1.
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
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The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control is an independent agency of the European Union whose mission is to strengthen Europes defences against infectious diseases. It was established in 2004 and is located in Solna, Sweden, as EU economic integration and open frontiers increased, cooperation on public health issues became more important. The Information and Communication Technologies Unit provides infrastructure, application development, the Resource Management and Coordination Unit controls ECDC’s human and financial resources. ECDC publishes numerous scientific and technical reports covering various issues related to the prevention, comprehensive reports from key technical and scientific meetings are also produced by the organisation. In December 2013, ECDC published the edition of its Annual Epidemiological Report. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control is monitoring the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, other publications from ECDC include disease surveillance reports and threat reports, as well as analyses of trends in European public health. Eurosurveillance, a European peer-reviewed journal devoted to the epidemiology, surveillance, prevention, the journal was founded in 1995 and, before its move to ECDC, was a collaborative project between the European Commission, the Institut de Veille Sanitaire and the Health Protection Agency. Eurosurveillance is an open-access web-based journal that reports infectious disease issues from a European perspective and it publishes results from ECDC and the EU-funded surveillance networks, thereby providing the scientific community with timely access to new information. The journal is published every Thursday, in addition to the member states of the union, the additional members of the European Economic Area, i. e. Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway also participate in the ECDC. ECDC has a staff of around 300 and a budget of over €50 million
2.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
3.
Atlanta
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Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U. S. state of Georgia, with an estimated 2015 population of 463,878. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, home to 5,710,795 people, Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County, and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County. In 1837, Atlanta was founded at the intersection of two lines, and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce. Atlantas economy is considered diverse, with dominant sectors that include logistics, professional and business services, media operations, Atlanta has topographic features that include rolling hills and dense tree coverage. Revitalization of Atlantas neighborhoods, initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, has intensified in the 21st century, altering the demographics, politics. Prior to the arrival of European settlers in north Georgia, Creek Indians inhabited the area, standing Peachtree, a Creek village located where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River, was the closest Indian settlement to what is now Atlanta. As part of the removal of Native Americans from northern Georgia from 1802 to 1825, the Creek ceded the area in 1821. In 1836, the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western, the initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River, which would then be linked to Savannah. After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus, the zero milepost was driven into the ground in what is now Five Points. A year later, the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement, first known as Terminus, and later as Thrasherville after a merchant who built homes. By 1842, the town had six buildings and 30 residents and was renamed Marthasville to honor the Governors daughter, later, J. Edgar Thomson, Chief Engineer of the Georgia Railroad, suggested the town be renamed Atlantica-Pacifica, which was shortened to Atlanta. The residents approved, and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29,1847, by 1860, Atlantas population had grown to 9,554. During the American Civil War, the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a hub for the distribution of military supplies, in 1864, the Union Army moved southward following the capture of Chattanooga and began its invasion of north Georgia. On the next day, Mayor James Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army, on November 11,1864, Sherman prepared for the Union Armys March to the Sea by ordering Atlanta to be burned to the ground, sparing only the citys churches and hospitals. After the Civil War ended in 1865, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt, due to the citys superior rail transportation network, the state capital was moved from Milledgeville to Atlanta in 1868. In the 1880 Census, Atlanta surpassed Savannah as Georgias largest city, by 1885, the founding of the Georgia School of Technology and the citys black colleges had established Atlanta as a center for higher education. In 1895, Atlanta hosted the Cotton States and International Exposition, during the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta experienced a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades time, Atlantas population tripled as the city expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs
4.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Public health
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It is concerned with threats to health based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, Public health incorporates the interdisciplinary approaches of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health and occupational safety, the focus of public health intervention is to improve health and quality of life through prevention and treatment of disease and other physical and mental health conditions. This is done through surveillance of cases and health indicators, there is a great disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming, many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the act of hand washing with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures. Measures such as these have contributed greatly to the health of populations, Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization is the agency that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, for example, in the United States, the front line of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response. The Public health system in India is managed by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare of the government of India with state-owned health care facilities. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011. Although the prioritization of pressing public health issues is important, Laurie Garrett argues that there are following consequences, when foreign aid is funnelled into disease-specific programs, the importance of public health in general is disregarded. This public health problem of stovepiping is thought to create a lack of funds to other existing diseases in a given country. For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people suffer from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by the year 2030, the risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO’s latest estimates highlighted that globally approximately 1.5 billion adults were overweight in 2008, the United States is the leading country with 30. 6% of its population being obese
7.
Disability
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Disability is an impairment that may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or some combination of these. It substantially affects a persons activities and may be present from birth or occur during a persons lifetime. Disabilities is a term, covering impairments, activity limitations. Disability is thus not just a health problem and it is a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives. Disability is a concept, with different meanings for different communities. It may be used to refer to physical or mental attributes that some institutions, particularly medicine and it may refer to limitations imposed on people by the constraints of an ableist society. Or the term may serve to refer to the identity of people with disabilities, debates about proper terminology and their implied politics continue in disability communities and the academic field of disability studies. In some countries, the law requires that disabilities are documented by a provider in order to assess qualifications for disability benefits. During the Middle Ages, madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons and they were also thought to be part of the natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the Plague, which wrought impairments throughout the general population. Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments, foremost among these was the development of clinical medical discourse, which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed. These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in so doing, became methods of normalization. The concept of the norm developed in time period, and is signaled in the work of the French statistician Alphonse Quetelet. Quetelet postulated that one could take the sum of all attributes in a given population and find their average. Disability, as well as other concepts including, abnormal, non-normal, the circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of the freak show, where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those norms. With the rise of eugenics in the part of the nineteenth century. With disability viewed as part of a persons biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, various metrics for assessing a persons genetic fitness, which were then used to deport, sterilize, or institutionalize those deemed unfit. In the early 1970s, disability activists began to challenge how society treated people with disabilities, due to this work, physical barriers to access were identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the model of disability emerged
8.
Foodborne illness
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Symptoms vary depending on the cause, and are described below in this article. A few broad generalizations can be made, e. g, the incubation period ranges from hours to days, depending on the cause and on how much was consumed. The incubation period tends to cause sufferers to not associate the symptoms with the item consumed, symptoms often include vomiting, fever, and aches, and may include diarrhea. Some types of microbes stay in the intestine, some produce a toxin that is absorbed into the bloodstream, Foodborne illness usually arises from improper handling, preparation, or food storage. Good hygiene practices before, during, and after food preparation can reduce the chances of contracting an illness, there is a consensus in the public health community that regular hand-washing is one of the most effective defenses against the spread of foodborne illness. The action of monitoring food to ensure that it will not cause illness is known as food safety. Foodborne disease can also be caused by a variety of toxins that affect the environment. Foodborne illness can also be caused by pesticides or medicines in food, bacteria are a common cause of foodborne illness. In the United Kingdom during 2000, the bacteria involved were the following, Campylobacter jejuni 77. 3%, Salmonella 20. 9%, Escherichia coli O157, H71. 4%. In the past, bacterial infections were thought to be prevalent because few places had the capability to test for norovirus. Toxins from bacterial infections are delayed because the bacteria need time to multiply, as a result, symptoms associated with intoxication are usually not seen until 12–72 hours or more after eating contaminated food. However, in cases, such as Staphylococcal food poisoning. Most common bacterial foodborne pathogens are, Campylobacter jejuni which can lead to secondary Guillain–Barré syndrome and periodontitis Clostridium perfringens, enterotoxins can produce illness even when the microbes that produced them have been killed. Symptom appearance varies with the toxin but may be rapid in onset and this causes intense vomiting including or not including diarrhea, and staphylococcal enterotoxins are the most commonly reported enterotoxins although cases of poisoning are likely underestimated. The CDC has estimated about 240,000 cases per year in the United States, many foodborne illnesses remain poorly understood. In August 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved Phage therapy which involves spraying meat with viruses that infect bacteria and this has raised concerns, because without mandatory labelling consumers would not be aware that meat and poultry products have been treated with the spray. At home, prevention mainly consists of food safety practices. Many forms of bacterial poisoning can be prevented by cooking it sufficiently, many toxins, however, are not destroyed by heat treatment
9.
Environmental health
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Environmental health is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment that may affect human health. Other terms referring to or concerning environmental health are environmental public health, Environmental health and environmental protection are very much related. Environmental health has been defined in a 1999 document by the World Health Organization as, Those aspects of the human health and it also refers to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling factors in the environment that can potentially affect health. It encompasses the assessment and control of environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards preventing disease and creating health-supportive environments and this definition excludes behaviour not related to environment, as well as behaviour related to the social and cultural environment, as well as genetics. The WHO has also defined environmental health services as services which implement environmental health policies through monitoring. They also carry out that role by promoting the improvement of environmental parameters and by encouraging the use of environmentally friendly and healthy technologies and they also have a leading role in developing and suggesting new policy areas. The term environmental medicine may be seen as a medical specialty, terminology is not fully established, and in many European countries they are used interchangeably. Environmental health professionals may be known as environmental health officers, public health inspectors, environmental specialists, environmental health practitioners. Researchers and policy-makers also play important roles in how environmental health is practiced in the field, in many European countries, physicians and veterinarians are involved in environmental health. Many states in the United States also require that individuals have a bachelors degree, the environmental health profession had its modern-day roots in the sanitary and public health movement of the United Kingdom. Five basic disciplines generally contribute to the field of health, environmental epidemiology, toxicology, exposure science, environmental engineering. Each of these disciplines contributes different information to describe problems and solutions in environmental health, Environmental epidemiology studies the relationship between environmental exposures and human health. Toxicology studies how environmental exposures lead to health outcomes, generally in animals. Toxicology has the advantage of being able to conduct randomized controlled trials, however there are many differences in animal and human biology, and there can be a lot of uncertainty when interpreting the results of animal studies for their implications for human health. Exposure science studies human exposure to environmental contaminants by both identifying and quantifying exposures, Environmental law includes the network of treaties, statutes, regulations, common and customary laws addressing the effects of human activity on the natural environment. This can in turn be used to develop and implement environmental policy that, for example, regulates chemical emissions. Environmental health addresses all human-health-related aspects of the environment and the built environment
10.
Occupational safety and health
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These terms of course also refer to the goals of this field, so their use in the sense of this article was originally an abbreviation of occupational safety and health program/department etc. The goals of occupational safety and health programs include to foster a safe, OSH may also protect co-workers, family members, employers, customers, and many others who might be affected by the workplace environment. In the United States, the occupational health and safety is referred to as occupational health and occupational and non-occupational safety. In common-law jurisdictions, employers have a common law duty to take care of the safety of their employees. As defined by the World Health Organization occupational health deals with all aspects of health, Health has been defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Occupational health is a field of healthcare concerned with enabling an individual to undertake their occupation. Health has been defined as It contrasts, for example, with the promotion of health and safety at work, since 1950, the International Labour Organization and the World Health Organization have shared a common definition of occupational health. It was adopted by the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health at its first session in 1950, the concept of working culture is intended in this context to mean a reflection of the essential value systems adopted by the undertaking concerned. Such a culture is reflected in practice in the systems, personnel policy, principles for participation, training policies. Professionals advise on a range of occupational health matters. The research and regulation of safety and health are a relatively recent phenomenon. As labor movements arose in response to concerns in the wake of the industrial revolution. The initial remit of the Inspectorate was to police restrictions on the hours in the textile industry of children. The commission sparked public outrage resulted in the Mines Act of 1842. Otto von Bismarck inaugurated the first social insurance legislation in 1883, similar acts followed in other countries, partly in response to labor unrest. Although work provides many economic and other benefits, an array of workplace hazards also present risks to the health. Personal protective equipment can protect against many of these hazards. Physical hazards affect many people in the workplace, Falls are also a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially in construction, extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and maintenance
11.
Health promotion
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Health promotion involves public policy that addresses health determinants such as income, housing, food security, employment, and quality working conditions. More recent work has used the term Health in All Policies to refer to the actions to incorporate health into all public policies, Health promotion is aligned with health equity and can be a focus of NGOs dedicated to social justice or human rights. Health literacy can be developed in schools, while aspects of health promotion such as breastfeeding promotion can depend on laws, Health promotion is focused on preventative healthcare rather than a medical model of curative care. To develop lifestyles that can maintain and enhance the state of well-being, in 1986, Jake Epp, Canadian Minister of National Health and Welfare, released Achieving health for all, a framework for health promotion which also came to be known as the Epp report. This report defined the three mechanisms of health promotion as self-care, mutual aid, or the people take to help each other cope. According to the Ottawa Charter, health promotion, is not just the responsibility of the health sector, favourable through advocacy for health focuses on achieving equity in health demands coordinated action by all concerned, by governments, by health and other social organizations. Work site health focus on the prevention and the intervention that reduce the risks of the employee. The report shows that over 60% of Americans are not regularly active, there is very strong evidence linking physical activity to numerous health improvements. Health promotion can be performed in various locations, among the settings that have received special attention are the community, health care facilities, schools, and worksites. Worksite health promotion programs include exercise, nutrition, smoking cessation, a meta-analysis of 22 studies published 1997–2007 determined that workplace health promotion interventions led to small reductions in depression and anxiety. Worldwide, government agencies and non-governmental organizations have substantial efforts in the area of health promotion, some of these entities and projects are, The WHO and its Regional Offices such as the Pan American Health Organization are influential in health promotion around the world. The International Union for Health Promotion and Education, based in France, holds international, regional, the European Union is co-funding a Joint Action on Chronic Diseases and Healthy Ageing across the Life Cycle with a strong focus on health promotion. The Australian Health Promotion Association, a body, was incorporated in year 1988. In November 2008, the National Health and Hospitals Reform Commission released a paper recommending a national health promotion agency, ACT Health of the Australian Capital Territory supports health promotion with funding and information dissemination. The Victorian Health Promotion Foundation from the state of Victoria is the world’s first health promotion foundation to be funded by a tax on tobacco, the Australian Government has come up with some initiatives to help Australians achieve a healthy lifestyle. Health Promotion is strong and well-established in Australia, since 2008 there has been a number of graduate courses people can take to be involved within Health Promotion in Australia. The government since 2008 has included an initiative that involves the Aboriginal, school programs are based on curriculum documents from state and territory councils. Schools mainly focus on issues that are being supported by funding
12.
Injury prevention
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Injury prevention is an effort to prevent or reduce the severity of bodily injuries caused by external mechanisms, such as accidents, before they occur. Injury prevention is a component of safety and public health, and its goal is to improve the health of the population by preventing injuries, among laypersons, the term accidental injury is often used. However, accidental implies the causes of injuries are random in nature, researchers use the term unintentional injury to refer to injuries that are nonvolitional but preventable. Within the field of health, efforts are also made to prevent or reduce intentional injury. Centers for Disease Control, for example, show unintentional injuries are the cause of death from early childhood until middle adulthood. During these years, unintentional injuries account for more deaths than the nine leading causes of death combined. Some organizations, such as Safe Kids Worldwide, have expanded the list to six E’s adding, evaluation, economic incentives and empowerment. Researching is challenging, because the outcome of interest is deaths or injuries prevented. Examining trends in morbidity and mortality in the population is not difficult. Traffic safety and automobile safety are a component of injury prevention because it is the leading cause of death for children. Injury prevention efforts began in the early 1960s when activist Ralph Nader and this led to engineering changes in the way cars are designed to allow for more crush space between the vehicle and the occupant. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention also contributes much to automobile safety, engineering, vehicle crash worthiness, seat belts, airbags, locking seat belts for child seats. Education, promote seat belt use, discourage impaired driving, promote child safety seats, enforcement and enactment, passage and enforcement of primary seat belt laws, speed limits, impaired driving enforcement. Pedestrian safety is the focus of both epidemiological and psychological injury prevention research, epidemiological data show children aged 1–4 are at greatest risk for injury in driveway and sidewalks. Children aged 5–14 are at greatest risk while attempting to cross streets, the body of psychological research on pedestrian safety is currently much smaller than that in the epidemiological field, but is rapidly growing. Psychological pedestrian safety studies extend as far back as the mid-1980s when researchers began examining behavioral variables in children. Behavioral studies often collect such variables which imply risk of injury, the most common technique used in behavioral pedestrian research is the pretend road, in which a child stands some distance from the curb and watches traffic on the real road. The child then walks to the edge of the street when an opportunity is chosen
13.
Citizenship of the United States
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Citizenship in the United States is a status that entails specific rights, duties and benefits. State citizenship may affect tax decisions and eligibility for some state-provided benefits such as higher education, in Article One of the Constitution, the power to establish a uniform rule of naturalization is granted explicitly to Congress. A citizen of another country naturalized as a U. S. citizen may retain their previous citizenship, a U. S. citizen retains U. S. citizenship when becoming the citizen of another country, should that countrys laws allow it. Citizenship can be renounced by American citizens who hold another citizenship via a formal procedure at a U. S. Embassy. United States citizens have the right to reside and work in the United States, certain non-citizens, such as permanent residents, have similar rights, however, non-citizens, unlike citizens, may have the right taken away. For example, they may be deported if convicted of a serious crime, freedom to enter and leave the United States. United States citizens have the right to enter and leave the United States freely, certain non-citizens, such as permanent residents, have similar rights. Unlike permanent residents, U. S. citizens do not have an obligation to maintain residence in the U. S. – they can leave for any length of time, voting for federal office in all fifty states and the District of Columbia is restricted to citizens only. States are not required to extend the franchise to all citizens, for example, several states bar citizen felons from voting, even after they have completed any custodial sentence. The United States Constitution bars states from restricting citizens from voting on grounds of race, color, previous condition of servitude, sex, failure to pay any tax, or age. Historically, many states and local jurisdictions have allowed non-citizens to vote, however, citizens are not compelled to vote. Freedom to stand for public office, most states have similar requirements, for example California requires that legislators have been citizens for three years, and the Governor have been a citizen for five years, upon taking office. Constitution requires that one be a natural born Citizen and a U. S. resident for fourteen years in order to be President of the United States, the Constitution also stipulates that otherwise eligible citizens must meet certain age requirements for these offices. Jury duty is imposed upon citizens. Johns Hopkins University political scientist Benjamin Ginsberg writes, The professional military has limited the need for citizen soldiers, in the United States today, everyone except those whose income is derived from tax-exempt revenue is required to file a federal income tax return. American citizens are subject to income tax on worldwide income regardless of their country of residence. Consular protection outside the United States, while traveling abroad, if a person is arrested or detained by foreign authorities, the person can request to speak to somebody from the U. S. Embassy or Consulate. Consular officials can provide resources for Americans incarcerated abroad, such as a list of attorneys who speak English
14.
Atlanta, Georgia
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Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U. S. state of Georgia, with an estimated 2015 population of 463,878. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, home to 5,710,795 people, Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County, and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County. In 1837, Atlanta was founded at the intersection of two lines, and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce. Atlantas economy is considered diverse, with dominant sectors that include logistics, professional and business services, media operations, Atlanta has topographic features that include rolling hills and dense tree coverage. Revitalization of Atlantas neighborhoods, initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, has intensified in the 21st century, altering the demographics, politics. Prior to the arrival of European settlers in north Georgia, Creek Indians inhabited the area, standing Peachtree, a Creek village located where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River, was the closest Indian settlement to what is now Atlanta. As part of the removal of Native Americans from northern Georgia from 1802 to 1825, the Creek ceded the area in 1821. In 1836, the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western, the initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River, which would then be linked to Savannah. After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus, the zero milepost was driven into the ground in what is now Five Points. A year later, the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement, first known as Terminus, and later as Thrasherville after a merchant who built homes. By 1842, the town had six buildings and 30 residents and was renamed Marthasville to honor the Governors daughter, later, J. Edgar Thomson, Chief Engineer of the Georgia Railroad, suggested the town be renamed Atlantica-Pacifica, which was shortened to Atlanta. The residents approved, and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29,1847, by 1860, Atlantas population had grown to 9,554. During the American Civil War, the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a hub for the distribution of military supplies, in 1864, the Union Army moved southward following the capture of Chattanooga and began its invasion of north Georgia. On the next day, Mayor James Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army, on November 11,1864, Sherman prepared for the Union Armys March to the Sea by ordering Atlanta to be burned to the ground, sparing only the citys churches and hospitals. After the Civil War ended in 1865, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt, due to the citys superior rail transportation network, the state capital was moved from Milledgeville to Atlanta in 1868. In the 1880 Census, Atlanta surpassed Savannah as Georgias largest city, by 1885, the founding of the Georgia School of Technology and the citys black colleges had established Atlanta as a center for higher education. In 1895, Atlanta hosted the Cotton States and International Exposition, during the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta experienced a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades time, Atlantas population tripled as the city expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs
15.
Emory University
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Emory University is a private research university in metropolitan Atlanta, located in the Druid Hills section of DeKalb County, Georgia, United States. The university was founded as Emory College in 1836 in Oxford, in 1915, the college relocated to metropolitan Atlanta and was rechartered as Emory University. The university is the second-oldest private institution of education in Georgia. Emory University, the Georgia Institute of Technology, and Peking University in Beijing, the university operates the Confucius Institute in Atlanta in partnership with Nanjing University. Emory has a faculty research partnership with the Korea Advanced Institute of Science. Emory University students come from all 50 states,6 territories of the United States, the university operates the Winship Cancer Institute, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and many disease and vaccine research centers. Emory University is the coordinator of both the NIAIDs Malaria Host-Pathogen Interaction Center and the U. S. Health Departments National Ebola Training and Education Center, the university is one of four institutions involved in the NIAIDs Tuberculosis Research Units Program. The university is partnered with the Carter Center, the National Science Foundation ranked the university 36th among academic institutions in the United States for research and development expenditures. Emory University research is funded primarily by government agencies, namely the National Institutes of Health. In 1995 Emory University was elected to the Association of American Universities, Emory College was founded in 1836 in Oxford, Georgia by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The college was named in honor of the departed Methodist bishop John Emory, ignatius Alphonso Few was the colleges first president. In 1854, the Atlanta Medical College, a forerunner of Emory University School of Medicine, was founded, on April 12,1861, the American Civil War began. Emory College was closed in November 1861 and all of its students enlisted on the Confederate side, in late 1863 the war came to Georgia and the college was used as hospital and later a headquarters for the Union Army. The university produced many officers who served in the war, including General George Thomas Anderson who fought in every major battle in the eastern theater. Thirty five Emory students lost their lives and much of the campus was destroyed during the war, Emory College, as with the entire Southeastern United States, struggled to overcome financial devastation during the Reconstruction Era. In 1880, Atticus Greene Haygood, Emory College President, delivered a speech expressing gratitude for the end of slavery in the United States, which captured the attention of George I. Seney gave Emory College $5,000 to repay its debts, $50,000 for construction, in the 1880s, the technology department was launched by Isaac Stiles Hopkins, a polymath professor at Emory College
16.
Liberia
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Liberia /laɪˈbɪəriə/, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the West African coast. It is bordered by Sierra Leone to its west, Guinea to its north and it covers an area of 111,369 square kilometres and has a population of 4,503,000 people. English is the language and over 20 indigenous languages are spoken. The countrys capital and largest city is Monrovia, forests on the coastline are composed mostly of salt-tolerant mangrove trees, while the more sparsely populated inland has forests opening onto a plateau of drier grasslands. The climate is equatorial, with significant rainfall during the May–October rainy season, Liberia possesses about forty percent of the remaining Upper Guinean rainforest. It was an important producer of rubber in the early 20th century, the Republic of Liberia began as a settlement of the American Colonization Society, who believed African Americans would face better chances for freedom in Africa than in the United States. The country declared its independence on July 26,1847, the U. S. did not recognize Liberias independence until during the American Civil War on February 5,1862. The African American settlers carried their culture with them to Liberia, Liberia maintained and kept its independence during the European colonial era. In addition, President William Tubman encouraged economic changes, internationally, Liberia was a founding member of the League of Nations, United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity. Five years of rule by the Peoples Redemption Council and five years of civilian rule by the National Democratic Party of Liberia were followed by the First. These resulted in the deaths and displacement of more than half a million people, a peace agreement in 2003 led to democratic elections in 2005. Recovery proceeds but about 85% of the population live below the poverty line. The Pepper Coast, also known as the Grain Coast, has been inhabited by peoples of Africa at least as far back as the 12th century. Mende-speaking people expanded westward from the Sudan, forcing many smaller ethnic groups southward toward the Atlantic Ocean, the Dei, Bassa, Kru, Gola and Kissi were some of the earliest documented peoples in the area. This influx was compounded by the decline of the Western Sudanic Mali Empire in 1375, additionally, as inland regions underwent desertification, inhabitants moved to the wetter coast. These new inhabitants brought skills such as spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and sorghum cultivation. Shortly after the Mane conquered the region, the Vai people of the former Mali Empire immigrated into the Grand Cape Mount County region, the ethnic Kru opposed the influx of Vai, forming an alliance with the Mane to stop further influx of Vai. People along the coast built canoes and traded with other West Africans from Cap-Vert to the Gold Coast, arab traders entered the region from the north, and a long-established slave trade took captives to north and east Africa
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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National Malaria Eradication Program
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In the United States, the National Malaria Eradication Program was launched on 1 July 1947. This federal program – with state and local participation – had succeeded in eradicating malaria in the United States by 1951, prior to the establishment of the NMEP, malaria had been endemic across much of the United States. By the 1930s, it had concentrated in 13 southeastern states. A national malaria eradication effort was proposed by Louis Laval Williams. The NMEP was directed by the federal Communicable Disease Center created in 1946 and based in Atlanta and it was a cooperative undertaking by federal, state and local health agencies. The Program had evolved from the Office of Malaria Control in War Areas, the CDC’s first director – Justin M. Andrews – was also Georgia’s chief malariologist. The new agency was a branch of the U. S, Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as its headquarters because malaria was locally endemic. Offices were located on the floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street. With an annual budget of about $1 million, some 59% of its personnel were engaged in mosquito abatement, among its 369 employees, the main jobs at CDC at this time were entomology and engineering. In 1946, there were only seven officers on duty. During the CDCs first few years, more than 6,500,000 homes were sprayed with the insecticide DDT, DDT was applied to the interior surfaces of rural homes or entire premises in counties where malaria was reported to have been prevalent in recent years. In addition, wetland drainage, removal of breeding sites. In 1947, some 15,000 malaria cases were reported, by the end of 1949, over 4,650,000 housespray applications had been made and the United States was declared free of malaria as a significant public health problem. By 1950, only 2,000 cases were reported, in 1952, CDC participation in eradication operations ceased altogether. A major international effort along the lines of the NMEP – the Global Malaria Eradication Programme, humphreys, Margaret, Malaria, Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States, Johns Hopkins University Press. Daniel Sledge and George Mohler, Eliminating Malaria in the American South, centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Elimination of Malaria in the United States ”. List of diseases eradicated from the United States
19.
League of Nations
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The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, at its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, however, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them, after a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, the onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years, the United Nations replaced it after the end of the Second World War on 20 April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organisations founded by the League. As historians William H. Harbaugh and Ronald E. Powaski point out, the organisation was international in scope, with a third of the members of parliaments serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were held to help refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure consisted of a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League, at the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914 and this was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation had been dedicated to war. By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had an impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world, the First World War was described as the war to end all wars, the causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term League of Nations in 1914, together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union. The group became more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing Liberal Party. In Dickinsons 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his League of Peace as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation
20.
Rockefeller Foundation
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The Rockefeller Foundation is a private foundation based at 420 Fifth Avenue, New York City. It was established by the six-generation Rockefeller family, the Foundation was started by Standard Oil owner John D. Rockefeller, along with his son John D. Rockefeller Jr. Its stated mission is promoting the well-being of humanity throughout the world, as of 2015, the Foundation was ranked as the 39th largest U. S. foundation by total giving. By year-end 2008 assets were tallied at $3.1 billion from $4.6 billion in 2007, on January 5,2017, the Board of Trustees announced the unanimous selection of Dr. Rajiv Shah to serve as the 13th president of the foundation. Shah became the youngest person, at 43, and first-ever Indian-American to serve as president of the foundation. He assumed the position March 1, succeeding Dr. Judith Rodin who served as president for twelve years and announced her retirement, at age 71. Rodin in turn had succeeded Gordon Conway in 2005, a former president of the University of Pennsylvania, Rodin was the first woman to head the foundation. It was in that year he gave the first $100,000 to fund the University of Chicago, over the next two decades, $35 million dollars were gifted to the institution by Rockefeller. It was also in 1906 that the Russell Sage Foundation was established, though its program was limited to working women, Rockefellers would thus not be the first foundation in America, but it brought to it unprecedented international scale and scope. On May 14,1913, New York Governor William Sulzer approved a charter for the foundation - two years after the Carnegie Corporation - with Junior becoming the first president. With its large-scale endowment, a part of Seniors fortune was insulated from inheritance taxes. On December 5, the Board made its first grant of $100,000 to the American Red Cross to purchase property for its headquarters in Washington, D. C. At the beginning the foundation was global in its approach and concentrated in its first decade entirely on the sciences, public health and medical education. In 1913 the foundation set up the International Health Commission, the first appropriation of funds for work outside the US and its early field research on hookworm, malaria, and yellow fever provided the basic techniques to control these diseases and established the pattern of modern public health services. In 1913 it also began a 20-year support program of the Bureau of Social Hygiene, whose mission was research and education on birth control, maternal health and sex education. Also in 1914, the set up a new Department of Industrial Relations. The foundation henceforth confined itself to funding responsible organizations involved in this and other controversial fields, during its first few years of work, the LSRM awarded funds primarily to social workers, with its funding decisions guided primarily by John D. Rockefeller Jr. In January 1929, LSRM funds were folded into the Rockefeller Foundation, John D. Rockefeller Jr. became the foundation chairman in 1917
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United States Public Health Service
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The Office of the Surgeon General was created in 1871. The PHS comprises all Agency Divisions of Health and Human Services, the Assistant Secretary for Health oversees the PHS and the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. Members of the Commissioned Corps often serve on the frontlines in the fight against disease, as one of the United States seven uniformed services, the PHS Commissioned Corps fills public health leadership and service roles within federal government agencies and programs. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps is to protect, promote, and advance the health and safety of the United States. The origins of the Public Health Service can be traced to the passage, by the 5th Congress of the United States, of An Act for the Relief of Sick and this act created Marine Hospitals to care for sick seamen. At the time this act was passed the east coast was the shore with harbors. As the boundaries of the United States expanded, and harbors were built on other coasts, in the 1830s and 1840s they were built along inland waterways, the Great Lakes, and the Gulf of Mexico. After the acquisition of the Oregon Territory and California hospitals were built in 1850s at Pacific Coast harbors, funding for the hospitals was provided by a mandatory tax of about 1% of the wages of all maritime sailors. A reorganization in 1870 converted the loose network of locally controlled hospitals into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington. The position of Supervising Surgeon was created to administer the Service and he moved quickly to reform the system and adopted a military model for his medical staff, putting his physicians in uniforms, and instituting examinations for applicants. Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians, who could be assigned as needed to the various Marine Hospitals, the commissioned officer corps was established by legislation in 1889, and signed by 22nd/24th President Grover Cleveland. It is now known as the Commissioned Corps of the U. S, starting in the mid-14th century, ships entering harbors were quarantined when any of the crew was sick. This practice was normal procedure at United States harbors, with originally a function of the individual states. The National Quarantine Act of 1878 vested quarantine authority to the Marine Hospital Service, and the National Board of Health. The National Board was not reauthorized by Congress in 1883 and its powers reverted to the Marine Hospital Service, over the next half a century, the Marine Hospital Service increasingly took over quarantine functions from individual state authorities. As immigration increased dramatically in the late 19th Century, the Federal Government also took over the processing of immigrants from the individual states, the Marine Hospital Service was assigned the responsibility for the medical inspection of arriving immigrants at sites such as Ellis Island in New York Harbor. Commissioned officers played a role in fulfilling the Services commitment to prevent disease from entering the country. Because of the broadening responsibilities of the Service, its name was changed in 1902 to the Public Health, the Service continued to expand its public health activities as the Nation entered the 20th Century, with the PHSs Commissioned Corps leading the way
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Mosquito
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Mosquitoes are small, midge-like flies that constitute the family Culicidae. Females of most species are ectoparasites, whose tube-like mouthparts pierce the skin to consume blood. The word mosquito is Spanish for little fly, thousands of species feed on the blood of various kinds of hosts, mainly vertebrates, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and even some kinds of fish. Some mosquitoes also attack invertebrates, mainly other arthropods, though the loss of blood is seldom of any importance to the victim, the saliva of the mosquito often causes an irritating rash that is a serious nuisance. Much more serious though, are the roles of species of mosquitoes as vectors of diseases. The oldest known mosquito with a similar to modern species was found in 79-million-year-old Canadian amber from the Cretaceous. An older sister species with more primitive features was found in Burmese amber that is 90 to 100 million years old, two mosquito fossils have been found that show very little morphological change in modern mosquitoes against their counterpart from 46 million years ago. These fossils are also the oldest ever found to have blood preserved within their abdomens, the Old and New World Anopheles species are believed to have subsequently diverged about 95 million years ago. The mosquito Anopheles gambiae is currently undergoing speciation into the M and S molecular forms, consequently, some pesticides that work on the M form no longer work on the S form. Over 3,500 species of the Culicidae have already been described and they are generally divided into two subfamilies which in turn comprise some 43 genera. These figures are subject to change, as more species are discovered. The two main subfamilies are the Anophelinae and Culicinae, with their genera as shown in the subsection below, the distinction is of great practical importance because the two subfamilies tend to differ in their significance as vectors of different classes of diseases. Roughly speaking, arboviral diseases such as fever and dengue fever tend to be transmitted by Culicine species. Some transmit various species of malaria, but it is not clear that they ever transmit any form of human malaria. Some species do however transmit various forms of filariasis, much as many Simuliidae do, Anopheline mosquitoes, again not necessarily in the genus Anopheles, sometimes bear pathogenic arboviruses, but it is not yet clear that they ever transmit them as effective vectors. However, all the most important vectors of malaria are Anopheline. Anophelinae Culicinae Mosquitoes are members of a family of nematocerid flies, superficially, mosquitoes resemble crane flies and chironomid flies. In particular, the females of species of mosquitoes are blood-eating pests and dangerous vectors of diseases
23.
Entomology
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Entomology is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use, Entomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times, primarily in the context of agriculture, but scientific study began only as recently as the 16th century. William Kirby is widely considered as the father of Entomology, in collaboration with William Spence, he published a definitive entomological encyclopedia, Introduction to Entomology, regarded as the subjects foundational text. He also helped to found the Royal Entomological Society in London in 1833, one of the earliest such societies in the world, earlier antecedents, such as the Aurelian society date back to the 1740s. There has also been a history of people becoming entomologists through museum curation and research assistance, insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies and dragonflies being the most popular. Most insects can easily be recognized to such as Hymenoptera or Coleoptera. However, insects other than Lepidoptera are typically identifiable to genus or species only through the use of Identification keys and Monographs. Because the class Insecta contains a large number of species and the characteristics separating them are unfamiliar, and often subtle. This has led to the development of automated species identification systems targeted on insects, for example, Daisy, ABIS, SPIDA, in 1994 the Entomological Society of America launched a new professional certification program for the pest control industry called The Associate Certified Entomologist. To qualify as a true entomologist an individual would require an advanced degree. Trichopterology - caddis flies Vespology - Social wasps Like other scientific specialties, entomologists have a number of local, national, there are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas. C. Y. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas University of Minnesota, big Fleas Have Little Fleas, How Discoveries of Invertebrate Diseases Are Advancing Modern Science University of Arizona Press, Tucson,208 pages, ISBN 0-8165-2544-7. Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson, borror and DeLongs Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th edition, Thomas Brooks/Cole. — a classic textbook in North America, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Capinera, JL.2008. Iowa State Entomology Index of Internet Resources, archived from the original on 2006-11-14. Archived from the original on 2006-12-06, archived from the original on 2007-02-07. Compendium of References on Flies and Disease, archived from the original on 2006-10-15. USDA Collecting methods. Detailed instructions Arthropa Extensive photo album sorted by topic, Tereshkin Scientific illustration in entomology Tereshkin, A.2008, Methodology of a scientific drawings preparation in entomology on example of ichneumon flies
24.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
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Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane is a colorless, crystalline, tasteless, and almost odorless organochlorine known for its insecticidal properties and environmental impacts. First synthesized in 1874, DDTs insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939 and it was used in the second half of World War II to control malaria and typhus among civilians and troops. After the war, DDT was also used as an insecticide and its production. Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods in 1948. In 1962, Rachel Carsons book Silent Spring was published, the book claimed that DDT and other pesticides had been shown to cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds. Its publication was an event for the environmental movement and resulted in a large public outcry that eventually led, in 1972. DDT is similar in structure to the insecticide methoxychlor and the acaricide dicofol and it is highly hydrophobic and nearly insoluble in water but has good solubility in most organic solvents, fats and oils. It is produced by the reaction of chloral with chlorobenzene in the presence of an acid catalyst. DDT has been marketed under names including Anofex, Cezarex, Chlorophenothane, Clofenotane, Dicophane, Dinocide, Gesarol, Guesapon, Guesarol, Gyron, Ixodex, Neocid, Neocidol. Commercial DDT is a mixture of several closely–related compounds, the major component is the p, p isomer. The o, p isomer is present in significant amounts. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane make up the balance, DDE and DDD are the major metabolites and environmental breakdown products. In the United States, it was manufactured by some 15 companies, including Monsanto, Ciba, Montrose Chemical Company, Pennwalt, production peaked in 1963 at 82,000 tonnes per year. More than 600,000 tonnes were applied in the US before the 1972 ban, usage peaked in 1959 at about 36,000 tonnes. In 2009,3,314 tonnes were produced for malaria control, India is the only country still manufacturing DDT and is the largest consumer. In insects it opens sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire spontaneously, insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT and similar insecticides. Genomic studies in the model genetic organism Drosophila melanogaster revealed that high level DDT resistance is polygenic, DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler under the supervision of Adolf von Baeyer. It was further described in 1929 in a dissertation by W. Bausch, the insecticide properties of multiple chlorinated aliphatic or fat-aromatic alcohols with at least one trichloromethane group were described in a patent in 1934 by Wolfgang von Leuthold
25.
Robert W. Woodruff
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Robert Winship Woodruff was the president of The Coca-Cola Company from 1923 until 1954. With a large net worth, he was also a major philanthropist, included among these are the Woodruff Arts Center, Woodruff Park, and the Robert W. Woodruff Library. His grandfather was Atlanta manufacturing magnate Robert Winship, Woodruff died on March 7,1985. The Robert W. Woodruff Foundation received funds from their estates and continues Woodruffs legacy of philanthropy in the state of Georgia. In February 1909, at age 19, spurning his fathers work offers, he work as a laborer at the General Pipe and Foundry Company foundry in Inman Park. For a week he shoveled and shifted sand, then worked a lathe as a machinists apprentice, after a year he was fired. But then he was rehired by Generals parent company, General Fire Extinguisher where he worked his way into sales and he then accepted a job offer from his father at Atlantic Ice and Coal Company but left after differences with him. Woodruff parlayed his love of early automobiling into a position at White Motor Company based in Cleveland, Ohio. During World War I, Woodruff joined the U. S, ordnance Department where he promoted a truck design that only White Motors could fulfill, giving the company huge war-time sales. In an effort to reconcile differences, his father Ernest offered Robert Woodruff the position as president of the Coca Cola Co. In 1926, at the age of 37, Woodruff built Coca-Cola into an international company, in 1954, he stepped down as president but remained on the board of directors until 1984. His large shareholding and influence on the boards powerful Finance Committee gave him significant control over much of the direction for almost 60 years. On 7 March 1985, he died and was buried at the Westview Cemetery in Southwest Atlanta, Woodruffs personal chauffeur was Luther Cain, Jr. father of businessman and 2012 Republican presidential candidate Herman Cain. In 1979, Woodruff and his brother George W. Woodruff gave $105 million to Emory University, several buildings on the Emory campus are named for him and members of his family. The Robert W. Woodruff Professorships are named for him and he also gave large sums of money to other area colleges and universities and to Woodward Academy in College Park and the Westminster Schools in Atlanta. Atlantas largest cultural institution, the Woodruff Arts Center, benefited from his gifts and is named for him, the Robert W. Woodruff library is located in the Atlanta University Center and services Morehouse College, Spelman College, and Clark Atlanta University. Mr. Woodruff was inducted into the Junior Achievement U. S. Business Hall of Fame in 1977, Woodruff was instrumental in making a success the dinner held in Atlanta honoring The Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. after King received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964. Ticket sales were lagging until Woodruff signaled his support for the dinner, allen, Frederick, Secret Formula, HarperCollins,1994
26.
Chairman
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The chairman is the highest officer of an organized group such as a board, a committee, or a deliberative assembly. The person holding the office is elected or appointed by the members of the group. The chair presides over meetings of the group and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. When the group is not in session, the officers duties include acting as its head, its representative to the outside world. In some organizations, this position is called president, in others, where a board appoints a president. Other terms sometimes used for the office and its holder include chair, chairperson, chairwoman, presiding officer, president, moderator, facilitator, the chairman of a parliamentary chamber is often called the speaker. The term chair is used in lieu of chairman, in response to criticisms that using chairman is sexist. In his 1992 State of the Union address, then-U. S, president George H. W. Bush used chairman for men and chair for women. A1994 Canadian study found the Toronto Star newspaper referring to most presiding men as chairman, the Chronicle of Higher Education uses chairman for men and chairperson for women. An analysis of the British National Corpus found chairman used 1,142 times, chairperson 130 times, the National Association of Parliamentarians does not approve using chairperson. In World Schools Style debating, male chairs are called Mr. Chairman, the FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication, as well as the American Psychological Association style guide, advocate using chair or chairperson, rather than chairman. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style suggests that the forms are gaining ground. It advocates using chair to refer both to men and to women, the word chair can refer to the place from which the holder of the office presides, whether on a chair, at a lectern, or elsewhere. During meetings, the person presiding is said to be in the chair and is referred to as the chair. Major dictionaries state that the word derives from chair and man, some authorities, however, including Riddicks Rules of Procedure, suggest that the second part of chairman derives from the Latin manus, and thus claim gender-neutrality for the word. Vladimir Lenin, for example, officially functioned as the head of Soviet Russia not as tsar or as president, note in particular the popular standard method for referring to Mao Zedong, Chairman Mao. In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, groups sometimes elect a chairman pro tempore to fill the role for a single meeting. In some organizations that have titles, deputy chairman ranks higher than vice chairman, as there are often multiple vice chairs
27.
The Coca-Cola Company
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The company is best known for its flagship product Coca-Cola, invented in 1886 by pharmacist John Stith Pemberton in Columbus, Georgia. The Coca-Cola formula and brand were bought in 1889 by Asa Griggs Candler, the Coca-Cola Company owns its anchor bottler in North America, Coca-Cola Refreshments. The companys stock is listed on the NYSE and is part of DJIA, the S&P500 index, the Russell 1000 Index, as of 2015, its chairman and its CEO is Muhtar Kent. In December 2016, it was announced that James Quincey, the operating officer would replace Kent as CEO. The company has a history of acquisitions. Coca-Cola acquired Minute Maid in 1960, the Indian cola brand Thums Up in 1993, in 2001, it acquired the Odwalla brand of fruit juices, smoothies, and bars for $181 million. In 2007, it acquired Fuze Beverage from founder Lance Collins, the companys 2009 bid to buy a Chinese juice maker ended when China rejected its $2.4 billion bid for the Huiyuan Juice Group, on the grounds the resulting company would be a virtual monopoly. Nationalism was also thought to be a reason for aborting the deal, in 1982, Coca-Cola purchased Columbia Pictures for $692 million. It sold the studio to Sony, for $3 billion. In 2013, Coca-Cola finalized its purchase of ZICO, a water company. In 2011, the Coca-Cola company bought the rest of the tea company Honest Tea. In 2015, the took a minority stake ownership in the cold pressed juice manufacturer. According to The Coca-Cola Companys 2005 Annual Report, the firm at that time sold beverage products in more than 200 countries and this is more countries than are generally agreed to exist, according to the World Atlas.5 billion. Of these, beverages bearing the trademark Coca-Cola or Coke accounted for approximately 78% of the companys total gallon sales, the figure in 2010 showed that they sold 1.6 billion drinks every day. In 2010, it was announced that Coca-Cola had become the first brand to top £1 billion in annual UK grocery sales, since the 1920s, Coca-Cola has been a publicly traded company. One share of stock purchased in 1919 for $40, with all dividends reinvested, would be worth $9.8 million in 2012, Coca-Cola has paid a dividend, increasing each year for 49 years. Stock is available from a direct purchase program, through Computershare Trust Company, the bottlers then sell, distribute, and merchandise the resulting Coca-Cola product to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants, and food service distributors. Outside the United States, the bottlers also control the fountain business, since the early 1980s, the company has actively encouraged the consolidation of bottlers, with the company often owning a share of these anchor bottlers
28.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
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This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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