The Shungas were succeeded by the Kanva dynasty around 73 BCE, buddhist scripture Divyavdan and ancient Tibbatan historian Taranath have written about persecution of Buddhists, However, there is doubt as to whether he did persecute Buddhists actively. Later Shunga emperors were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut, some writers believe that Brahmanism competed in political and spiritual realm with Buddhism in the Gangetic plains. Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings, some Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Shunga emperors were not intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of the Shunga emperors. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Shunga period can also be inferred from a tablet that was found at Tamralipti and is on exhibit at the Asutosh Museum in Kolkata. An inscription at Bodh Gaya at the Mahabodhi Temple records the construction of the temple as follows, another inscription reads, The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of Emperor Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the palace shrine
Shunga Empire
–
Approximate extent of the Shunga empire in (c. 185 BCE).
Shunga Empire
–
Baluster -holding
yakṣa,
Madhya Pradesh, Shunga period (2nd–1st century BCE).
Guimet Museum.
Shunga Empire
–
Yaksha reliefs.
Bharhut, 2nd century BCE.
Shunga Empire
–
Shunga royal family,
West Bengal, 1st century BCE.
27.
Kanva dynasty
–
The Kanva dynasty or Kanvayana was a Brahmin dynasty that replaced the Shunga dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the Eastern part of India from 75 BCE to 30 BCE. The last ruler of the Shunga dynasty, Devabhuti, was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC, the Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Shunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers, according to the Puranas, their dynasty was brought to an end by the Satavahanas. The first ruler of Kanva dynasty was Vasudeva and he was succeeded by his son Bhumimitra. Coins bearing the legend Bhumimitra have been discovered from Panchala realm, Bhumimitra ruled for fourteen years and was later succeeded by his son Narayana. He was succeeded by his son Susharman who was the last king of Kanva dynasty, Vasudeva Bhumimitra Narayana Susharman List of Brahmin dynasties and states Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra Political History of Ancient India, University of Calcutta,1972
Kanva dynasty
–
Chronology of the
Telugu people,
Andhra Pradesh, and
Telangana history
Kanva dynasty
28.
Kushan Empire
–
The Kushan Empire was a syncretic empire, formed by Yuezhi, in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. Emperor Kanishka was a patron of Buddhism, however, as Kushans expanded southward. The Kushans were one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation, the Kushans possibly used the Greek language initially for administrative purposes, but soon began to use Bactrian language. Kanishka sent his armies north of the Karakoram mountains, capturing territories as far as Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkant, in the Tarim Basin of modern-day Xinjiang, China. A direct road from Gandhara to China remained under Kushan control for more than a century, encouraging travel across the Karakoram, the Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, Aksumite Empire and Han China. The Kushan empire fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms in the 3rd century AD, in the 4th century, the Guptas, an Indian dynasty also pressed from the east. The last of the Kushan and Sasanian kingdoms were overwhelmed by invaders from the north. Historian H. G. Rawlinson states that the Kushana Period is a prelude to the age of Guptas. Chinese sources describe the Guishuang, i. e, as the historian John E. Hill has put it, For well over a century. There have been arguments about the ethnic and linguistic origins of the Da Yuezhi, Kushans, and the Tochari. The five tribes constituting the Yuezhi are known in Chinese history as Xiūmì, Guìshuāng, Shuāngmǐ, Xìdùn, the Yuezhi reached the Hellenic kingdom of Greco-Bactria around 135 BC. The displaced Greek dynasties resettled to the southeast in areas of the Hindu Kush, some traces remain of the presence of the Kushans in the area of Bactria and Sogdiana. Archaeological structures are known in Takht-I-Sangin, Surkh Kotal, and in the palace of Khalchayan, various sculptures and friezes are known, representing horse-riding archers, and significantly men with artificially deformed skulls, such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan. The Chinese first referred to people as the Yuezhi and said they established the Kushan Empire. On the ruins of ancient Hellenistic cities such as Ai-Khanoum, the Kushans are known to have built fortresses, the earliest documented ruler, and the first one to proclaim himself as a Kushan ruler, was Heraios. He calls himself a tyrant on his coins, and also exhibits skull deformation and he may have been an ally of the Greeks, and he shared the same style of coinage. Heraios may have been the father of the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises, Ban Gus Book of Han tells us the Kushans divided up Bactria in 128 BC. He invaded Anxi, and took the Gaofu region and he also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda and Jibin
Kushan Empire
–
Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under
Kanishka the Great (dotted line), according to the
Rabatak inscription.
Kushan Empire
–
History of Afghanistan
Kushan Empire
–
Head of a Kushan prince (Khalchayan palace,
Uzbekistan).
Kushan Empire
–
A Buddhist devotee in Kushan dress, Mathura, 2nd century. The Kushan dress is generally depicted as quite stiff, and it is thought it was often made of leather (Francine Tissot, "Gandhara").
29.
Satavahana dynasty
–
The Satavahanas were an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan region. The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the present-day Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, at different times, their rule extended to parts of modern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. The dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including Pratishthana, the origin of the dynasty is uncertain, but according to the Puranas, their first king overthrew the Kanva dynasty. In the post-Maurya era, the Satavahanas established peace in the Deccan region, in particular their struggles with the Saka Western Satraps went on for a long time. The dynasty reached its zenith under the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni, the kingdom fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE. The Satavahanas were early issuers of Indian state coinage struck with images of their rulers and they formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India. They supported Brahmanism as well as Buddhism, and patronised Prakrit language instead of Sanskrit, the date and place of origin of the Satavahanas, as well as the meaning of the dynastys name, are a matter of debate among the historians. According to one theory, the word Satavahana is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit Sapta-Vahana and this would indicate that the Satavahanas originally claimed association with the legendary solar dynasty, as was common in ancient India. According to Inguva Kartikeya Sarma, the name is derived from the words sata and vahana. Another theory connects their name to the earlier Satiyaputa dynasty, yet another theory derives their name from the Munda words Sadam and Harpan, implying son of the performer of a horse sacrifice. Several rulers of the dynasty bear the name or title Satakarni, Satavahana, Satakarni, Satakani and Shalivahana appear to be variations of the same word. Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi theorized that the word Satakarni is derived from the Munda words sada, the Puranas use the name Andhra or Andhra-Bhritya for the Satavahanas. The term Andhra may refer to ethnicity or territory of the dynasty and it does not appear in the dynastys own records. The use of the name Andhra in the Puranas has led scholars to believe that the dynasty originated in the eastern Deccan region. At Kotilingala in Telangana, coins bearing the legend Rano Siri Chimuka Satavahanasa were found, coins attributed to Simukas successors Kanha and Satakarni I were also discovered at Kotilingla. Based on these discoveries, historians such as D. R. Reddy, S. Reddy, however, the coin samples from Kotlingala are small, and it is not certain if these coins were minted there or reached there from somewhere else. Sastry also later changed his view, and stated that the two kings were different, as for the Puranas, these texts were compiled much later, during the Gupta period, and it is not certain if the Satavahanas were referred to as Andhras during their time. Another section of scholars believe that the Satavahanas originated in western Deccan, all of the four extant inscriptions from the early Satavahana period have been found in and around this region
Satavahana dynasty
–
Territorial extent of the Satavahana Empire (continuous line) and conquests (dotted line).
Satavahana dynasty
–
Chronology of the
Telugu people,
Andhra Pradesh, and
Telangana history
Satavahana dynasty
–
Satavahanas laid foundations to Buddhist rock-cut architecture during this period,
Ajanta caves.
Satavahana dynasty
–
Fragment of Amaravati
Stupa.
30.
Gupta Empire
–
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire founded by Sri Gupta. The empire existed at its zenith from approximately 320 to 550 CE, the peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty, the high points of the period is great cultural developments which took place during the reign of Chandragupta II. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era, strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. The earliest available Indian epics are also thought to have committed to written texts around this period. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, a minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by Vardhana ruler Harsha, who established his empire in the first half of the 7th century, according to many historians, the Gupta dynasty was a Vaishya dynasty. Historian Ram Sharan Sharma asserts that the Vaishya Guptas appeared as a reaction against oppressive rulers, brannigan, the rise of the Gupta Empire was one of the most prominent violations of the caste system in ancient India. There is controversy among scholars about the homeland of the Guptas. Jayaswal has pointed out that the Guptas were originally inhabitants of Prayaga, Uttar Pradesh, in north India, another scholar, Gayal supported the theory of Jaiswal, suggesting that the original home of the Guptas was Antarvedi embracing the regions of Oudh and Prayag. However another historian of this time in Indian history, Ganguli, has offered a different view about the original Gupta homeland, according to him the Guptas homeland is further south, the Murshidabad region of Bengal, and not Magadha in Bihar. He based his theory on the statement of the Chinese Buddhist monk, Yijing, fleet and other historians however criticize Gangulis theory because Sri Gupta ruled during the end of the 3rd century, but Yijing placed him at the end of the 2nd century. Hence the theory of historians, who have provided their views based on the accounts of Yijing, are considered less valid than theories based on sources such as coinage. From these theories, several conflicting opinions about the original homeland, according to Allan and a few other scholars, the Guptas were initially concentrated in the region of Magadha and from there they extended their sway to Bengal. According to other groups, the homeland of the Guptas was Varendri or the Varendra Bhumi in Bengal. Whatever the theory is, the rule of the Guptas initiated the Golden Age in history of ancient India, bengali historians like HC Raychoudhuri the Guptas originated from the Varendri region which is now part of Rangpur and Rajshahi Division of modern-day Bangladesh. DC Ganguly, on the hand, considers the surrounding region of Murshidabad as the original home of the Guptas. The most likely time for the reign of Sri Gupta is c, the Murundas who were feudal lords of Kushans provided or granted land to Srigupta
Gupta Empire
–
Meditating
Buddha from the Gupta era, 5th century AD.
Gupta Empire
–
The Gupta Empire at its greatest extent.
Gupta Empire
–
Queen Kumaradevi and King
Chandragupta I, depicted on a coin of their son
Samudragupta, 335–380.
Gupta Empire
–
Coin of Samudragupta, with Garuda pillar.
British Museum.
31.
Middle kingdoms of India
–
Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. This period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, the Middle period lasts for some 1500 years, and ends in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate and the end of the Later Cholas. The period is known as the period of India, during which India is estimated to have had the largest economy of the world controlling between one third and one fourth of the worlds wealth. During the 2nd century BCE, the Maurya Empire became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries, the whole northwest attracted a series of invaders between 200 BCE and 300 CE. The Puranas speak of many of these tribes as foreigners and impure barbarians, over time, the invaders became Indianized as they influenced society and philosophy across the Gangetic plains and were conversely influenced by it. This period is marked by intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and syncretism as the new kingdoms straddle the Silk Road. The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara, Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with the last of the Western Satraps, Rudrasimha III, in 395 CE. The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as the Indo-Scythian invasion, played a significant part in the history of India as well as nearby countries. The Indo-Greek Kingdom covered various parts of the Northwestern South Asia during the last two centuries BCE, and was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings, often in conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when Demetrius I of Bactria invaded the Hindu Kush early in the 2nd century BCE, the Greeks in India were eventually divided from the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria. The expression Indo-Greek Kingdom loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities, there were numerous cities, such as Taxila Pakistans Punjab, or Pushkalavati and Sagala. Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius a Magnesian Greek and his son, Demetrius, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek descent from his father at minimum. A marriage treaty was arranged for Demetrius with a daughter of Antiochus III the Great, the ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear. For example, Artemidoros Aniketos may have been of Indo-Scythian descent, intermarriage also occurred, as exemplified by Alexander the Great, who married Roxana of Bactria, or Seleucus I Nicator, who married Apama of Sogdia. The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, the Yavana or Yona people, literally Ionian and meaning Western foreigner, were described as living beyond Gandhara. Yavanas, Sakas, the Pahlavas and Hunas were sometimes described as mlecchas, kambojas and the inhabitants of Madra, the Kekeya Kingdom, the Indus River region and Gandhara were sometimes also classified as mlecchas. This name was used to indicate their cultural differences with the culture of the Kuru Kingdom, the Indo-Parthian Kingdom was founded by Gondophares around 20 BCE. The kingdom lasted only briefly until its conquest by the Kushan Empire in the late 1st century CE and was a framework where many smaller dynasts maintained their independence
Middle kingdoms of India
–
Silver coin of the founder of the
Indo-Greek Kingdom,
Demetrius (r. c. 205–171 BC).
Middle kingdoms of India
–
Kushan Empire
Middle kingdoms of India
–
Billon drachma of the
Huna King Napki Malka (Afghanistan or Gandhara, c. 475–576).
Middle kingdoms of India
–
Silver coin of the
Gupta King
Kumara Gupta I (414–455).
32.
Chalukya Dynasty
–
The Chalukya dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties, the earliest dynasty, known as the Badami Chalukyas, ruled from Vatapi from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi, after the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century and these Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani until the end of the 12th century. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India, the political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers, the rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called Chalukyan architecture. Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain, the 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas. While opinions vary regarding the origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus among noted historians such as John Keay. Sircar, Hans Raj, S. Sen, Kamath, K. V. Ramesh, a theory that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the Andhra Ikshvaku was put forward. This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage, the Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the Hiranyakagotra. The Chalukyas, however, address themselves as Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra in their inscriptions, which is the lineage as their early overlords. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas, the Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas. A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and she had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakeshin Is father. However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was Pulakeshin Is grandfather and Ranaranga, his father. Kamath and Moraes claim it was a practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin, while the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination. Hence, the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region. The writing of 12th century Kashmiri poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra caste while other sources claim they were Kshatriyas, the historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D. C
Chalukya Dynasty
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Old Kannada inscription of Chalukya King Mangalesha dated 578 CE at Badami cave temple no.3
Chalukya Dynasty
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Extent of Badami Chalukya Empire, 636 CE, 740 CE
Chalukya Dynasty
–
Chalukya emblem of
Aihole in
Karnataka depicts
Vishnu in Varaha form. A 6th century stone emblem.
Chalukya Dynasty
–
Old
Kannada inscription on victory pillar, Virupaksha Temple,
Pattadakal, 733–745 CE
33.
Empire of Harsha
–
The Empire of Harsha was an ancient Indian empire founded and ruled by Emperor Harsha from the capital Kannauj. It existed from 606 to 647 and at its height covered all of the North India, Prabhakarvardhana, the ruler of Thanesar, who belonged to the Pushyabhuti family, extended his control over neighbouring states. Rajyashri, the sister of Rajyavardhana and Harsha, had married the Maukhari king, Grahavarman, some time later, Grahavarman was killed by the ruler of the Malava kingdom, who also kidnapped Rajyashri. Rajyavardhana, who had succeeded his father as king at Thanesar, marched against the Malava king, around 606 CE, Rajyavardhana died, perhaps murdered at a meeting by Shashanka, ruler of the Gauda kingdom. It was after the death of Rajyavardhana that Harsha succeeded to the throne, the Empire of Harsha revived the past glory of the Gupta Empire in northern India. The economy of northern India prospered and his capital at Kanauj became a centre of trade. During his early career he possessed a force of 5,000 elephants,20,000 cavalry and 50,000 infantry and with this he overran northern India. After the conquest of almost the entire of northern India, his resources were so increased that he could field an army with 100,000 cavalry and 60,000 elephants. His long run of victories was broken when he was defeated by Pulakesi II of the Chalukya dynasty. According to Dr. Shreenand L. Bapat, Registrar, Bhandarkar Oriental Research institute, Pune and his information is based on a copperplate inscription of Pulakeshin II discovered recently. The administration of Harsha was similar to the Gupta Empire and he was just in his administration and punctilious in exercising his responsibilities. There was no forced labour and everyone was free to busy himself with his own affairs, Harsha built for the benefit of the poor throughout his Empire in both the towns and rural parts Rest-Houses which provided food, drink and medicine. Harsha was continually travelling up and down his wide dominions to see with his own eyes how the people were ruled in his Empire, the merchants travelled freely in his Empire and officials were paid regularly. The taxes were light and one-sixth of the produce was charged as land revenue. Today a mound 1 km long and 750 m wide known as Harsh ka Tila in Thanesar has ruins of structures built during the reign of Harsha. Amongst the archaeological finds from the mound include Painted Grey Ware shreds in the pre-Kushana levels, economy under the Empire of Harsha became increasingly more locally self-sufficient and feudal in nature as trade and commerce receded. This is reflected in the decline of trade centres, paucity of coins and near complete disappearance of trader, diminishing trade and commerce affected handicraft and other industries through want of demand, and affected agriculture although not directly. As a result of the lack of trade, the need to produce goods for sale externally vanished
Empire of Harsha
–
The Empire of Harsha at its greatest extent.
Empire of Harsha
–
Palace ruins at "Harsh ka tila" mound area spread over 1 km.
Empire of Harsha
–
Harsha Ka Tila ruins
Empire of Harsha
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Ruins of Harsha a Tila warehouse.
34.
Tripartite Struggle
–
The Tripartite Struggle for control of northern India took place in the ninth century. The struggle was between the Pratihara Empire, the Pala Empire and the Rashtrakuta Empire, towards the end of the successor of Nagabhata II, successfully attacked Kanauj and established control there. This was short-lived as he was soon defeated by the Rastrakuta ruler. However the Rastrakutas also formed a relationship with the Gangas. By the end of the 9th Century the power of the Rastrakutas started to decline along with the Palas and this was seen as an ideal opportunity by the feudal king Taila II who defeated the Rastrakuta ruler and declared his kingdom there. This came to be known the Later Chalukya dynasty and their kingdom included the states of Karnataka, Konkan and northern Godavari. By the end of the struggle, the Pratiharas emerged victorious. Not much is known about the kingdom of the Kannauj after Emperor Harshas death in 647 AD resulting in a confusion due to the absence of his heirs. Kannauj came for a period under the hands of Arunasva who attacked Wang Hstian-tse who came to the court of king Harsha as ambassador of the Chinese emperor Tai-tsung. However Wang Hstian-tse succeeded in capturing Arunasva who was back to China to spend his days in attendance on the Tang Emperor. About AD730, Yashovarman established a kingdom at Kannauj and his invasion of Gauda formed the subject of the Prakrit poem Gaudavaho, composed by his courtier Vakapatiraja in the 8th century. After Yashovarman, three kings — Vijrayudha, Indrayudha and Chakrayudha — ruled over Kannauj between close of the 8th century till the 820s, majumdar, Ramesh Chandra, Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN9788120804364
Tripartite Struggle
–
Kanauj Triangle
35.
Gurjara-Pratihara
–
The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty, also known as the Pratihara Empire, was an Indian imperial power that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-7th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj, the Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River. Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Caliphate campaigns in India, under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. Nagabhata II was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly, under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. The expansion once again triggered the struggle for the control of the Indian Subcontinent, known as the Tripartite Struggle, with the Rashtrakuta Empire. During this period, Imperial Pratihara took the title Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta, Gurjara-Pratihara are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style temples. The greatest development of Gurjara-Pratihara style of building took place at Khajuraho. The power of the Pratiharas was weakened by dynastic strife and it was further diminished as a result of a great raid from the Deccan, led by the Rashtrakuta ruler Indra III, who about 916 sacked Kannauj. Under a succession of rather obscure rulers, the Pratiharas never regained their former influence and their feudatories became more and more powerful, one by one throwing off their allegiance until by the end of the 10th century the Pratiharas controlled little more than the Gangetic Doab. Their last important king, Rajyapala, was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018, the origin of the dynasty and the meaning of the term Gurjara in its name is a topic of debate among historians. The rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation Pratihara for their clan, the Imperial Pratiharas could have emphasized their Kshatriya, instead of Gurjara, identity for political reasons. However, at local levels Pratiharas were not wary of projecting their tribal identity and they claimed descent from the legendary hero Lakshmana, who is said to have acted as a pratihara for his brother Rama. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri theorized that the ancestors of the Pratiharas served the Rashtrakutas, multiple inscriptions of their neighbouring dynasties describe the Pratiharas as Gurjara. The term Gurjara-Pratihara occurs only in the Rajor inscription of a ruler named Mathanadeva. Another Pratihara king named Hariraja is also mentioned as a ferocious Gurjara in the Kadwaha inscription, according to one school of thought, Gurjara was the name of the territory originally ruled by the Pratiharas, gradually, the term came to denote the people of this territory. An opposing theory is that Gurjara was the name of the tribe to which the dynasty belonged, several historians consider Gurjaras to be the ancestors of the modern Gurjar or Gujjar tribe. The proponents of the tribal designation theory argue that the Rajor inscription mentions the phrase, here, the term Gurjara obviously refers to a group of people rather than a region. The Pampa Bharata refers the Gurjara-Pratihara king Mahipala as a Gurjara king, Rama Shankar Tripathi argues that here Gurjara can only refer to the kings ethnicity, and not territory, since the Pratiharas ruled a much larger area of which Gurjara-desha was only a small part
Gurjara-Pratihara
–
Varaha (the boar-headed
Vishnu avatar), on a Pratihara coin. 850–900 CE.
British Museum.
36.
Rashtrakuta dynasty
–
Rashtrakuta was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapura, other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur and the rulers of Kannauj. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native home and this clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753. At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Malwa were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively, an Arabic text, Silsilat al-Tawarikh, called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by Hinduism and the kings by Jainism. During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada, Amoghavarsha I, the most famous king of this dynasty wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora in modern Maharashtra. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, the origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, the sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval inscriptions, ancient literature in the Pali language, contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit and Kannada and the notes of the Arab travellers. Scholars debate over which ethnic/linguistic groups can claim the early Rashtrakutas, possibilities include the north western ethnic groups of India, the Kannadiga, Reddi, the Maratha, or the tribes from the Punjab region. Scholars however concur that the rulers of the dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the Kannada language as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit, and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages, the earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty. Though these Rashtrakutas were Kannadigas, they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well, the heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of Karnataka, Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh, an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. He then helped his father-in-law, Pallava King Nandivarman regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras of Malwa, dantidurgas successor Krishna I brought major portions of present-day Karnataka and Konkan under his control. During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha who took control in 780 and he led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the Gurjara Pratiharas and the Palas of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought the Eastern Chalukyas and Gangas of Talakad under his control, according to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule. The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarshas third son, Govinda III, to the throne heralded an era of success like never before, there is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time. During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains and his military exploits have been compared to those of Alexander the Great and Arjuna of Mahabharata
Rashtrakuta dynasty
–
A stanza from the 9th century Kannada classic
Kavirajamarga, praising the people for their literary skills
Rashtrakuta dynasty
–
Extent of Rashtrakuta Empire, 800 CE, 915 CE
Rashtrakuta dynasty
–
Shiva sculpture at
Ellora Caves.
Rashtrakuta dynasty
–
Three-storied monolithic Jain cave temple at Ellora.
37.
Pala Empire
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The Pala Empire was an imperial power during the Late Classical period on the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal. It is named after its ruling dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffix of Pala and they were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. The empire was founded with the election of Gopala as the emperor of Gauda in 750 CE, the Pala stronghold was located in Bengal and Bihar, which included the major cities of Vikrampura, Pataliputra, Gauda, Monghyr, Somapura, Ramvati, Tamralipta and Jaggadala. The Palas were astute diplomats and military conquerors and their army was noted for its vast war elephant cavalry. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive roles in the Bay of Bengal, the Palas were important promoters of classical Indian philosophy, literature, painting and sculpture. They built grand temples and monasteries, including the Somapura Mahavihara, the Proto-Bengali language developed under Pala rule. The empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire, islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the Middle East. Abbasid coinage found in Pala archaeological sites, as well as records of Arab historians, point to flourishing mercantile, the House of Wisdom in Baghdad absorbed the mathematical and astronomical achievements of Indian civilisation during this period. The empire reached its peak under Emperors Dharmapala and Devapala, the Palas also exerted a strong cultural influence under Atisa in Tibet, as well as in Southeast Asia. Pala control of North India was ultimately ephemeral, as they struggled with the Gurjara-Pratiharas, after a short lived decline, Emperor Mahipala I defended imperial bastions in Bengal and Bihar against South Indian Chola invasions. Emperor Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler, who gained control of Kamarupa, the empire was considerably weakened by the 11th century, with many areas engulfed in rebellion. The resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty dethroned the Pala Empire in the 12th century, the Pala period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of war between warring divisions. They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding works of art and they laid the basis for the Bengali language, including its first literary work, the Charyapada. The Pala legacy is reflected in Tibetan Buddhism. According to the Khalimpur copper plate inscription, the first Pala king Gopala was the son of a warrior named Vapyata, the Ramacharitam attests that Varendra was the fatherland of the Palas. The ethnic origins of the dynasty are unknown, although the later claim that Gopala was a Kshatriya belonging to the legendary solar dynasty. The Ballala-Carita states that the Palas were Kshatriyas, a claim reiterated by Taranatha in his History of Buddhism in India as well as Ghanaram Chakrabarty in his Dharmamangala, the Ramacharitam also attests the fifteenth Pala emperor, Ramapala, as a Kshatriya
Pala Empire
–
The Pala Empire in Asia in 800
Pala Empire
–
Nalanda is considered one of the first great
universities in recorded history. It reached its height under the Palas.
Pala Empire
–
Atisha was a Buddhist teacher, who helped establish the
Sarma lineages of
Tibetan Buddhism.
Pala Empire
–
Carved
shankhas
38.
Medieval Cholas
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Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C. E. and established one of the greatest empires in South India. They successfully united South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in Southeast Asia and they had trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese in the east. Medieval Cholas and Chalukyas were continuously in conflict over the control of Vengi, the Chola dynasty merged into the Eastern Chalukyan dynasty of Vengi through decades of alliances and later united under the Later Cholas. Vijayalaya Chola was probably a Pallava vassal, vijayalaya captured Thanjavur in 848 C. E. making use of the opportunity during a war between Pandyas and Pallavas. The Cholas under Aditya I captured the Pallavas in the north, the Chola throne went to Gandaraditya’s younger brother Arinjaya briefly before Arinjaya’s son Sundara Chola took the reins of the kingdom overlooking the claims of Uttama Chola, son of Gandaraditya. The Chola power recovered during Sundara Chola’s reign, the Chola army under the command of the crown prince Aditya Karikala defeated the Pandyas and invaded up to Tondaimandalam in the north. Aditya Karikala was assassinated in a political plot suspected to be enacted by Uttama Chola. Uttama forced Sundara Chola to declare him as heir apparent and took over the reigns in 970 C. E. Raja Raja, during the reign of Raja Raja and his son Rajendra Chola, the Chola influence spread across South East Asia. Rajaraja consolidated the Chola defences in the north by eliminating the last remnants of the Rashtrakutas, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the Chalukyas, who were in constant conflict with the Cholas. Rajaraja soon extended his kingdom overseas to Lanka and the Chola army occupied northern portion of the island in 993 C. E. Rajaraja also invaded Vengi to restore the throne to his nephew Saktivarman. Rajendra Chola extended the empire by completing the conquest of Sri Lanka in 1018 C. E. Rajendra marched up to the river Ganges in 1019 C. E. defeating the Pala king Mahipala. Rajendra also fought the Western Chalukyas in 1021 C. E. the Chola navy attacked and conquered the kingdom of Srivijaya to secure Chola strategic interests. There was no permanent territorial gain and the kingdom was returned to the Srivijaya king for recognition of Chola superiority, the History of Cholas from the period of Rajaraja was tinged with a series of conflicts with the Western Chalukyas. The Old Chalukya dynasty had split into two sibling dynasties of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, rajaraja’s daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya, who ruled from Vengi. Western Chalukyas felt that the Vengi kingdom was under their sphere of influence. Cholas inflicted several defeats on the Western Chalukyas, for the most part, the frontier remained at the Tungabhadra River for both kingdoms and resulted in the death of king Rajadhiraja Chola. Rajendras reign was followed by three of his sons in succession, Rajadhiraja Chola I, Rajendra Chola II and Virarajendra Chola, after Rajadhiraja died in 1054 C. E. Rajendra Chola II crowned himself on the battlefield. Later, Virarajendra succeeded in 1063 C. E. and managed to split the Western Chalukya kingdom by convincing Vikramaditya IV to an alliance, Vikramaditya tried to prevent Rajendra Chalukya, an Eastern Chalukyan prince of Chola descent from ascending the throne of Vengi
Medieval Cholas
–
Rajendra Chola 's Territories c. 1030.
39.
Western Chalukya Empire
–
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, prior to the rise of these Chalukyas, the Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and Central India for over two centuries. The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani. For over a century, the two empires of Southern India, the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty of Tanjore fought many wars to control the fertile region of Vengi. During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas further complicating the situation. His exploits were not limited to the south for even as a prince, during the rule of Someshvara I, he had led military campaigns as far east as modern Bihar. The Western Chalukyas developed a style known today as a transitional style. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka, well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language Kannada. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated, the records suggests a possible rebellion by a local Chalukya King, Chattigadeva of Banavasi-12000 province, in alliance with local Kadamba chieftains. This rebellion however was unfruitful but paved the way for his successor Tailapa II, however, some inscriptions indicate that Balagamve in Mysore territory may have been a power centre up to the rule of Someshvara I in 1042. The Western Chalukyas and the Chola Dynasty fought many wars over control of this strategic resource. The imperial Cholas gained power during the time of the famous king Rajaraja Chola I, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were cousins of the Western Chalukyas but became increasingly influenced by the Cholas through their marital ties with the Tamil kingdom. As this was against the interests of the Western Chalukyas, they wasted no time in involving themselves politically and militarily in Vengi and his successor, Jayasimha II, fought many battles with the Cholas in the south around c. 1020–21 when both these powerful kingdoms struggled to choose the Vengi king,1024, Jayasimha II subdued the Paramara of central India and the rebellious Yadava King Bhillama. It is known from records that Jayasimhas son Someshvara I, whose rule historian Sen considers a brilliant period in the Western Chalukya rule, moved the Chalukya capital to Kalyani in c. Hostilities with the Cholas continued while both sides won and lost battles, though neither lost significant territory during the struggle to install a puppet on the Vengi throne. In 1068 Someshvara I, suffering from an illness, drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River
Western Chalukya Empire
–
Old Kannada inscription dated 1028 AD from the rule of King Jayasimha II at the Praneshvara temple in
Talagunda, Shivamogga district
Western Chalukya Empire
–
Extent of Western Chalukya Empire, 1121 CE
Western Chalukya Empire
–
Old Kannada inscription dated 1057 AD of King Someshvara I at
Kalleshwara Temple, Hire Hadagali in
Bellary district
Western Chalukya Empire
–
Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in
Koppal district, Karnataka
40.
Delhi Sultanate
–
The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based mostly in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years. Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate sequentially, the Mamluk dynasty, the Khilji dynasty, the Tughlaq dynasty, the Sayyid dynasty, the first four dynasties were of Turkic origin, and the last dynasty was of Afghan origin. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a slave of Muhammad Ghori, was the first sultan of Delhi. Afterwards the Khilji dynasty was able to conquer most of central India. The sultanate reached the peak of its reach during the Tughlaq dynasty. This was followed by due to continuing Hindu-Muslim wars, states such as the Vijayanagara Empire asserting independence. The Delhi Sultanate caused destruction and desecration of politically important temples of South Asia, in 1526 the Sultanate fell, to be succeeded by the Mughal Empire. By 962 AD, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms in South Asia were under a wave of raids from Muslim armies from Central Asia. Among them was Mahmud of Ghazni, who raided and plundered kingdoms in north India from east of the Indus river to west of Yamuna river seventeen times between 997 and 1030, Mahmud of Ghazni raided the treasuries but retracted each time, only extending Islamic rule into western Punjab. The wave of raids on north Indian and western Indian kingdoms by Muslim warlords continued after Mahmud of Ghazni, the raids did not establish or extend permanent boundaries of their Islamic kingdoms. The Ghurid Sultan Muizz al-Din Muhammad began a war of expansion into north India in 1173. He sought to carve out a principality for himself by expanding the Islamic world, Mu’izz sought a Sunni Islamic kingdom of his own extending east of the Indus river, and he thus laid the foundation for the Muslim kingdom called the Delhi Sultanate. Some historians chronicle the Delhi Sultanate from 1192 due to the presence, Muizz al-Din was assassinated in 1206, by Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims in some accounts or by Hindu Khokhars in others. After the assassination, one of Mu’izz slaves, the Turkic Qutbu l-Din Aibak, assumed power, Qutb al-Din Aibak, a slave of Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori, was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Aibak was of Cuman-Kipchak origin, and due to his lineage, Aibak reigned as the Sultan of Delhi for four years. After Aibak died, Aram Shah assumed power in 1210, but he was assassinated in 1211 by Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, iltutmishs power was precarious, and a number of Muslim amirs challenged his authority as they had been supporters of Qutb al-din Aibak. After a series of conquests and brutal executions of opposition, he consolidated his power and his rule was challenged a number of times, such as by Qubacha, and this led to a series of wars. Iltumish conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting Muslim rulers, as well as Ranathambhore and he also attacked, defeated, and executed Taj al-Din Yildiz, who asserted his rights as heir to Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori
Delhi Sultanate
–
History of the Turkic peoples Pre-14th century
Delhi Sultanate
–
Alai Gate and Qutub Minar were built during Mamluk and Khalji dynasty periods of Delhi Sultanate.
Delhi Sultanate
–
Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved his capital to the
Deccan Plateau, ordered Delhi people to move and build a new capital named Daulatabad (shown), then reversed his decision because Daulatabad lacked the river and drinking water supply Delhi had.
Delhi Sultanate
–
A base metal coin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq that led to an economic collapse.
41.
Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi)
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The Mamluk Dynasty, was directed into Northern India by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, a Turkic general from Central Asia. The Mamluk Dynasty ruled from 1206 to 1290, it was the first of five unrelated dynasties to rule as the Delhi Sultanate till 1526, the Mamluk, literally meaning owned, was a soldier of slave origin who had converted to Islam. The phenomenon started in the 9th century and gradually the Mamluks became a military caste in various Muslim societies. Mamluks held political and military power most notably in Egypt, but also in the Levant, Iraq, in 1206, Muhammad of Ghor, Sultan of the Ghurid Empire was assassinated. Since he had no children, his empire split into minor sultanates led by his former mamluk generals, taj-ud-Din Yildoz became the ruler of Ghazni. Mohammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji got Bengal, Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha became the sultan of Multan. Qutb ud-Din Aibak became the sultan of Delhi, and that was the beginning of the Slave dynasty, Aibak rose to power when a Ghorid superior was assassinated. However, his reign as the Sultan of Delhi was short lived as he died in 1210 and his son Aram Shah rose to the throne, only to be assassinated by Iltutmish in 1211. Following the death of Iltutmish in 1236 a series of rulers remained in power. The Khilji dynasty came into being when Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji overthrew the last of the Slave dynasty rulers, Muiz ud din Qaiqabad, the grandson of Balban, and assumed the throne at Delhi. The first Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty was Qutb ud-Din Aibak and he temporarily quelled the rebellions of Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha of Multan and Tajuddin Yildoz of Ghazni. Making Lahore his capital, he consolidated his control over North India through an administrative hold over Delhi and he also initiated the construction of Delhis earliest Muslim monuments, the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar. In 1210, he died due to injuries received from an accident while playing a game of polo in Lahore, his horse fell and he was buried near the Anarkali Bazaar in Lahore. The second Sultan was Aram Shah, who had the name of Sultan. An elite group of forty nobles named Chihalgani conspired against Aram Shah and invited Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, then Governor of Badaun, Iltutmish defeated Aram in the plain of Jud near Delhi in 1211. It is not quite certain what became of Aram, the third Sultan was Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, who had the titular name of Nasir Amir-ul-Muminin and reigned from 1211 to 1236. He shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi and trebled the exchequer and he defeated Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha of Multan and Tajuddin Yildoz of Ghazni, who had declared themselves contenders of Delhi. Mongols invaded India in pursuit of Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni who was defeated at the Battle of Indus by Genghis Khan in 1221, after Genghis Khans death, Iltutmish consolidated his hold on northern India by retaking many of the lost territories
Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi)
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The
Qutub Minar, an example of the Mamluk dynasty's works.
Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi)
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The Delhi Mamluk Dynasty
42.
Khalji dynasty
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The Khilji dynasty or Khalji was a Muslim dynasty of Turkic origin, which ruled large parts of South Asia between 1290 and 1320. It was founded by Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji and became the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate of India. The dynasty is known for their faithlessness and ferocity, as well as their raids into the Hindu south, the Khilji rulers trace their roots to Central Asia and were of Turkic origin. They had long settled in present-day Afghanistan before proceeding to Delhi in India. The name Khilji refers to an Afghan village or town known as Qalat-e Khilji, sometimes they were treated by others as ethnic Afghans due to their adoption of some Afghan habits and customs. As a result of this, sometimes the dynasty is referred to as a Turko-Afghan, the three sultans of the Khalji dynasty were noted by historians for their faithlessness and ferocity. Jalal-ud-din Khilji Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiar Khilji was a servant of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Khiljis were vassals of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi and served the Sultan of Delhi, Ghiyas ud din Balban. Balbans successors were murdered over 1289-1290, and the Mamluk dynasty succumbed to the conflicts within the Mamluk dynasty. As the struggle between the factions razed, Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji led a coup and murdered the 17-year-old Mamluk successor Muiz ud din Qaiqabad - the last ruler of Mamluk dynasty. Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji was accepted as sultan by a faction of Muslim amirs of Turkic, Persian, Arabic factions, however, Jalal-ud-din in his old age was unpopular and not universally accepted. During his six-year reign, some of Balbans officers revolted due to his assumption of power and he returned to Delhi in 1296, murdered his uncle who was also his father-in-law, then assumed power as Sultan. Ala al-din Khilji continued expanding Delhi Sultanate into South India, with the help of such as Malik Kafur and Khusraw Khan. His commanders collected war spoils from Hindu kingdoms, paid khums on Ghanima to Sultans treasury, Alauddin Khilji reigned for 20 years. He attacked and seized Hindu states of Ranthambhor, Chittorgarh, Māndu and plundered the wealthy state of Devagiri, Ala al-din is also known for his cruelty against attacked kingdoms after wars. Historians note him as a tyrant and that anyone Ala al-din Khilji suspected of being a threat to power was killed along with the women and children of that family. In 1298, between 15,000 and 30,000 people near Delhi, who had converted to Islam, were slaughtered in a single day. He also killed his own members and nephews, in 1299-1300, after he suspected them of rebellion, by first gouging out their eyes. In 1308, Alauddins lieutenant, Malik Kafur captured Warangal, overthrew the Hoysala Empire south of the Krishna River and he then looted the treasury in capitals and from the temples of south India
Khalji dynasty
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Copper coin of
Alauddin Khilji
Khalji dynasty
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Khilji dynasty
Khalji dynasty
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History of the Turkic peoples Pre-14th century
43.
Tughlaq dynasty
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The Tughlaq dynasty, also referred to as Tughluq or Tughluk dynasty, was a Muslim dynasty of Turkic origin which ruled over the Delhi sultanate in medieval India. Its reign started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, the dynasty expanded its territorial reach through a military campaign led by Muhammad ibn Tughluq, and reached its zenith between 1330 and 1335. Its rule was marked with torture, cruelty and rebellions, resulting in the disintegration of the dynastys territorial reach after 1335 AD. The Khilji dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate before 1320 and its last ruler, Khusro Khan was a Hindu who had converted to Islam and then served Delhi Sultanate as the general of its army. Khusro Khan, along with Malik Kafur, had led military campaigns on behalf of Alauddin Khilji, to expand the Sultanate. However, he lacked the support of the Persian and Afghan nobels, the Muslim aristocracy invited the Turkic origin Ghazi Malik, then the governor in Punjab under the Khiljis, to lead a coup in Delhi and remove Khusro Khan. In 1320, Ghazi Malik launched an attack and killed Khusro Khan to assume power, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq After assuming power, Ghazi Malik rechristened himself as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq - thus starting and naming the Tughlaq dynasty. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq is also referred in scholarly works as Tughlak Shah and he was of Turko-Indian origins, with a Turkic father and a Hindu mother. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq rewarded all those maliks, amirs and officials of Khilji dynasty who had rendered him a service and he punished those who had rendered service to Khusro Khan, his predecessor. He built a city six kilometers east of Delhi, with a fort considered more defensible against the Mongol attacks, in 1321, he sent his eldest son Ulugh Khan, later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, to Deogir to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang. His first attempt was a failure, four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again. Arangal fell, was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign. Historic documents state that the Sufi preacher and Ulugh Khan had learnt through messengers that Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq had resolved to remove them from Delhi upon his return, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq along with his favorite son Mahmud Khan died inside the collapsed kushk in 1325 AD, while his eldest son watched. One official historian of Tughlaq court gives an alternate fleeting account of his death, patricide According to many historians such as Ibn Battuta, al-Safadi, Işāmi, and Vincent Smith, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was killed by his son Ulugh Juna Khan, who then assumed power in 1325 AD. Juna Khan rechristened himself as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and ruled for 26 years, Muhammad bin Tughluq During Muhammad bin Tughluqs rule, Delhi Sultanate temporarily expanded to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach. He attacked and plundered Malwa, Gujarat, Mahratta, Tilang, Kampila, Dhur-samundar, Mabar, Lakhnauti, Chittagong, Sunarganw and his distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions all over Indian subcontinent became routine and he raised taxes to levels where people refused to pay any. In Indias fertile lands between Ganges and Yamuna rivers, the Sultan increased the tax rate on non-Muslims by tenfold in some districts
Tughlaq dynasty
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History of the Turkic peoples Pre-14th century
Tughlaq dynasty
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A painting of west gate of Firozabad fort, near Delhi. This fort was built by Feroz Shah Tughlaq in the 1350s, but destroyed by later dynasties.
Tughlaq dynasty
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Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ordered the construction of Tughlakabad, a city near Delhi with fort to protect Delhi Sultanate from Mongol attacks. Above is the Tughlaq fort, now in ruins.
Tughlaq dynasty
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A base metal coin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq that led to an economic collapse.
44.
Sayyid dynasty
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The Sayyid dynasty was the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate from 1414 to 1451. They succeeded the Tughlaq dynasty and ruled that sultanate until they were displaced by the Lodi dynasty, after Timur sacked Delhi and ended the Delhi Sultanate in 1398, he appointed these Sayyids as the governor of Delhi. Their 37-year period of dominance witnessed the rule of four different members of the dynasty, the dynasty was established by Sayyid Khizr Khan, deputised by Timur to be the governor of Multan. Khizr Khan took Delhi from Daulat Khan Lodi on May 28,1414 and founded the Sayyid dynasty. But he did not take up the title of sultan and nominally, continued to be a Rayat-i-Ala of the Timurids, initially of Timur and after his death, his successor Shah Rukh, grandson of Timur. Khizer Khan was succeeded by his son Sayyid Mubarrak Khan after his death on May 20,1421, a detailed account of his reign is available in the Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi written by Yahya-bin-Ahmad Sirhindi. After the death of Mubarak Shah, his nephew Sayyid Muhammad Khan ascended the throne, just before his death, he called his son Sayyid Ala-ud-Din from Badaun and nominated him as his successor. The last ruler of dynasty, Sayyid Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi sultanate in favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on April 19,1451. He continued to live till his death in 1478. Khizr Khan 1414–1421 Mubarak Shah 1421–1434 Muhammad Shah 1434–1445 Ala ud din shah 1445-1451 Khizr Khan was the governor of Multan under Firuz Shah Tughlaq, when Timur invaded India, Khizr Khan a sayyid from Multan joined him. Timur appointed him the governor of Multan and Lahore and he then conquered the city of Delhi and started the rule of the Sayyids in 1414. He was ruling in name of Timur and he could not assume an independent position in all respects. As a mark of recognition of the suzerainty of the Mongols, the name of the Mongol ruler was recited in the khutba but as an interesting innovation, the name of khizr khan was also attached to it. But strangely enough the name of Mongol ruler was not inscribed on the coins, no coins are known in the name of Khizr Khan. Mubarak Shah was, the son of Khizr Khan and he came to the throne in 1421. He was a man of vision, but the nobles were against him. Muhammad Shah was a nephew of Mubarak Shah and he ruled from 1434-1443 Alam Shah was a weak ruler. In 1451 he surrendered Delhi to Bahlul Lodi and went to Budaun where He spent rest of his life, persianate states List of Sunni Muslim dynasties Sadaat-e-Bilgram Saadat-e-Bara Encyclopædia Britannica - Sayyid Dynasty Muhammad Ahmad Coin Gallery - Sayyid Dynasty
Sayyid dynasty
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The tomb of Muhammad Shah at
Lodi Gardens, New Delhi.
Sayyid dynasty
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Billon Tanka of Khizr Khan INO Firoz Shah Tughlaq
Sayyid dynasty
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Double falus of Mubarak Shah
Sayyid dynasty
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Billon Tanka of 80 rati of Alam Shah
45.
Lodi dynasty
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The Lodi dynasty was an Afghan Pashtun dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 to 1526. It was the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi when he replaced the Sayyid dynasty, muhammad Shah raised him to the status of an emir. He was the most powerful of the Punjab chiefs and a leader, holding together a loose confederacy of Afghan. He reduced the turbulent chiefs of the provinces to submission and infused some vigour into the government, after the last Sayyid ruler of Delhi, Ala-ud-Din Aalm Shah voluntarily abdicated in favour of him, Bahlul Khan Lodi ascended the throne of the Delhi sultanate on April 19,1451. The most important event of his reign was the conquest of Jaunpur, Bahlul spent most of his time in fighting against the Sharqi dynasty and ultimately annexed it. He placed his eldest surviving son Barbak on the throne of Jaunpur in 1486, Sikandar Lodi, the second son of Bahlul, succeeded him after his death on July 17,1489 and took up the title Sikandar Shah. He was nominated by his father to succeed him and was crowned sultan on July 15,1489 and he founded Agra in 1504 and constructed mosques. He shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra and he abolished corn duties and patronized trade and commerce. He composed under the pen-name of Gulruk and he was also patron of learning and ordered Sanskrit work in medicine to be translated into Persian. He curbed the individualistic tendencies of his Pashtun nobles and compelled them to submit their accounts to state audit and he was, thus, able to infuse vigor and discipline in the administration. His greatest achievement was the conquest and annexation of Bihar, Ibrahim Khan Lodi, the youngest son of Sikandar, was the last Lodi Sultan of Delhi. He had the qualities of an excellent warrior, but he was rash, Ibrahim faced numerous rebellions and kept out the opposition for almost a decade. He was engaged in warfare with the Afghans and the Mughals for most of his reign, Ibrahim was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Panipat. This marked the end of the Lodi Dynasty and the rise of the Mughal Empire in India led by Babur, by the time Ibrahim ascended the throne, the political structure in the Lodi Dynasty had dissolved due to abandoned trade routes and the depleted treasury. The Deccan was a trade route, but in the late fifteenth century the supply lines had collapsed. The decline and eventual failure of this trade route resulted in cutting off supplies from the coast to the interior. In order to revenge of the insults done by Ibrahim. Ibrahim Lodi was thus killed in a battle with Babur, with the death of Ibrahim Lodi, the Lodi dynasty also came to an end
Lodi dynasty
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Map showing the territory of the Afghan Empire, the kingdom of the Lodhi dynasty.
Lodi dynasty
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Sultan
Ibrahim Lodi
46.
Pandyan Dynasty
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The Pandyan or Pandiyan or Pandian dynasty was an ancient Tamil dynasty, one of the three Tamil dynasties, the other two being the Chola and the Chera. The Pandya King, along with Chera King and Chola King, were referred to as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, the dynasty ruled parts of South India from around 600 BCE to first half of 17th century CE. They initially ruled their country Pandya Nadu from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, fish being their flag, Pandyas were experts in water management, agriculture and fisheries and they were eminent sailors and sea traders too. Pandyan was well known since ancient times, with contacts, even diplomatic, the Pandyan empire was home to temples including Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai, and Nellaiappar Temple built on the bank of the river Thamirabarani in Tirunelveli. The Pandya kings were called either Jatavarman or Maravarman Pandyan, from being Jains in their early ages, they became Shaivaites after some centuries of rule. Strabo states that an Indian king called Pandion sent Augustus Caesar presents and gifts of honour, the country of the Pandyas, Pandi Mandala, was described as Pandyan Mediterranea in the Periplus and Modura Regia Pandyan by Ptolemy. The early Pandyan Dynasty of the Sangam Literature faded into obscurity upon the invasion of the Kalabhras, the dynasty revived under Kadungon in the early 6th century, pushed the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and ruled from Madurai. They again went into decline with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century and were in constant conflict with them. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola empire until they found an opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th century and they also had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. The Pandyas excelled in trade and literature. They controlled the fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world. Traditionally, the legendary Sangams were held in Madurai under their patronage, during their history, the Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas and finally the Muslim invaders from the Delhi Sultanate. The Islamic invasion led to the end of Pandyan supremacy in South India,1323, Jaffna Kingdom in Sri Lanka declared its independence from the crumbling Pandyan Empire. The Pandyans lost their capital city Madurai to Madurai Sultanate in 1335, however they shifted their capital to Tenkasi and continued to rule the Tirulnelveli, Tuticorin, Ramanad, Sivagangai regions. Meanwhile, Madurai sultanate was replaced by Nayaka governors of Vijayanagara in 1378, in 1529 Nayaka governors declared independence and established Madurai Nayak dynasty. The word Pandya is derived from the Tamil word Pandu meaning very old, another theory is that the word Pandya is derived from the Tamil word Pandi meaning bull. Ancient Tamils, considered the bull as a sign of masculinity, the earliest Pandyans, probably used the bull as its emblem. Another theory suggests that in Sangam Tamil lexicon the word Pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country, Chera meaning hill country, the Chera, Chola and Pandya are the traditional Tamil siblings and together with the Pallavas are the major Kings that ruled ancient Tamilakam
Pandyan Dynasty
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Extent of the Pandya Territories c. 1250 CE
Pandyan Dynasty
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Four-armed
Vishnu, Pandya Dynasty, 8th–9th century CE.
Pandyan Dynasty
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Temple between hill symbols and elephant coin of the Pandyas Sri Lanka 1st century CE.
47.
Vijayanagara Empire
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The Vijayanagara Empire was based in the Deccan Plateau region in South India. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty, the empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka. The writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò Da Conti, Archaeological excavations at Vijayanagara have revealed the empires power and wealth. The empires legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi, the previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan, efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empires patronage enabled fine arts and literature to new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor, differing theories have been proposed regarding the origins of the Vijayanagara empire. Others claim that they were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, irrespective of their origin, historians agree the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery to fight the Muslim invasion of South India. He created the Kampili kingdom, but this was a short lived kingdom during this period of wars, Kampili existed near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra river in northeastern parts of the present-day Karnataka state. It ended after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate, the triumphant army led by Malik Zada sent the news of its victory, over Kampili kingdom, to Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi by sending a straw-stuffed severed head of the dead Hindu king. Within Kampili, on the day of certain defeat, the populace committed a jauhar in 1327/28 CE, eight years later, from the ruins of the Kampili kingdom emerged the Vijayanagara Kingdom in 1336 CE. In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the south of the Tungabhadra river. The original capital was in the principality of Anegondi on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in todays Karnataka. The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha, italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India. Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers and he quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu, the Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when the latter defaulted in paying the tribute
Vijayanagara Empire
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Map of South India in 15th century
Vijayanagara Empire
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Extent of Vijayanagara Empire, 1446, 1520 CE
Vijayanagara Empire
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Virupaksha Temple,
Hampi
Vijayanagara Empire
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Natural fortress at
Vijayanagara
48.
Bengal Sultanate
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The Bengal Sultanate, officially the Sultanate of Bengal, was a Muslim state and empire based in the Indian subcontinent on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. It was an important power in South and Southeast Asia and its rulers carried the title of King of Kings in the East. The kingdoms heartland was in Bengal, which is divided between Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, but its realm included large parts of North India. Its bordering countries included the Delhi Sultanate, Tibet, Ahom, the Bengal Sultanate seceded from the Delhi Sultanate under Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in 1352 and had capitals in Gaur, Pandua and Sonargaon. Delhi recognised Bengals independence after it was defeated by Ilyas Shah and his son, the kingdom enjoyed a strategic relationship with Ming China. It reached the height of its power during the reigns of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah and Alauddin Hussain Shah in the 15th and early 16th centuries, Trade links were fostered with the Horn of Africa, the Maldives and Malacca. Its political economy featured the Taka as its standard currency, Bengali Muslim architecture flourished under the sultanates distinct regional genre, incorporating Bengali and Persian elements. A cosmopolitan literary culture developed in the kingdom, in the mid 16th century, Bengal was overrun by Sher Shah Suris conquests. Arakan ended its relationship with Bengal after allying with the Portuguese Empire. The Mughals defeated the last Sultan, Daud Khan Karrani, in Rajmahal in 1576, subsequently, eastern Bengal came under the control of the Baro-Bhuyan chieftains. By the 17th century, most of the territories of the sultanate were annexed by Mughal Bengal, Bengal was integrated into the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of the Indian subcontinent. It was annexed by Bakhtiar Khilji as a province of the Delhi Sultanate, in the mid 14th century, governors in Bengal declared independence from the Delhi Sultanate, including at Lakhnauti, Sonargaon and Satgaon. In 1352, the Bengal Sultanate was formed by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah after he conquered the three cities and he also defeated an invasion by the Sultan of Delhi Firuz Shah Tughluq in 1353. Ilyas Shah led successful campaigns against neighbouring Hindu states which consolidated the position of the Bengal Sultanate as the foremost military power in the eastern subcontinent, the records of medieval Indian historians, such as Abul Fazl, described him as first Shah of Bengal. His successors formed the Ilyas Shahi dynasty and his son Sikandar Shah and grandson Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah expanded the military, diplomatic and architectural influence of the sultanate. In 1414, Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, the son of the Hindu zamindar Raja Ganesha, assumed the throne after a coup backed by his father and he reigned until 1433 and proclaimed himself as a caliph of Islam. During his reign, Arakan in Burma came under a century of Bengali suzerainty and his military assisted the Arakanese ruler Narameikhla to regain control of the city of Mrauk U in return for Arakan becoming a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali Muslims formed their own settlements in Arakan, the Buddhist rulers in Arakan received Islamic titles
Bengal Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Bengal in 1500, including Bengal and parts of Bihar, Assam and Arakan
Bengal Sultanate
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The
Sixty Dome Mosque in Bagerhat is a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Bengal Sultanate
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Old Gateway of Gaur
49.
Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
Mughal Empire
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Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire.
Mughal Empire
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Flag
Mughal Empire
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Mughal Army artillerymen during the reign of
Akbar.
Mughal Empire
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Mughal matchlock rifle.
50.
Sur Empire
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It interrupted the rule of the Mughal Empire under Humayun, who later restored the Mughal Empire by ending the Sur Empire. Sher Shah defeated badhsah-i-Hind Humayun in the Battle of Chausa and again in the Battle of Bilgram, the Sur dynasty held control of nearly all the Mughal territories, from modern-day eastern Afghanistan in the west to Bengal in modern-day Bangladesh in the east. During the almost 17-year rule of the Sur dynasty, until the return of the Mughals to the throne, a systematised relationship was created between the people and the ruler, minimising corruption and the oppression of the public. Their rule came to an end by a defeat that led to restoration of the Mughal Empire, today, the Sur are part of the Pashtun tribal system and belong to the sub-groups of the Ghilzais. It is a ridge, a spur of the Sulaimán Mountains, about six or seven kos in length, Sur Delhi Sultanate List of Sunni Muslim dynasties Sher Shah Suri and the Afghan Revival Sher Shah Suri Sher Shah Suri
Sur Empire
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The 178 grams silver coin,
Rupiya released by
Sher Shah Suri, 1540–1545 CE, was the first
Rupee
Sur Empire
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Territory of Sur Empire in green
Sur Empire
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Sher Shah Suri Sultan
51.
Vedic period
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The Vedic period was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, scholars consider Vedic civilisation to have been a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of the so-called Hindu synthesis. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE, after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c.1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda-samhita, which was composed between c and they brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the zone between the Zeravshan River and Iran. It was a mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra, Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug probably borrowed from the BMAC religion and his rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. These migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who inhabited this region. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus, the Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices or obey the commandments of gods. Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. Internecine military conflicts between the tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni. The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes— Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin. Bharatas lived around the regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their western neighbours. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab, division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war
Vedic period
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Aryans settling in India
Vedic period
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Vedic period
Vedic period
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Modern replica of utensils and
falcon shaped altar used for
Agnicayana, an elaborate
srauta ritual originating from the
Kuru Kingdom, around 1000 BCE.
Vedic period
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Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli,
Malwa, 1300 BCE.
