1.
Sensor
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A sensor is always used with other electronics, whether as simple as a light or as complex as a computer. Moreover, analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used, applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine, robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day life. A sensors sensitivity indicates how much the output changes when the input quantity being measured changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the changes by 1 °C. Some sensors can also affect what they measure, for instance, Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what is measured, making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages. Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a higher speed. Most sensors have a transfer function. The sensitivity is defined as the ratio between the output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is the slope of the transfer function. Converting the sensors electrical output to the measured units requires dividing the output by the slope. In addition, an offset is added or subtracted. For example -40 must be added to the output if 0 V output corresponds to -40 C input, for an analog sensor signal to be processed, or used in digital equipment, it needs to be converted to a digital signal, using an analog-to-digital converter. The full scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property, the sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error and this is an error in the slope of a linear transfer function. If the output differs from the correct value by a constant. This is an error in the y-intercept of a transfer function. Nonlinearity is deviation of a transfer function from a straight line transfer function
2.
Thurible
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A thurible is a metal censer suspended from chains, in which incense is burned during worship services. In Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican churches, the altar server who carries the thurible is called the thurifer, the practice is rooted in the earlier traditions of Judaism in the time of the Second Jewish Temple. Beyond its ecclesiastical use, the thurible is also employed in other spiritual or ceremonial traditions, including some Gnostic Churches, Freemasonry. Thuribles are sometimes employed in the practice of ceremonial magic, the workings of a thurible are quite simple. Each thurible consists of a section, chains, a metal ring around the chains. Many thuribles are supplied with a stand, allowing the thurible to be hung safely when still hot and this may be done several times during the service as the incense burns quite quickly. Once the incense has been placed on the charcoal the thurible is then closed and used for censing. A famous thurible is the huge Botafumeiro in Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, Spain The word thurible comes from the Old French thurible, the Latin thuribulum is further formed from the root thus, meaning incense. Thus is an alteration of the Greek word θύος, which is derived from θύειν to sacrifice, due to the ceremonial use of incense, its cultural importance in western catholicism can be seen e. g. in the introduction of a incense smelling fragrance Avignon in 2002. Avignon was created for Comme des Garçons as a part of their incense series by Bertrand Duchaufour, two double swings, relics and images of the Saints exposed for public veneration. A series of swings, the altar. Presenting the thurible to the priest or deacon when they need to use it Incensing the priest after the priest has incensed the offering at Mass. Another server, previously called a boy and now more commonly a boat bearer. These rules, except for the manner of incensing the offerings at Mass and they also direct that incensing of the altar be done with single swings at 29 designated points of an altar attached to the rear wall of the sanctuary, and at 22 points of a freestanding altar. Pre-1969 editions of the Roman Missal did not allow the use of incense at Low Mass, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the document Summorum Pontificum of 2007, use of the 1962 edition as an extraordinary form of the Roman Rite is permitted. In the Ambrosian Rite the thurible has no top cover, and is swung clockwise before the censing of a person or object, in the Anglican Communion, the use of incense is a fairly reliable guide to how high or how low a church is. Anglo-Catholic churches may use generous quantities of incense, in recent years, some middle-of-the-road Anglican churches have taken to using incense a few times a year for special occasions. Two sets of double swings, When censing a Deacon, one set of double swings, When censing a Sub-Deacon
3.
Incense
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Incense is aromatic biotic material which releases fragrant smoke when burned. The term refers to the material itself, rather than to the aroma that it produces, Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, and in therapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also be used as a simple deodorant or insectifuge, Incense is composed of aromatic plant materials, often combined with essential oils. The forms taken by incense differ with the culture, and have changed with advances in technology. Incense can generally be separated into two types, indirect-burning and direct-burning. Indirect-burning incense is not capable of burning on its own, direct-burning incense is lit directly by a flame and then fanned or blown out, leaving a glowing ember that smoulders and releases fragrance. Direct-burning incense is either a paste formed around a bamboo stick, the word incense comes from Latin for incendere meaning to burn. Combustible bouquets were used by the ancient Egyptians, who employed incense within both pragmatic and mystical capacities, Incense was burnt to counteract or obscure malodorous products of human habitation, but was widely perceived to also deter malevolent demons and appease the gods with its pleasant aroma. One of the oldest extant incense burners originates from the 5th dynasty, the Temple of Deir-el-Bahari in Egypt contains a series of carvings that depict an expedition for incense. The Babylonians used incense while offering prayers to divining oracles, Incense spread from there to Greece and Rome. Incense burners have been found in the Indus Civilization, evidence suggests oils were used mainly for their aroma. India also adopted techniques from East Asia, adapting the inherited formulation to encompass aromatic roots and this comprised the initial usage of subterranean plant parts within the fabrication of incense. New herbs like Sarsaparilla seeds, frankincense, and cypress were used by Indians for incense, at around 2000 BCE, Ancient China began the use of incense in the religious sense, namely for worship. Incense was used by Chinese cultures from Neolithic times and became widespread in the Xia, Shang. Incense usage reached its peak during the Song Dynasty with numerous buildings erected specifically for incense ceremonies, during the 14th century Shogunate, a samurai warrior might perfume his helmet and armor with incense to achieve an aura of invincibility. It wasnt until the Muromachi Era during the 15th and 16th century that incense appreciation spread to the upper, a variety of materials have been used in making incense. Historically there has been a preference for using locally available ingredients, for example, sage and cedar were used by the indigenous peoples of North America. Trading in incense materials comprised a part of commerce along the Silk Road and other trade routes
4.
Earthenware
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Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery which has normally been fired below 1200°C. Porcelain, bone china and stoneware, all fired at high temperatures to vitrify, are the main other important types of pottery. Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29, 000–25,000 BCE, outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century, and then initially as an expensive luxury. Earthenware, when fired, is opaque and non-vitreous, soft, the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities describes it as being made of selected clays sometimes mixed with feldspars and varying amounts of other minerals and white or light-colored. Generally, earthenware bodies exhibit higher plasticity than most whiteware bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, due to its porosity, earthenware, with a water absorption of 5-8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, darker-colored terracotta earthenwares, typically orange or red, due to a comparatively high content of iron oxide are widely used for flower pots, tiles and some decorative and oven wares. A general body formulation for contemporary earthenware is 25% kaolin, 25% ball clay, 35% quartz and 15% feldspar. Modern earthenware may be fired to temperatures between 1,000 and 1,150 °C and glost-fired to between 950 to 1,050 °C, the usual practice in factories and some studio potteries. Some studio potters follow the practice, with a low-temperature bisque firing. The firing schedule will be determined by the raw materials used, historically, such high temperatures were unattainable in most cultures and periods until modern times, though Chinese ceramics were far ahead of other cultures in this respect. Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C, much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C, giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. After firing most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red, for red earthenware, the firing temperature affects the color of the clay body. Lower temperatures produce a red terracotta color, higher temperatures will make the clay brown or even black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat, an Introduction to the Technology Of Pottery. Whitewares, Production, Testing And Quality Control, the Potters Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers Limited, London, England, Third Edition,1991
5.
Fire pot
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A fire pot is a container, usually earthenware, for carrying fire. Fire pots have been used since prehistoric times to fire from one place to another, for warmth while on the move, for cooking, in religious ceremonies. Fire pots were vital to the development of civilization, once humans had learned to contain, control and sustain fires, they had an invaluable tool for cooking food that would have otherwise not been edible. Fire pots were also useful for sharpening spears, hollowing out canoes, baking pottery, at first, humans relied on natural fires, caused by lightning strikes or other natural occurrences, to provide them with a flame to start their own fires. Since natural fires are not very common, humans learned how to make fires by igniting tinder from sparks caused by striking stones together, nomadic people could carry these small fires with them, using them to start larger fires for their evening camps. Semi-nomadic and sedentary people would have made or acquired more advanced types of fire pots, being more sedentary, people were able to more effectively work with clay, and would have kilns to bake the pottery in, instead of using the traditional fire-baking methods. Portable fire pots have long used as a source of warmth. A Kangdi is a traditional earthen fire pot from Kashmir, used to warm the hands or feet, in Kashmir, in winter, people usually wear a Phiran or long woolen gown over their normal dress. To keep the inside of the Phiran warm, they use a Manann. But with no insulation on its handles, the Manann is inconvenient. A Kangdi is a version of the Manann, a semi-spherical clay pot enclosed in willow rushes. The pot holds burning coals that stay warm throughout the day, throughout Kashmir in winter, it is common to see people with one hand holding their Kangdi inside their Phiran, doing the daily chores with the other. The fire pot was invented long after people discovered the value of cooking over fire. Once fire-proof containers became available, such as pots, it was natural to design fire pots that both heated and supported the cooking vessel. Over time, these developed into stoves, used both for cooking and heating, a U-shaped hole is cut in one side to allow air to enter, and through which fuel is inserted. Hot pot or huoguo is a traditional Chinese social meal, the literal Chinese translation is fire pot, as huo means fire, while guo refers to pot. The Chinese hot pot consists of a metal pot of stock at the center of the dining table. While the hot pot is kept simmering, thinly sliced ingredients are placed into the pot and are cooked at the table and this type of cuisine is also referred to as steamboat
6.
Silver
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Silver is a metallic element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. The symbol Ag stems from Latin argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς, a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earths crust in the pure, free form, as an alloy with gold and other metals. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, Silver is more abundant than gold, but it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is measured on a per mille basis, a 94%-pure alloy is described as 0.940 fine. As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had a role in most human cultures. Silver has long valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many premodern monetary systems in bullion coins, Silver is used in numerous applications other than currency, such as solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils, and as an investment medium. Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, Silver compounds are used in photographic film and X-rays. Dilute silver nitrate solutions and other compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides, added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters. Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. This distinctive electron configuration, with an electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell. Silver is a soft, ductile and malleable transition metal. Silver crystallizes in a cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak and this observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a polish. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm, at wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silvers reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, during World War II in the US,13540 tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper
7.
Gold
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Gold is a chemical element with symbol Au and atomic number 79. In its purest form, it is a bright, slightly yellow, dense, soft, malleable. Chemically, gold is a metal and a group 11 element. It is one of the least reactive chemical elements and is solid under standard conditions, Gold often occurs in free elemental form, as nuggets or grains, in rocks, in veins, and in alluvial deposits. It occurs in a solid solution series with the element silver and also naturally alloyed with copper. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, often with tellurium, golds atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher numbered, naturally occurring elements. It is thought to have produced in supernova nucleosynthesis, from the collision of neutron stars. Because the Earth was molten when it was formed, almost all of the present in the early Earth probably sank into the planetary core. Gold is resistant to most acids, though it does dissolve in aqua regia, a mixture of acid and hydrochloric acid. Gold also dissolves in solutions of cyanide, which are used in mining and electroplating. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but this is not a chemical reaction, as a precious metal, gold has been used for coinage, jewelry, and other arts throughout recorded history. A total of 186,700 tonnes of gold is in existence above ground, the world consumption of new gold produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry. Gold is also used in infrared shielding, colored-glass production, gold leafing, certain gold salts are still used as anti-inflammatories in medicine. As of 2014, the worlds largest gold producer by far was China with 450 tonnes, Gold is cognate with similar words in many Germanic languages, deriving via Proto-Germanic *gulþą from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰelh₃-. The symbol Au is from the Latin, aurum, the Latin word for gold, the Proto-Indo-European ancestor of aurum was *h₂é-h₂us-o-, meaning glow. This word is derived from the root as *h₂éu̯sōs, the ancestor of the Latin word Aurora. This etymological relationship is presumably behind the frequent claim in scientific publications that aurum meant shining dawn, Gold is the most malleable of all metals, a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter, and an avoirdupois ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be thin enough to become semi-transparent
8.
Openwork
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Such techniques have been very widely used in a great number of cultures. Equally techniques such as casting using moulds create the design in a single stage. Though much openwork relies for its effect on the viewer seeing right through the object, techniques or styles that normally use openwork include all the family of lace and cutwork types in textiles, including broderie anglaise and many others. Fretwork in wood is used for types of objects. There has always been great use of openwork in jewellery, not least to save on expensive materials, for example, opus interrasile is a type of decoration used in Ancient Roman and Byzantine jewellery, piercing thin strips of gold with punches. Other techniques used casting with moulds, or built up the design with wire or small strips of metal. Essentially flat objects are straightforward to cast using moulds of clay or other materials, on a larger scale in metal, wrought iron and cast iron decoration more often than not has involved openwork. Scythian metalwork, which was worn on the person, or at least carried about by wagon. Sukashibori is the Japanese term covering a number of openwork techniques, there was little use of it in European ceramics before the 18th century, when designs, mostly using lattice panels, were popular in rococo ceramic baskets, and later in English silver trays. Openwork sections can be either by cutting into a conventional solid body before firing, or by building up using strips of clay. In glass openwork is rather common, but the spectacular Ancient Roman cage cups use it for a decorative outer layer. For exterior screens openwork designs allow looking out, but not looking in, for gates and other types of screens, security is required, but visibility may also be wanted. In architecture openwork takes many forms, including tracery, balustrades and parapets, a variety of screen types especially common in the Islamic world include stone jali and equivalents in wood such as mashrabiya. Belfries and bell-towers normally include open or semi-open elements to allow the sound to be heard at distance, in Gothic architecture some entire spires are openwork. The later of the two spires on the West Front of Chartres Cathedral is very largely openwork, as well as stone and wood the range of materials includes brick, which may be used for windows, normally unglazed, and screens. Constructions such as the Eiffel Tower in Paris are also described as openwork, here an openwork structure was crucial for the engineering, reducing not only weight but wind resistance. The 18 openwork spires of Antoni Gaudis Sagrada Família in Barcelona represent an outgrowth of this Gothic tendency, designed and begun by Gaudi in 1884, they remained incomplete into the 21st century
9.
Spirituality
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Modern spirituality typically includes a belief in a supernatural realm, personal growth, a quest for an ultimate/sacred meaning, religious experience, or an encounter with ones own inner dimension. The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time, the term spirituality originally developed within early Christianity, referring to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit. The term spirit means animating or vital principle in man and animals and it is derived from the Old French espirit which comes from the Latin word spiritus and is related to spirare. In the Vulgate the Latin word spiritus is used to translate the Greek pneuma, the term spiritual, matters concerning the spirit, is derived from Old French spirituel, which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which comes from spiritus or spirit. The term spirituality is derived from Middle French spiritualité, from Late Latin spiritualitatem, there is no single, widely agreed definition of spirituality. A survey of reviews by McCarroll e. a. dealing with the topic of spirituality gave twenty-seven explicit definitions and this causes some difficulty in trying to study spirituality systematically, i. e. it impedes both understanding and the capacity to communicate findings in a meaningful fashion. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the shape, in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity there is Christ, for Buddhism, Buddha. Houtman and Aupers suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions, Spirituality is sometimes associated with philosophical, social, or political movements such as liberalism, feminist theology, and green politics. Some argue spirituality is intimately linked to resolving mental health issues, managing substance abuse, marital functioning, parenting, words translatable as spirituality first began to arise in the 5th century and only entered common use toward the end of the Middle Ages. In a Biblical context the term means being animated by God, to be driven by the Holy Spirit, in the 11th century this meaning changed. Spirituality began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life, in the 13th century spirituality acquired a social and psychological meaning. In the 17th and 18th century a distinction was made higher and lower forms of spirituality, A spiritual man is one who is Christian more abundantly. The word was associated with mysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative meaning. Modern notions of spirituality developed throughout the 19th and 20th century, mixing Christian ideas with westen esoteric traditions and elements of Asian, especially Indian, Spirituality became increasingly disconnected from traditional religious organisations and institutions. Ralph Waldo Emerson was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field, the Transcendentalists emphasised an intuitive, experiential approach of religion. Following Schleiermacher, an individuals intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth, in the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking. A major influence on modern spirituality was the Theosophical Society, which searched for secret teachings in Asian religions and it aims to present Hinduism as a homogenized ideal of Hinduism with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine. Due to the colonisation of Asia by the world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity
10.
Religion
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Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has considered a source of religious beliefs. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, about 84% of the worlds population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. With the onset of the modernisation of and the revolution in the western world. The religiously unaffiliated demographic include those who do not identify with any religion, atheists. While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs, about 16% of the worlds population is religiously unaffiliated. The study of religion encompasses a variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, Religion is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possible interpretation traced to Cicero, connects lego read, i. e. re with lego in the sense of choose, go over again or consider carefully. The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders, we hear of the religion of the Golden Fleece, of a knight of the religion of Avys. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root religio was understood as a virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations and it was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged. Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, what is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law. Some languages have words that can be translated as religion, but they may use them in a different way. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as religion, throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power. There is no equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities
11.
Pomander
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A pomander, from French pomme dambre, i. e. apple of amber, is a ball made of perfumes, such as ambergris, musk, or Civet. The pomander was worn or carried in a vase, also known by the same name, sometimes they contained several partitions, in each of which was placed a different perfume. The term “pomander” can refer to the material itself or to the container that which contains such material. The container could be made of gold or silver and eventually evolved to be shaped like nuts, skulls, hearts, books, smaller versions were made to be attached by a chain to a finger ring and held in the hand. Even smaller versions served as cape buttons or rosary beads, pomander can be a bag containing fragrant herbs. Pomanders were a form of aromatherapy. Pomanders can be considered related to censers, where aromatics are burned rather than naturally evaporated, pomanders were first mentioned in literature in the mid-thirteenth century. They were used in the late Middle Ages through the 17th century, also a version of the pomander with oranges, cloves, oils and a golden ribbon can be used as a recovery charm in witchcraft. Pomanders were first made for carrying as religious keepsakes, the cooked mixture was then removed from the fire, rolled into an apple shape and coated with a powdered mixture of cinnamon, sweet sanders, and cloves. After this, a concoction was made from three grains each of ambergris, deer musk, and civet musk, the ambergris was dissolved first and the deer and civet musk mixed in later. The apple ball was rolled through the musk concoction to blend in these ingredients and then kneaded to combine, michel de Nostredame had a similar method and formula using similar ingredients, but a rather different procedure. Rose tablets were made by soaking a pound of roses without the heads in deer musk water overnight. The water was then squeezed out and the roses ground with seven ounces of benzoin. This produced a ball of the most supreme perfume. It was favoured by the classes who appreciated the delicacy of the liquid perfumes. Its name stemmed from the fact that the box was pounced or pierced to release the scent, one modern style of pomander is made by studding an orange or other fruit with whole dried cloves and letting it cure dry, after which it may last several years. This modern pomander serves the functions of perfuming and freshening the air and also of keeping drawers of clothing and linens fresh, pleasant-smelling and it figures as a central part of the plot development. Medieval pomander paste formulas usually contained ambergris, from this came pomme ambre and from there the word pomander was developed
12.
Charcoal
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Charcoal is a lightweight, black residue, consisting of carbon and any remaining ash, obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis- the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen, the whole pile is covered with turf or moistened clay. The firing is begun at the bottom of the flue, the success of the operation depends upon the rate of the combustion. The operation is so delicate that it was left to colliers. They often lived alone in small huts in order to tend their wood piles, for example, in the Harz Mountains of Germany, charcoal burners lived in conical huts called Köten which are still much in evidence today. The massive production of charcoal was a cause of deforestation. The increasing scarcity of easily harvested wood was a factor behind the switch to fossil fuel equivalents, mainly coal. Charcoal made at 300 °C is brown, soft and friable, and readily inflames at 380 °C, made at higher temperatures it is hard and brittle, in Finland and Scandinavia, the charcoal was considered the by-product of wood tar production. The best tar came from pine, thus pinewoods were cut down for tar pyrolysis, the residual charcoal was widely used as substitute for metallurgical coke in blast furnaces for smelting. Tar production led to deforestation, it has been estimated all Finnish forests are younger than 300 years. The end of tar production at the end of the 19th century resulted in rapid re-forestation, the charcoal briquette was first invented and patented by Ellsworth B. A. Zwoyer of Pennsylvania in 1897 and was produced by the Zwoyer Fuel Company. The process was popularized by Henry Ford, who used wood. Ford Charcoal went on to become the Kingsford Company, Charcoal has been made by various methods. The traditional method in Britain used a clamp and this is essentially a pile of wooden logs leaning against a chimney. The chimney consists of 4 wooden stakes held up by some rope, the logs are completely covered with soil and straw allowing no air to enter. It must be lit by introducing some burning fuel into the chimney, if the soil covering gets torn by the fire, additional soil is placed on the cracks. Once the burn is complete, the chimney is plugged to prevent air from entering, the true art of this production method is in managing the sufficient generation of heat, and its transfer to wood parts in the process of being carbonised. A strong disadvantage of this method is the huge amount of emissions that are harmful to human health
13.
Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
14.
Qilin
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The qilin or kirin is a mythical hooved chimerical creature known in Chinese and other East Asian cultures, said to appear with the imminent arrival or passing of a sage or illustrious ruler. It is a good thought to occasion prosperity or serenity. It is often depicted with what looks like all over its body. The earliest references to the qilin are in the 5th century BC Zuo Zhuan, the qilin made appearances in a variety of subsequent Chinese works of history and fiction, such as Feng Shen Bang. Emperor Wu of Han apparently captured a live qilin in 122 BC, in legend, the qilin became a stylized representation of the giraffe in the Ming dynasty. The identification of the qilin with giraffes began after Zheng Hes voyage to East Africa, the Ming Dynasty bought giraffes from the Somali merchants along with zebras, incense, and various other exotic animals. Zheng Hes fleet brought back two giraffes to Nanjing, and they were referred to as qilins, the Emperor proclaimed the giraffes magical creatures, whose capture signaled the greatness of his power. The identification between the qilin and the giraffe is supported by some attributes of the qilin, including its vegetarianism and its reputed ability to walk on grass without disturbing it may be related to the giraffes long, thin legs. The identification of qilin with giraffes has had lasting influence, even today, the word is used for the mythical animal. The qilin may be described or depicted in a variety of ways, Qilin generally have Chinese dragon-like features. Most notably their heads, eyes with thick eyelashes, manes that always flow upward, the body is fully or partially scaled and often shaped like an ox, deer, or horse. In modern times, the depictions of qilin have often fused with the Western concept of unicorns, the Chinese dragon has antlers, so it is most common to see qilin with antlers. The qilin are depicted throughout a range of Chinese art also with parts of their bodies on fire. Qilin are often depicted as somewhat bejeweled, or as brilliant as jewels themselves and they are often associated in colors with the elements, precious metals, stars, and gem stones. But, qilin can also be earthy and modest browns or earth-tones and it is said their auspicious voice sounds like the tinkling of bells, chimes, and the wind. In Buddhist influenced depictions, they refuse to walk upon grass for fear of harming a single blade. As they are divine and peaceful creatures, their diets do not include flesh and they take great care when they walk to never tread on a living creature, and appear only in areas ruled by a wise and benevolent leader, which can include a household. They can become fierce if a person is threatened by a malicious one, spouting flames from their mouths
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Edo period
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The Edo period or Tokugawa period is the period between 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when Japanese society was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the countrys 300 regional daimyō. The period was characterized by growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies. The shogunate was established in Edo on March 24,1603. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3,1868, instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area, after Hideyoshis death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family. Ieyasus victory over the western daimyōs at the Battle of Sekigahara gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyō houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyōs, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada as shogun. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication, in 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka. The Tokugawa period brought 250 years of stability to Japan, the political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyōs had regional authority and this represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The feudal hierarchy was completed by the classes of daimyō. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or related houses and they were twenty-three daimyōs on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu, the second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or house daimyōs, rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century,145 fudai controlled such smaller han, members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the group, the tozama, former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago, because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyō, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions. The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyōs and the religious orders
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Kakiemon
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The style shares much in common with the Chinese Famille Verte style. The superb quality of its decoration was highly prized in the West, the potter Sakaida Kakiemon is popularly credited with being one of the first in Japan to discover the secret of enamel decoration on porcelain, known as akae. Kakiemon is sometimes used as a term describing wares made in the Arita factories using the characteristic Kakiemon overglaze enamels. However, authentic Kakiemon porcelains have been produced by direct descendants, shards from the Kakiemon kiln site at Nangawara show that blue and white and celadon wares were also produced. Kakiemon decoration is usually of high quality, delicate and with asymmetric well-balanced designs and these were sparsely applied to emphasize the fine white porcelain background body known in Japan as nigoshide which was used for the finest pieces. In this period, Sakaida Kakiemon produced normal akae wares, Sakaida Kakiemon XII and XIII attempted to reproduce nigoshide and succeeded in 1953. It has continued to be produced since then, the Kakiemon porcelain was imported into Europe via the Dutch East India Company, and beginning in the 1580s, through a variety of other avenues. Augustus the Strong of Saxony and Mary II of England both owned examples, the earliest inventory to include Japanese porcelain in Europe was made at Burghley House in 1688, these included a standing elephant with its trunk raised and a model of two wrestlers. Wares included bowls, dishes and plates, often hexagonal, octagonal or fluted with scalloped edges, the famed white nigoshide body was only used with open forms, and not for closed shapes such as vases, bottles and teapots, or for figures and animals. The hexagonal Kamiemon vases and covers known as Hampton Court vases were named after a pair at Hampton Court Palace, London, around 1730, this shape was copied at Meissen, Germany, which entered into a sister city contract with Arita, in 1979. The style was adopted and copied in Chelsea and Worcester in the 1750s. The Kakiemon porcelain proved an influence on the new porcelain factories of 18th-century Europe. Meissen copies could be close to the originals, alternatively, the factory painters sometimes just borrowed designs. Kakiemon style was adapted in Germany and Austria by the Du Paquier and Vienna factories and in France at Chantilly, Mennecy. Kakiemon was also an influence on Dutch Delft pottery and Chinese export porcelain, Sakaida Kakiemon, The 1st Kakiemon Sakaida Kakiemon XII Sakaida Kakiemon XIV, who was a Living National Treasure in Japan. Imari porcelain Japanese pottery Korean pottery Chinese porcelain Pottery Intangible Cultural Properties of Japan Takeshi, Japanese ceramics from the Tanakamaru collection. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Walters Art Museum
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The Walters Art Museum, located in Mount Vernon-Belvedere, Baltimore, Maryland, is a public art museum founded and opened in 1934. It holds collections established during the mid-19th Century, located across the back alley, a block south of the Walters mansion on West Monument Street/Mount Vernon Place, on the northwest corner of North Charles Street at West Centre Street. The following year, The Walters reopened its original building after a dramatic three-year physical renovation and replacement of internal utilities. The Archimedes Palimpsest was on loan to the Walters Art Museum from a collector for conservation. This was one of the largest and most comprehensive such releases made by any museum, the Walters collection of ancient art includes examples from Egypt, Nubia, Greece, Rome, Etruria and the Near East. In 1911, Henry Walters purchased almost 100 gold artifacts from the Chiriqui region of western Panama in Central America, the museum owns the oldest surviving Chinese wood-and-lacquer image of the Buddha. It is exhibited in a gallery dedicated solely to this work, the Museum holds one of the largest and finest collections of Thai bronze, scrolls, and banner paintings in the world. Islamic art in all media is represented at the Walters, the Walters Museum owns an array of Islamic manuscripts. Walters Art Museum, MS W.613 contains five Mughal miniatures from a very important Khamsa of Nizami made for the Emperor Akbar, Henry Walters assembled a collection of art produced during the Middle Ages in all the major artistic media of the period. This forms the basis of the Walters medieval collection, for which the Museum is best known internationally. Considered one of the best collections of art in the United States, the Museums holdings include examples of metalwork, sculpture, stained glass, textiles, icons. Sculpted heads from the royal Abbey of St. Denis are rare surviving examples of sculptures that are directly connected with the origins of Gothic art in 12th Century France. An ivory casket covered with scenes of jousting knights is one of about a dozen such objects to survive in the world, many of these works are on display in the Museums galleries. Works in the collection are the subject of active research by the curatorial and conservation departments of the museum. The collection of European Renaissance and Baroque art features holdings of paintings, sculpture, furniture, ceramics, metal work, arms, the museum has one of ten surviving examples of the Sèvres pot-pourri vase in the shape of a ship from the 1750s and 1760s. William and Henry Walters collected works by late 19th Century French academic masters, Henry Walters was particularly interested in the courtly arts of 18th Century France. The museum’s collection of Sèvres porcelain includes a number of pieces that were made for members of the Royal Bourbon Court at Versailles Palace outside of Paris. Portrait miniatures and the examples of works, especially snuffboxes and watches, are displayed in the Treasury, along with some exceptional 19th-
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Chinese culture
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Chinese culture is one of the worlds oldest cultures, tracing back to thousands of years ago. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a geographical region in eastern Asia with customs. Important components of Chinese culture include ceramics, architecture, music, literature, martial arts, cuisine, visual arts, philosophy, there are 56 officially labelled ethnic groups in China. In terms of numbers however, Han Chinese is by far the largest group, throughout history, many groups have merged into neighboring ethnicities or disappeared. At the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic, the term Zhonghua Minzu has been used to describe the notion of Chinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional identity within the community has to do with distinguishing the family name and they were located on the Yellow and Yangtze River. Traditional Chinese Culture covers large geographical territories, where region is usually divided into distinct sub-cultures. Each region is represented by three ancestral items. For example, Guangdong is represented by chenpi, aged ginger, others include ancient cities like Linan, which include tea leaf, bamboo shoot trunk, and hickory nut. Such distinctions give rise to the old Chinese proverb, 十里不同風, 百里不同俗/十里不同风, 百里不同俗, literally the praxis vary within ten li, since the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, some form of Chinese monarch has been the main ruler above all. Different periods of history have different names for the various positions within society, conceptually each imperial or feudal period is similar, with the government and military officials ranking high in the hierarchy, and the rest of the population under regular Chinese law. From the late Zhou Dynasty onwards, traditional Chinese society was organized into a system of socio-economic classes known as the four occupations. However, this system did not cover all groups while the distinctions between all groups became blurred ever since the commercialization of Chinese culture in the Song Dynasty. This led to the creation of a meritocracy, although success was only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics and those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position. A major mythological structure developed around the topic of the mythology of the imperial exams, trades and crafts were usually taught by a shifu. The female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women in the Han Dynasty and outlined the four women must abide to, while scholars such as Zhu Xi. Chinese marriage and Taoist sexual practices are some of the rituals, most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism
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Zhou dynasty
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The Zhou dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang dynasty and preceded the Qin dynasty. This period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinese bronze-ware making, the dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved into its almost-modern form with the use of an archaic clerical script that emerged during the late Warring States period. He even received sacrifice as a harvest god, the term Hòujì was probably an hereditary title attached to a lineage. Jus son Liu, however, led his people to prosperity by restoring agriculture and settling them at a place called Bin, tai later led the clan from Bin to Zhou, an area in the Wei River valley of modern-day Qishan County. Taibo and Zhongyong had supposedly fled to the Yangtze delta. Jilis son Wen bribed his way out of imprisonment and moved the Zhou capital to Feng, the Zhou enfeoffed a member of the defeated Shang royal family as the Duke of Song, which was held by descendants of the Shang royal family until its end. This practice was referred to as Two Kings, Three Reverences, according to Nicholas Bodman, the Zhou appear to have spoken a language not basically different in vocabulary and syntax from that of the Shang. A recent study by David McCraw, using lexical statistics, reached the same conclusion, the Zhou emulated extensively Shang cultural practices, perhaps to legitimize their own rule, and became the successors to Shang culture. At the same time, the Zhou may also have connected to the Xirong, a broadly defined cultural group to the west of the Shang. According to the historian Li Feng, the term Rong during the Western Zhou period was used to designate political and military adversaries rather than cultural. The proto-Zhou were first located in the Shaanxi-Shanxi highland, where they absorbed elements from the Guangshe culture, King Liu moved his people to the lower Fen Valley and to the western bank of the Yellow River, where they resumed agriculture. His son Qing Jie, led the Zhou to the valley of the Jing River. They stayed there until Dan Fu moved again to the Wei Valley in order to avoid incursion by the Rongdi nomads. During this period, the Zhou mingled with the Qiang people, in all these stages, the advanced Shang bronze culture constantly imparted its influence on the Zhou. The Qi area was the region in all these influences would come to fruition. The contact among the proto-Zhou, the native Shaanxi Longshan, the Qiang, King Wu maintained the old capital for ceremonial purposes but constructed a new one for his palace and administration nearby at Hao. Although Wus early death left a young and inexperienced heir, the Duke of Zhou assisted his nephew King Cheng in consolidating royal power. Wary of the Duke of Zhous increasing power, the Three Guards, Zhou princes stationed on the eastern plain, to maintain Zhou authority over its greatly expanded territory and prevent other revolts, he set up the fengjian system
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Chinese (language)
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
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Compound (linguistics)
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In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding, composition or nominal composition is the process of formation that creates compound lexemes. That is, in terms, compounding occurs when two or more words are joined to make one longer word. The meaning of the compound may be similar to or different from the meanings of its components in isolation, with very few exceptions, English compound words are stressed on their first component stem. The process occurs readily in other Germanic languages for different reasons, words can be concatenated both to mean the same as the sum of two words or where an adjective and noun are compounded. The addition of affix morphemes to words should not be confused with nominal composition, compound formation rules vary widely across language types. In a synthetic language, the relationship between the elements of a compound may be marked with a case or other morpheme. This latter pattern is common throughout the Semitic languages, though in some it is combined with a genitive case. Agglutinative languages tend to very long words with derivational morphemes. Compounds may or may not require the use of derivational morphemes also, the longest compounds in the world may be found in the Finnic and Germanic languages. German examples include Farbfernsehgerät, Funkfernbedienung, and the jocular word Donaudampfschifffahrtsgesellschaftskapitänsmütze, in Finnish, although there is theoretically no limit to the length of compound words, words consisting of more than three components are rare. Even those with less than three components can look mysterious to non-Finnish such as hätäuloskäytävä, compounds can be rather long when translating technical documents from English to some other language, since the lengths of the words are theoretically unlimited, especially in chemical terminology. For example, the English compound doghouse, where house is the head, endocentric compounds tend to be of the same part of speech as their head, as in the case of doghouse. For example, the English compound white-collar is neither a kind of collar nor a white thing, in an exocentric compound, the word class is determined lexically, disregarding the class of the constituents. For example, a must-have is not a verb but a noun, the meaning of this type of compound can be glossed as whose B is A, where B is the second element of the compound and A the first. A bahuvrihi compound is one whose nature is expressed by neither of the words, copulative compounds are compounds with two semantic heads. Appositional compounds are lexemes that have two attributes that classify the compound, most natural languages have compound nouns. The positioning of the words according to the language
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Chinese ritual bronzes
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Sets of ritual bronzes are the most impressive surviving objects from the Chinese Bronze Age. On the death of the owner they would be placed in his tomb, so that he could continue to pay his respects in the afterlife, other examples were cast specifically as grave goods. The ritual bronzes were not used for normal eating and drinking, they represent larger, more elaborate versions of the types of vessels used for this. Apart from table vessels, weapons and some objects were made in special ritual forms. At least initially, the production of bronze was probably controlled by the ruler, bronzes are some of the most important pieces of ancient Chinese art, warranting an entire separate catalogue in the Imperial art collections. The majority of surviving Chinese ancient bronze artefacts are ritual forms rather than their equivalents made for practical use, weapons like daggers and axes had a sacrificial meaning, symbolizing the heavenly power of the ruler. The ritual books of old China minutely describe who was allowed to use what kinds of sacrificial vessels and her higher status would have been clear not only to her contemporaries, but also, it was believed, to her ancestors and other spirits. Many of the pieces were cast with inscriptions using the form of her name. The most highly prized are generally the sacrificial and wine vessels, often these vessels are elaborately decorated with taotie designs. Dǐng Sacrificial vessel, originally a cauldron for cooking and storing meat, the Shang prototype has a round bowl, wider than it is tall, set on three legs, there are two short handles on each side. Later examples became larger and larger and were considered a measure of power and it is considered the single most important class of Chinese bronzeware in terms of its cultural importance. There is a called a fāngdǐng which has a square bowl. There exist rare forms with lids, 西清古鑒 contains over two hundred examples, and this is the most highly regarded of all Chinese bronzes. Dòu, Sacrificial vessel that was originally a food vessel, Flat, covered bowl on a long stem. Fǔ, Rectangular dish, triangular in vertical cross-section, always with a lid shaped like the dish. Zūn, Wine vessel and sacrificial vessel, Tall cylindrical wine cup, with no handles or legs. The mouth is slightly broader than the body. In the late Zhōu dynasty, this type of vessel became exceedingly elaborate, often taking the shape of animals and these later types are distinguished from gōng by retaining a small, roughly circular mouth
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Hill censer
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The hill censer or boshanlu is a type of censer, a vessel used for burning incense. It was commonly used during the Han dynasty, the censers are shaped like mountains and were used for religious rituals. The shape of the hill censer acts as an aid for envisioning the sacred mountains that were said to have been inhabited by Taoist immortals. Hill censers were designed for Taoist rituals, but were later used by Chinese Buddhists. Ting Huan is credited with the invention of the censer in 180 BC. His censer was a nine-storied hill censer, hill censers often include carvings of wilds animals and birds. Some censers depict waves at the foundation of the vessel, said to be the waves of the East China Sea, a hole at the top of the censer releases the smoke of the incense. Boshanlu- Detailed monograph with several examples
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Emperor Wu of Han
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Emperor Wu of Han, born Liu Che, courtesy name Tong, was the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty of China, ruling from 141–87 BC. His reign lasted 54 years — a record not broken until the reign of the Kangxi Emperor more than 1,800 years later. His reign resulted in vast territorial expansion, development of a strong and centralized state resulting from his governmental re-organization and it was also during his reign that cultural contact with western Eurasia was greatly increased, directly or indirectly. Many new crops and other items were introduced to China during his reign, Emperor Wu successfully repelled the nomadic Xiongnu from systematically raiding northern China, and dispatched his envoy Zhang Qian in 139 BC to seek an alliance with the Yuezhi of Kangju. This resulted in further missions to Central Asia, michael Loewe called the reign of Emperor Wu the high point of Modernist policies, looking back to adapt ideas from the pre-Han period. His policies and most trusted advisers were Legalist, favoring adherents of Shang Yang and these reforms had an enduring effect throughout the existence of imperial China and an enormous influence on neighboring civilizations. Emperor Wu was also known for his employment of shaman advisers, the personal name of Emperor Wu was Liu Che. The use of Han in referring to emperor Wu is a reference to the Han dynasty of which he was a part. His family name is Liu, the family or clan of the Han dynasty shared the family name of Liu, the family name of Liu Bang. The character Di is a title, this is the Chinese word which in imperial history of China means emperor, the character Wu literally means martial or warlike, but is also related to the concept of a particular divinity in the historical Chinese religious pantheon existing at that time. Combined, Wu plus di makes the name Wudi, the posthumous name used for historical and for religious purposes. One of Han Wudis innovations was the practice of changing names every so many years. Thus, the practice for dating years during the reign of Wudi came to be the nth year of the, when they got close to Han borders, She assassinated the general and claimed to Emperor Wu that he had defeated Joseon in battle. Emperor Wu, unaware of his deception, made him the commander of the Commandery of Liaodong. King Ugeo, offended, made a raid on Liaodong and killed She, in response, Emperor Wu commissioned a two-pronged attack against Joseon. Initially, Joseon offered to become a vassal, but peace negotiations broke down by the Chinese forces refusal to let a Joseon force escort its crown prince to Changan to pay tribute to Emperor Wu, Han took over the Joseon lands in 108 BC and established four commanderies. Also in 109 BC, Emperor Wu sent a force against the Kingdom of Dian. When the King of Dian surrendered, it was incorporated into Han territory with the King of Dian being permitted to keep his traditional authority, Emperor Wu established five commanderies over Dian and the other nearby kingdoms
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Sacred Mountains of China
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The Sacred Mountains of China are divided into several groups. The Five Great Mountains refers to five of the most renowned mountains in Chinese history and they are associated with the absolute God and the five main cosmic deities of Chinese traditional religion. The group associated with Buddhism is referred to as the Four Sacred Mountains of Buddhism, the Five Great Mountains or Wu Yue are arranged according to the five cardinal directions of Chinese geomancy, which includes the center as a direction. The grouping of the five mountains appeared during the Warring States period, the first legendary sovereigns of China went on excursions or formed processions to the summits of the Five Great Mountains. Every visit took place at the time of the year. The excursions were hunting trips and ended in ritual offerings to the reigning god, the emperors, starting with the First Emperor of Qin, formalized these expeditions and incorporated them into state ritual as prescribed by Confucianism. With every new dynasty, the new emperor hurried to the Five Great Mountains in order to lay claim to his newly acquired domains, but just to be safe, he also made an offer to the mountain god of the northern Heng Shan. In the 2000s formal sacrifices both in Confucian and Taoist styles have been resumed, the Five Great Mountains have become places of pilgrimage where hundreds of pilgrims gather in temples and caves. There are also various Buddhist temples and Confucian academies built on these mountains, in ancient times mountains were places of authority and fear, ruled by dark forces and faithfully worshipped. A basic element of Taoist thought was, and still is, as early as the fourth century, the Taoists presented the high priests with the 180 precepts of Lord Lao for how to live a good and honest life. Twenty of these precepts focused explicitly on the conservation of nature, respect for nature has been a key component of Taoism from the very outset and, in its own right, explains why the Five Great Mountains are considered sacred. In addition, Taoists consider mountains as a means of communication between heaven and earth and as the place where immortality can be found, according to Chinese mythology, the Five Great Mountains originated from the body of Pangu, the first being and the creator of the world. Because of its location, Mount Tài is associated with the rising sun which signifies birth. Due to this interpretation, it is regarded as the most sacred of the Five Great Mountains. In accordance with its position, Mount Tài is believed to have been formed out of Pangus head. Mount Heng in Hunan is believed to be a remainder of Pangus right arm, Mount Heng in Shanxi of his arm, Mount Song of his belly. Chinese, 峨嵋山, High and Lofty Mountain, Sìchuān Province,3,099 m, 29°31′11″N 103°19′57″E The patron bodhisattva of Emei is Samantabhadra and it became a popular pilgrimage site and received imperial support in the Song Dynasty. The Four Sacred Mountains of Taoism are, simplified Chinese, 武当山, traditional Chinese, 武當山, literally Military Wherewithal, simplified Chinese, 龙虎山, Traditional Chinese, 龍虎山, literally Dragon and Tiger, Jiangxi
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Kunlun Mountains
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The Kunlun Mountains are one of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending more than 3,000 kilometres. In the broadest sense, it forms the edge of the Tibetan Plateau south of the Tarim Basin. The exact definition of this range varies, an old source uses Kunlun to mean the mountain belt that runs across the center of China, that is, Kunlun in the narrow sense, Altyn Tagh along with the Qilian and Qin Mountains. A recent source has the Kunlun range forming most of the side of the Tarim Basin. Sima Qian says that Emperor Wu of Han sent men to find the source of the Yellow River, the name seems to have originated as a semi-mythical location in the classical Chinese text Shanhai Jing. From the Pamirs of Tajikistan, it runs east along the border between Xinjiang and Tibet autonomous regions to the Sino-Tibetan ranges in Qinghai province. It stretches along the edge of what is now called the Tarim Basin, the infamous Takla Makan or sand-buried houses desert. A number of important rivers flow from it including the Karakash River and the Yurungkash River, altyn-Tagh or Altun Range is one of the chief northern ranges of the Kunlun. Its eastern extension Qilian Shan is another main northern range of the Kunlun, in the south main extension is the Min Shan. Bayan Har Mountains, a branch of the Kunlun Mountains. The highest mountain of the Kunlun Shan is the Kunlun Goddess in the Keriya area, the Arka Tagh is in the center of the Kunlun Shan, its highest point is Ulugh Muztagh. Some authorities claim that the Kunlun extends northwest-wards as far as Kongur Tagh, but these mountains are physically much more closely linked to the Pamir group. The mountain range formed at the edges of the Cimmerian Plate during its collision, in the Late Triassic, with Siberia. The range has very few roads and in its 3,000 km length is crossed by only two, in the west, Highway 219 traverses the range en route from Yecheng, Xinjiang to Lhatse, Tibet. Further east, Highway 109 crosses between Lhasa and Golmud, over 70 volcanic cones form the Kunlun Volcanic Group. They are not volcanic mountains, but cones, as such, they are not counted among the world volcanic mountain peaks. The group, however, musters the heights of 5,808 metres above sea level, if they were considered volcanic mountains, they would constitute the highest volcano in Asia and China and second highest in the Eastern Hemisphere and one of Volcanic Seven Summits by elevation. The last known eruption in the group was on May 27,1951
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Mount Penglai
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Penglai is a legendary land of Chinese mythology. It is known in Japanese mythology as Hōrai, various theories have been offered over the years as to the real location of these places, including Japan, Jejudo south of the Korean Peninsula, and Taiwan. Penglai, Shandong exists, but its connection is as the site of departures for those leaving for the island rather than the island itself. In Chinese mythology, the mountain is said to be the base for the Eight Immortals, or at least where they travel to have a banquet. Supposedly, everything on the mountain seems white, while its palaces are made from gold and platinum, historically, Qin Shi Huang, in search of the elixir of life, made several attempts to find the island where the mountain is located, to no avail. Legends tell that Xu Fu, one servant sent to find the island, found Japan instead, the presentation of Mt. Hōrai in Lafcadio Hearns Kwaidan, Stories and Studies of Strange Things, is somewhat different from the earlier idyllic Chinese myth. This version, which does not truly represent the Japanese views of Horai in the Meiji and preceding Tokugawa periods, rejects much of the fantastic, in this version of the myth, Hōrai is not free from sorrow or death, and the winters are bitterly cold. Hearns conception of Hōrai holds that there are no magical fruits that cure disease, grant eternal youth or raise the dead, and no rice bowls or wine glasses that never become empty. Hearns incarnation of the myth of Hōrai focuses more on the atmosphere of the place, breathing in these souls is said to grant one all of the perceptions and knowledge of these ancient souls. The Japanese version also holds that the people of Hōrai are small fairies, and they have no knowledge of great evil, in the Kwaidan, there is some indication that the Japanese hold such a place to be merely a fantasy. It is pointed out that Hōrai is also called Shinkiro, which signifies Mirage—the Vision of the Intangible, yet uses of Mount Hōrai in Japanese literature and art of the Tokugawa period reveal a very different view than Hearns Victorian-influenced interpretation. Avalon Luggnagg, the island of the immortal struldbrugs in Jonathan Swifts Gullivers Travels Shangri-La Dilmun, Kwaidan, Stories and Studies of Strange Things
28.
Liu Xiang (scholar)
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Liu Xiang, born Liu Gengsheng, courtesy name Zizheng, was a government official, scholar, and author who lived during the Han Dynasty of China. Among his polymathic scholarly specialties were history, literary bibliography, and he is particularly well known for his bibliographic work in cataloging and editing the extensive imperial library. Liu Xiang was born in Xuzhou, being a distant relative of Liu Bang, the founder of the Han dynasty, he was thus a member of the ruling dynastic clan. Liu Xiangs father ranked as a marquess, Liu Xiangs son, Liu Xin, would continue the scholarly tradition of his father and his relative Liu An. Again, briefly imprisoned, Liu Xiang was soon released, but terminated from official position, and he received no new appointments to office for the next fifteen years. In 26 BCE, at the command of emperor Han Chengdi and this work was assisted by his son, Liu Xin, who finally completed the task, after his fathers death. Liu compiled the first catalogue of the library, the Bielu, or Abstracts. Liu Xiang was a poet in his own right, and is attributed as the author of the Chuci anthologys Nine Laments, confucian classics Guodian Chu Slips Liu An Science and technology of the Han Dynasty Sima Tan Sima Qian Fei, Zhengang, Liu Xiang. Encyclopedia of China, 1st ed. Hawkes, David, translator, the Songs of the South, An Ancient Chinese Anthology of Poems by Qu Yuan and Other Poets. The Former Han Dynasty, in The Cambridge History of China, Volume I, edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Works by Xiang Liu at Project Gutenberg
29.
Mount Hua
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Mount Hua is a mountain located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres east of Xian. It is the mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Originally classified as having three peaks, in times the mountain is classified as five main peaks, of which the highest is the South Peak at 2,154.9 metres. Mount Hua is situated in Huayin City, which is 120 kilometres from Xian. It is located near the southeast corner of the Ordos Loop section of the Yellow River basin, south of the Wei River valley, at the end of the Qin Mountains. It is part of the Qinling or Qin Mountains, which not only northern and southern Shaanxi. Traditionally, only the giant plateau with its summits to the south of the peak Wuyun Feng was called Taihua Shan and it could only be accessed through the ridge known as Canglong Ling until a second trail was built in the 1980s to go around Canglong Ling. Three peaks were identified with respective summits, the East, South, the East peak consists of four summits. The highest summit is Zhaoyang Feng and its elevation is reported to be 2,096 m and its name is often used as the name for the whole East Peak. To the east of Zhaoyang Feng is Shilou Feng, to the south is Botai Feng, today, Yunű Feng considered its own peak, most central on the mountain. The South peak consists of three summits, the highest summit is Luoyan Feng, with an elevation of 2,154 m. To the east is Songgui Feng, and to the west is Xiaozi Feng, the West peak has only one summit and it is known as Lianhua Feng or Furong Feng, both meaning Lotus Flower Summit. It is the lowest of the five peaks with an elevation of 1,614.9 m, as early as the 2nd century BCE, there was a Daoist temple known as the Shrine of the Western Peak located at its base. Daoists believed that in the lives the god of the underworld. The temple at the foot of the mountain was used for spirit mediums to contact the god. Huashan was also an important place for immortality seekers, as many herbal Chinese medicines are grown, kou Qianzhi, the founder of the Northern Celestial Masters received revelations there, as did Chen Tuan, who spent the last part of his life in hermitage on the west peak. In the 1230s, all the temples on the mountain came under control of the Daoist Quanzhen School, in 1998, the management committee of Huashan agreed to turn over most of the mountains temples to the China Daoist Association. This was done to protect the environment, as the presence of taoists
30.
Mawangdui
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Mawangdui is an archaeological site located in Changsha, China. The site consists of two saddle-shaped hills and contained the tombs of three people from the western Han dynasty, Marquis Li Cang, his wife, and a male believed to have been their son, the site was excavated from 1972 to 1974. Most of the artifacts from Mawangdui are displayed at the Hunan Provincial Museum and it was called King Mas Mound because it was initially thought to be the tomb of Ma Yin, a ruler of the Chu kingdom during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The tombs were made of large cypress planks, the outside of the tombs were layered with white clay and charcoal. White clay layering originated with Chu burials, while charcoal layering was practiced during the early western Han dynasty in the Changsha area, the tombs contained nested lacquered coffins, a Chu burial custom. The tombs also followed the burial practices dictated by Emperor Wen of Han,1, contained the remains of a woman in her fifties. Her mummified body was so well-preserved that researchers were able to perform an autopsy on her body, specifically, her diet was too rich in sugars and meats, and she suffered from arterial-coronary problems. Buried with her were skeletons of various food-animals, jujubes, lotus soup, grains, researchers found honeydew melon seeds in her stomach, inferring consumption right before death. She outlived the occupants of the two tombs. Xin Zhuis tomb was by far the best preserved of the three, a complete cosmetic set, lacquered pieces and finely woven silk garments with paintings are almost perfectly preserved. Her coffins were painted according to Chu customs and beliefs with whirling clouds interwoven with mystical animals, there was also a silk painting showing a variety of exercises researchers call the forerunner of Tai ji. 2, was the site of the first Marquis of Dai. The Han dynasty had appointed Li Cang as the chancellor of the Kingdom of Changsha and this tomb had been plundered several times by grave robbers. Tomb 3 was directly south of Tomb 1, and contained the tomb of a man in his thirties who died in 168 BC, the occupant is believed to have been a relative of Li Cang and his wife. This tomb contained a trove of military, medical. Highly regarded artifacts in particular were the lacquered wine-bowls and cosmetic boxes, of the more famous artifacts from Mawangdui were its silk funeral banners, these T-shaped banners were draped on the coffin of Tomb 1. The banners depicted the Chinese abstraction of the cosmos and the afterlife at the time of the western Han dynasty, a silk banner of similar style and function were found in Tomb 3. The T-shaped silk funeral banner in the tomb of the Marquise is called the banner with the written name of the deceased replaced with a portrait
31.
Imperata cylindrica
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Imperata cylindrica, commonly known as cogon grass /koʊˈɡoʊn/, kunai grass /ˈkuːnaɪ/, or blady grass. Is a species of grass in the genus Imperata and it is placed in the subfamily Panicoideae, supertribe Andropogonodae, tribe Andropogoneae. Red cultivars of the species grown as ornamental plants are known as Japanese bloodgrass and it is a perennial rhizomatous grass native to east and southeast Asia, India, Micronesia, Melanesia, Australia, and eastern and southern Africa. It grows from 0.6 to 3 m tall, the leaves are about 2 cm wide near the base of the plant and narrow to a sharp point at the top, the margins are finely toothed and are embedded with sharp silica crystals. The main vein is a lighter colour than the rest of the leaf, the upper surface is hairy near the base of the plant while the underside is usually hairless. Roots are up to 1.2 meters deep, but 0.4 m is typical in sandy soil and it is used for thatching the roofs of traditional homes throughout south-east Asia. It is planted extensively for ground cover and soil stabilization near beach areas, other uses include paper-making, thatching and weaving into mats and bags. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine, a number of cultivars have been selected for garden use as ornamental plants, including the red-leaved Red Baron, also known as Japanese blood grass. Young inflorescences and shoots may be cooked, and the roots contain starch. It is used as an ingredient in the skincare brand Kiehls Ultra Facial Cream for its high concentrations of potassium which provides a hydrating effect and their website also states that indigenous native Australians may have used the plant as a substitute for salt due to its high saline content. The plant has naturalized in the Americas, Northern Asia, Europe. In the U. S. it survives best in the Southeast, worldwide it has been observed from 45°N to 45°S. It grows on wet lands, dry lands, areas of high salinity, organic soils, clay soils and it prefers full sun but will tolerate some shade. In Florida I. cylindrica is found in areas where the soil has been disturbed, such as roadsides, building sites, timber harvesting areas and it is able to invade both moist and dry upland pine forests. Once established it often forms dense monocultures, in addition to outcompeting species for resources, the grass also exhibits allelopathic tendencies. The chemicals it releases as well as the dense mat of vegetation that usually accompanies a cogon grass invasion gives it an advantage over indigenous plants. It spreads both through small seeds, which are carried by the wind, and rhizomes which can be transported by tilling equipment. In the Southeastern United States, state governments have various eradication efforts in place, control is typically by the use of herbicides
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Galangal
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Galangal /ɡəˈlæŋɡəl/ is a common name that is loosely attributed to any of several tropical rhizomatous spices. Polish Żołądkowa Gorzka vodka is flavoured with galangal, in ethnobotany, each of the various galangals are attributed with specific medical virtues. In commerce, galangals are commonly available in Asian markets as whole fresh rhizome, or in dried and sliced, qureshi, S. Shah, A. Ageel, A. Toxicity Studies on Alpinia galanga and Curcuma longa, bendjeddou, D, Lalaoui, K, Satta, D. Immunostimulating activity of the hot water-soluble polysaccharide extracts of Anacyclus pyrethrum, Alpinia galanga and Citrullus colocynthis. Cytotoxic and Antifungal Diterpenes from the Seeds of Alpinia galanga, oonmetta-Aree, Jirawan, Suzuki, Tomoko, Gasaluck, Piyawan, Eumkeb, Griangsak. Antimicrobial properties and action of galangal on Staphylococcus aureus, LWT - Food Science and Technology. Itokawa, Hideji, Morita, Hiroshi, Sumitomo, Takayoshi, Totsuka, Nobuo, Takeya, matsuda, Hisashi, Pongpiriyadacha, Yutana, Morikawa, Toshio, Ochi, Momotaro, Yoshikawa, Masayuki. Gastroprotective effects of phenylpropanoids from the rhizomes of Alpinia galanga in rats, Structural requirements, mitsui, Seiji, Kobayashi, Shinsaku, Nagahori, Hitoshi, Ogiso, Akira. Constituents from seeds of Alpinia galanga Wild, matsuda, Hisashi, Morikawa, Toshio, Managi, Hiromi, Yoshikawa, Masayuki. Antiallergic principles from Alpinia galanga, Structural requirements of phenylpropanoids for inhibition of degranulation and release of TNF-α, de Pooter, Herman L. Omar, Muhammad Nor, Coolsaet, Brigitte A. Schamp, Niceas M. The essential oil of greater galanga from Malaysia, two phenolic constituents from Alpinia galanga rhizomes. Borthakur, M. Hazarika, J. Singh, R. S, a protocol for micropropagation of Alpinia galanga. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, haraguchi, Hiroyuki, Kuwata, Yoshiharu, Inada, Kozo, Shingu, Kazushi, Miyahara, Kazumoto, Nagao, Miyoko, Yagi, Akira. Antifungal Activity from Alpinia galanga and the Competition for Incorporation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids in Cell Growth
33.
Magnolia liliiflora
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Magnolia liliiflora is a small tree native to southwest China, but cultivated for centuries elsewhere in China and also Japan. It was first introduced to English-speaking countries from cultivated Japanese origins and it is now also planted as an ornamental in North America and Europe, though rather less often than its popular hybrid. It is a shrub, exceptionally a small tree, to 4m tall. The cultivar Nigra, with much deeper in colour than the species, has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit. This species is one of the parents of the popular hybrid Saucer magnolia, M. × soulangeana. EFloras, Missouri Botanical Garden & Harvard University Herbaria, Magnolia liliiflora, retrieved 2009
34.
Ligusticum
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Ligusticum is a genus of about 60 species of flowering plants in the family Apiaceae, native to cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Its name is believed to derive from the Italian region of Liguria, L. wallichii is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in Chinese herbology, where it is called chuānxiōng, in English, Szechwan lovage. L. porteri is used in Western herbal medicine, Chinese Ligusticum root contains alkaloids that have been shown in studies to inhibit TNF-alpha production and TNF-alpha-mediated NF-kappaB activation. Both Ligusticum sinense and L. jeholens essntial oils contain natural antimicrobial and antioxidant agents
35.
Joseph Needham
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Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham CH FRS FBA was a British scientist, historian and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1941, in 1992, the Queen conferred on him the Companionship of Honour, and the Royal Society noted he was the only living person to hold these three titles. Needham was the child of a London family. His father was a doctor, and his mother, Alicia Adelaïde, née Montgomery, was a composer from Oldcastle. Needham was educated at Oundle School before attending Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, where he received a BA in 1921, an Oxbridge MA in January 1925 and he had intended to study medicine but came under the influence of Frederick Hopkins, resulting in his switch to biochemistry. His three-volume work Chemical Embryology, published in 1931, includes a history of embryology from Egyptian times up to the early 19th century and his Terry Lecture of 1936 was published by Cambridge University Press in association with Yale University Press under the title of Order and Life. In 1939 he produced a work on morphogenesis that a Harvard reviewer claimed will go down in the history of science as Joseph Needhams magnum opus. Although his career as biochemist and an academic was well established, his career developed in unanticipated directions during, three Chinese scientists came to Cambridge for graduate study in 1937, Lu Gwei-djen, Wang Ying-lai and Shen Shih-Chang. Lu, daughter of a Nanjingese pharmacist, taught Needham Chinese, igniting his interest in Chinas ancient technological and he then pursued, and mastered, the study of Classical Chinese privately with Gustav Haloun. Under the Royal Societys direction, Needham was the director of the Sino-British Science Co-operation Office in Chongqing from 1942 to 1946, during this time he made several long journeys through war-torn China and many smaller ones, visiting scientific and educational establishments and obtaining for them much needed supplies. His longest trip in late 1943 ended in far west in Gansu at the caves in Dunhuang at the end of the Great Wall where the earliest dated printed book - a copy of the Diamond Sutra - was found. The other long trip reached Fuzhou on the east coast, returning across the Xiang River just two days before the Japanese blew up the bridge at Hengyang and cut off part of China. In 1944 he visited Yunnan in an attempt to reach the Burmese border, everywhere he went he purchased and was given old historical and scientific books which he shipped back to Britain through diplomatic channels. They were to form the foundation of his later research, on his return to Europe, he was asked by Julian Huxley to become the first head of the Natural Sciences Section of UNESCO in Paris, France. In fact it was Needham who insisted that science should be included in the organisations mandate at a planning meeting. He devoted his energy to the history of Chinese science until his retirement in 1990, in 1948, Needham proposed a project to the Cambridge University Press for a book on Science and Civilisation in China. Within weeks of being accepted, the project had grown to seven volumes and his initial collaborator was the historian Wang Ling, whom he had met in Lizhuang and obtained a position for at Trinity. The first years were devoted to compiling a list of every mechanical invention and abstract idea that had been made and conceived in China
36.
Taoism
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Taoism, also known as Daoism, is a religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is an idea in most Chinese philosophical schools, in Taoism, however. Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order, the Tao Te Ching, a compact book containing teachings attributed to Laozi, is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi. By the Han dynasty, the sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organizations. In earlier ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, Zhuangzi was the best known of these, and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was part of local Chinese shamanic traditions. Women shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was strong in the southern state of Chu. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism, shamans revealed basic texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century. Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in recent times are conventionally grouped into two main branches, Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism. After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Daozang—which was published at the behest of the emperor, throughout Chinese history, Taoism was nominated several times as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor, Chinese alchemy, Chinese astrology, Chan Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia, Taoism also has a presence in Hong Kong, Macau, and in Southeast Asia. English speakers continue to debate the preferred romanization of the words Daoism and Taoism, the root Chinese word 道 way, path is romanized tao in the older Wade–Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is formed from the Chinese loanword tao/dao 道 way, route, principle and the native suffix -ism. The debate over Taoism vs. Daoism involves sinology, phonemes, loanwords, Daoism is pronounced /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/, but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/. In theory, both Wade–Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism, an investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages illustrates this /daʊ/ pronunciations widespread familiarity. In speech, Tao and Taoism are often pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/, lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism. Taoist philosophy or Taology, or the mystical aspect — The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching and these texts were linked together as Taoist philosophy during the early Han Dynasty, but notably not before. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing, however, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars
37.
Cannabis and religion
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Different religions have varying stances on the use of cannabis, historically and presently. In ancient history some religions used cannabis as an entheogenic, particularly in South Asia where the tradition continues on a limited basis. Other groups, such as some Protestant and Jewish factions, have supported the use of cannabis for medical purposes, in the Baháí Faith, use of alcohol and other drugs is prohibited, see Baháí laws, though use of tobacco is an individual decision. This is the worst of all intoxicants, and its prohibition is explicitly revealed and its use causeth the disintegration of thought and the complete torpor of the soul. How could anyone seek the fruit of the tree, and by partaking of it. How could one use this drug, and thus deprive himself of the blessings of the All-Merciful. Cannabis and some other plants are specifically prescribed in the Mahākāla Tantra for medicinal purposes. However, Tantra is a teaching of Hinduism and Buddhism not generally accepted by most other forms of these religions. Most bodies within Christianity have not taken any explict stance on the use of cannabis, prior to assuming his position as leader of the Catholic Church, Pope Francis had spoken against recreational cannabis. He stated in 2013 in Buenos Aires, A reduction in the spread, the Georgian Orthodox Church has resisted legalization of cannabis in that country. The Arkansas Baptist State Convention voted to discourage medical marijuana in 2016, other Protestant churches have endorsed the legality of medical marijuana, including the Presbyterian Church, United Methodist Church, United Church of Christ, and the Episcopal Church. During the Indian and Nepalese festival of Holi, people consume bhang which contains cannabis flowers, according to one description, when the amrita was produced from the churning of the ocean by the devas and the asuras, Shiva created cannabis from his own body to purify the elixir. Another account suggests that the cannabis plant sprang up when a drop of the elixir dropped on the ground, thus, cannabis is used by sages due to association with elixir and Shiva. Wise drinking of bhang, according to rites, is believed to cleanse sins, unite one with Shiva. It is also believed to have medicinal benefits, in contrast, foolish drinking of bhang without rites is considered a sin. Further in Nepal its seeds are used in making pickles bhang ko achar. The dried seeds are ground and then mixed with aalo and this is common in hilly area like Kathmandu, Pokhara of Nepal. The Quran does not directly forbid cannabis, however, cannabis is deemed to be khamr by many religious scholars, a hadith by the prophet Mohammed states, If much intoxicates, then even a little is haraam
38.
Shangqing School
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The Shangqing School or Supreme Clarity is a Daoist movement that began during the aristocracy of the Western Jin dynasty. Shangqing can be translated as either Supreme Clarity or Highest Clarity, the first leader of the school was a woman, Wei Huacun. Later, Tao Hongjing structured the theory and practice and compiled the canon and he greatly contributed to the development of the school that took place near the end of the 5th century. The mountain near Nanjing where Tao Hongjing had his retreat, Maoshan, Shangqing practice values meditation techniques of visualization and breathing, as well as physical exercises, as opposed to the use of alchemy and talismans. The recitation of the sacred canon plays an important role. The practice was essentially individualistic, contrary to the practices in the Celestial Master school or in the Lingbao School. Recruiting from high classes, during the Tang Dynasty, Shangqing was the dominant school of Daoism. The importance of the school began to diminish beginning from the second half of the Song dynasty. Under the Yuan dynasty, the movement was known by the name Maoshan, in the 21st century, Maoshan Daoism is still practiced but its current techniques are very different from the original techniques developed at the beginning of the school. Lady Wei Huacun, an aristocrat from the Jin dynasty and a Celestial Master practitioner, was the first leader of the Shangqing School. Three decades after her death, from 364 to 370, Yang Xi 楊羲 supposedly had revelations and transcribed texts from a group of immortals and these texts eventually formed the basis of the school’s beliefs. The revelation began to spread in aristocratic circles of South China and he commented upon, and compiled the Shangqing texts, and developed a well-structured system consisting of a pantheon and new ways to reach immortality that depended upon meditation. More interested in Daoism and Buddhism than in administration, in 492 he received authorization to leave the court. He moved to Maoshan, which had by now become the center of the school, there, with the help of the Emperor Wudi of the Liang dynasty, he built the temple of Huayang, the first Shangqing temple. After his death, the continued to prosper, and recruited many people from the aristocracy. From its beginning near Nanjing, the school expanded to the north after laws passed in 504 and 517 forced several masters of the school to go into exile. Ironically this expulsion helped spread the movement to the north, the Daoist encyclopedia published under the patronage of the Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou placed a great deal of importance on the Shangqing texts. The Shangqing School dominated the Daoist movements under the Tang, during this period, all of its leaders received a title from the emperor
39.
Xian (Taoism)
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The xian archetype is described by Victor H. Mair. They are immune to heat and cold, untouched by the elements and they dwell apart from the chaotic world of man, subsist on air and dew, are not anxious like ordinary people, and have the smooth skin and innocent faces of children. The transcendents live an existence that is best described as spontaneous. They recall the ancient Indian ascetics and holy men known as ṛṣi who possessed similar traits.1994,376 According to the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism, the most famous Chinese compound of xiān is Bāxiān. Other common words include xiānrén, xiānrénzhăng, xiānnǚ, and shénxiān, besides humans, xiān can also refer to supernatural animals. The mythological húlijīng 狐狸精 fox fairy, vixen, witch, enchantress has a name of húxiān 狐仙. The etymology of xiān remains uncertain, the circa 200 CE Shiming, a Chinese dictionary that provided word-pun etymologies, defines xiān as to get old and not die, and explains it as someone who qiān the mountains. Two linguistic hypotheses for the etymology of xian involve the Arabic language, wu and Davis suggested the source was jinn, or jinni genie. The marvelous powers of the Hsien are so like those of the jinni of the Arabian Nights that one wonders whether the Arabic word, jinn, may not be derived from the Chinese Hsien. The word xiān is written with three characters 僊, 仙, or 仚, which combine the logographic radical rén with two phonetic elements, the oldest recorded xiān character 僊 has a xiān phonetic supposedly because immortals could ascend into the heavens. The usual modern xiān character 仙, and its rare variant 仚, have a shān phonetic, for a character analysis, Schipper interprets the human being of the mountain, or alternatively, human mountain. The two explanations are appropriate to these beings, they haunt the mountains, while also embodying nature. The Shijing contains the oldest occurrence of the character 僊, reduplicated as xiānxiān, but when they have drunk too much, Their deportment becomes light and frivolous—They leave their seats, and go elsewhere, They keep dancing and capering. Needham and Wang suggest xian was cognate with wu 巫 shamanic dancing, paper writes, the function of the term xian in a line describing dancing may be to denote the height of the leaps. Since, to live for a time has no etymological relation to xian. The 121 CE Shuowen Jiezi, the first important dictionary of Chinese characters and it defines 僊 as live long and move away and 仚 as appearance of a person on a mountaintop. This section chronologically reviews how Chinese texts describe xian immortals, transcendents, on one the hand, neidan techniques included taixi breath control, meditation, visualization, sexual training, and Tao Yin exercises. On the other hand, waidan techniques for immortality included alchemical recipes, magic plants, rare minerals, herbal medicines, drugs, the earliest representations of Chinese immortals, dating from the Han Dynasty, portray them flying with feathery wings or riding dragons
40.
Waidan
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Pao zhi cites the pharmacological processing as used in the practice of Traditional Chinese Medicine, such as honey or wine frying and roasting with toxic metals such as mercury, lead, and arsenic. According to J. C. Cooper states that a common viewpoint is that classical Taoism was the original but was too austere, Tao Chiao fulfilled the day-to-day needs of the people. By refining bases into gold, the alchemist believed that life would be delivered if the fake or synthetic gold was ingested. The idea that gold was superior to real gold arose because the alchemists believed the combination of a variety of substances gave the final substance a spiritual value. It possesses a superior essence when compared to natural gold, gold and cinnabar were the most sought-after substances to manipulate and ingest. They were believed to have longevity and could elongate the life of the consumer, cinnabar is a mineral with a reddish-brown colour and is the most common source of mercury in nature. It was used in the search for immortality because of the significance of its colour. The colour of the cinnabar is significant to symbolic belief as well, the colour red in Chinese culture is considered to be the zenith of the colour representing the sun, fire, royalty and energy. Cinnabar could also be roasted which produced a form of silver known as quicksilver. This substance was ingested but it could also be combined with sulphur, cinnabar was the yang to quicksilvers yin. In China gold was quite rare, so it was imported from other surrounding countries. However, cinnabar could be refined in the mountains of Szechuan and Hunan Provinces in central China, although the majority of hsien elixirs were combinations of jindan, many other elixirs were formed by combining metallic bases with natural herbs or animals bi-products. The rhinoceros horn was used in medicines and elixirs and was held to have fertility-increasing abilities. Elixirs were composed of compounds such as gold and silver, but they could also be made of more lethal components like arsenic. Both the Eastern practice of alchemy and the later Western practice are remarkably similar in their methods, to be sure, the desire to create an elixir of immortality was more appealing to the Taoists, but European alchemists were not averse to seeking out formulas for various longevity-boosting substances. The secret of transmuting one element into another, specifically base metals into gold or silver, was explored by both schools for obvious reasons. Alternatively, transmutation was also a means of accruing the precious metals that were key in making life-extending elixirs, Chinese alchemy specifically was consistent in its practice from the beginning, and there was relatively little controversy among its practitioners. Definition amongst alchemists varied only in their medical prescription for the elixir of immortality or perhaps only over their names for it, in the West there were conflicts between advocates of herbal and chemical, but in China, mineral remedies were always accepted
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Neidan
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It is believed the Xiuzhen Tu is such a cultivation map. In China, it is an important form of practice for most schools of Taoism, the Chinese compound nèidān combines the common word nèi 內 meaning inside, inner, internal with dān 丹 cinnabar, vermillion, elixir, alchemy. The antonym of nèi is wài 外 outside, exterior, external, Chinese alchemical texts and sources ordinarily call neidan the jīndān dào 金丹道 or Way of the Golden Elixir. In Modern Standard Chinese usage, the term nèidān shù 內丹術 refers generally to internal alchemical practices, the date for the earliest use of the term neidan is uncertain. I pray that all the saints and sages will come to my help, so that I may get some good magic mushrooms, in this way I shall be able to practice continually the way of the Sutras and to engage in the several forms of meditations. I shall hope to find a peaceful dwelling in the depths of the mountains, with enough numinous elixirs, thus by the aids of external elixirs I shall be able to cultivate the elixir within. Others believed that neidan first occurred in the biographies of Deng Yuzhi鄧郁之, however, the authenticity of the relevant passages in these pseudo-historical sources is doubtful. Tang texts described internal alchemical practices with the words fúyào 服藥 take drug/medicine and chángshēng 長生 long life, longevity, liu Xiyues 劉希岳988 Taixuan langranzi jindao shi 太玄朗然子進道詩 has the earliest dateable mention of the terms neidan and waidan. The c.1019 Yunji Qiqian Daoist anthology mentions the term neidan, Neidan is part of the Chinese alchemical meditative tradition that is said to have been separated into internal and external at some point during the Tang dynasty. The Cantong qi is the earliest known book on alchemy in China. This text influenced the formation of Neidan, whose earliest existing texts date from the first half of the 8th century, the authors of several Neidan articles refer to their teachings as the Way of the Golden Elixir. The majority of Chinese alchemical sources is found in the Daozang, Neidan shares a significant portion of its notions and methods with classical Chinese medicine, fangshi and with other bodies of practices, such as meditation and the methods for nourishing life. To do so, first keep the body at ease, thereby energy can be made complete. Making ones energy complete, one can nurture the mind, to do so, first keep the mind pure, and make sure there are no thoughts. Thereby spirit can be made complete, making ones spirit complete, one can recover emptiness. To do so, first keep the will sincere, and make sure body, thereby spirit can be returned to emptiness. To attain immortality, there is nothing else but the refinement of these three treasures, essence, energy, spirit. When the three treasures are maintained, along with a balance of yin and yang, it is possible to achieve a healthy body and longevity
42.
Chinese alchemy
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Pao zhi cites the pharmacological processing as used in the practice of Traditional Chinese Medicine, such as honey or wine frying and roasting with toxic metals such as mercury, lead, and arsenic. According to J. C. Cooper states that a common viewpoint is that classical Taoism was the original but was too austere, Tao Chiao fulfilled the day-to-day needs of the people. By refining bases into gold, the alchemist believed that life would be delivered if the fake or synthetic gold was ingested. The idea that gold was superior to real gold arose because the alchemists believed the combination of a variety of substances gave the final substance a spiritual value. It possesses a superior essence when compared to natural gold, gold and cinnabar were the most sought-after substances to manipulate and ingest. They were believed to have longevity and could elongate the life of the consumer, cinnabar is a mineral with a reddish-brown colour and is the most common source of mercury in nature. It was used in the search for immortality because of the significance of its colour. The colour of the cinnabar is significant to symbolic belief as well, the colour red in Chinese culture is considered to be the zenith of the colour representing the sun, fire, royalty and energy. Cinnabar could also be roasted which produced a form of silver known as quicksilver. This substance was ingested but it could also be combined with sulphur, cinnabar was the yang to quicksilvers yin. In China gold was quite rare, so it was imported from other surrounding countries. However, cinnabar could be refined in the mountains of Szechuan and Hunan Provinces in central China, although the majority of hsien elixirs were combinations of jindan, many other elixirs were formed by combining metallic bases with natural herbs or animals bi-products. The rhinoceros horn was used in medicines and elixirs and was held to have fertility-increasing abilities. Elixirs were composed of compounds such as gold and silver, but they could also be made of more lethal components like arsenic. Both the Eastern practice of alchemy and the later Western practice are remarkably similar in their methods, to be sure, the desire to create an elixir of immortality was more appealing to the Taoists, but European alchemists were not averse to seeking out formulas for various longevity-boosting substances. The secret of transmuting one element into another, specifically base metals into gold or silver, was explored by both schools for obvious reasons. Alternatively, transmutation was also a means of accruing the precious metals that were key in making life-extending elixirs, Chinese alchemy specifically was consistent in its practice from the beginning, and there was relatively little controversy among its practitioners. Definition amongst alchemists varied only in their medical prescription for the elixir of immortality or perhaps only over their names for it, in the West there were conflicts between advocates of herbal and chemical, but in China, mineral remedies were always accepted
43.
Greater Khorasan
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Khorasan is a historical region lying in the northeast of Persia. Khorasan in its proper sense comprised principally the cities of Balkh and Herat, Mashhad and Nishapur, Merv and Nisa, and Bukhara and Samarkand. Some believe that at certain times Khorasan covered an area, which included parts of Transoxiana, Soghdiana, Sistan. Sources from the 14th to the 16th century report that areas in the south of the Hindu Kush mountain range formed a frontier between Khorasan and Hindustan, in the Islamic period, Persian Iraq and Khorasan were the two important territories. The boundary between these two was the surrounding the cities of Gurgan and Qumis. In particular, the Ghaznavids, Seljuqs, and Timurids divided their empires into Iraqi, the adjective Greater is added these days to distinguish the historical region from the Khorasan Province of Iran, which roughly encompassed the western half of the historical Greater Khorasan. The name Khorāsān is derived from Middle Persian Khwarāsān, a compound of khwar, thus the name Khorasan means land where the sun rises or east. The Persian word Khāvar-zamīn, meaning the land, has also been used as an equivalent term. First established as an entity by the Sassanids, the borders of the region have varied considerably during its 1. Initially the Khorasan province of Sassanid empire included the cities of Nishapur, Herat, Merv, Faryab, Taloqan, Balkh, Bukhara, Badghis, Abiward, Gharjistan, Tus or Susia, Sarakhs and Gurgan. It acquired its greatest extent under the Caliphs, for whom Khorasan was the name of one of the three political zones under their dominion. Under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, Khorasan was divided into four sections or quarters, each section based on a single major city, Nishapur, Merv, Herat. In the Middle Ages, the term was applied in Persia to all its territories that lay east and north east of Dasht-e Kavir. Ghobar uses the terms Proper Khorasan and Improper Khorasan in his book to distinguish between the usage of Khorasan in its sense and its usage in a loose sense. Improper Khorasans boundaries extended to as far as Hazarajat and Kabul in the east, Sistan and Baluchistan in the south, Transoxiana and Khwarezm in the north, and Damghan and Gorgan in the west. It is mentioned in the Memoirs of Babur that, The people of Hindustān call every country beyond their own Khorasān, in the manner as the Arabs term all except Arabia. On the road between Hindustān and Khorasān, there are two great marts, the one Kābul, the other Kandahār. Caravans, from Ferghāna, Tūrkestān, Samarkand, Balkh, Bokhāra, Hissār and this country lies between Hindustān and Khorasān
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Copper ally censer from Kashmir, 9th–10th Centuries AD, British Museum[20]
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