1.
Borough (Pennsylvania)
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Boros also tend to have more developed business districts and concentrations of public and commercial office buildings, including court houses. Both are larger, less spacious, more developed than the rural townships. There are 958 boroughs in Pennsylvania, but only one town, all municipalities in Pennsylvania are classified as either cities, boroughs, or townships. The only exception is the town of Bloomsburg, which is recognized by government as the only incorporated town in Pennsylvania. Many home rule municipalities remain classified as boroughs or townships for certain purposes even if the states Borough, Borough List of towns and boroughs in Pennsylvania Category, Self-governance References Sources
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
4.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
5.
Columbia County, Pennsylvania
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Columbia County is a county located in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 67,295, the county was created on March 22,1813, from part of Northumberland County and named for Columbia, a poetic name for the United States that alludes to Christopher Columbus. Columbia County is part of the Bloomsburg-Berwick, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 490 square miles, of which 483 square miles is land and 7.1 square miles is water. The southern tip of Columbia County is part of the Coal Region, the area of the county from the Susquehanna River south to several miles south of Numidia is mostly farmland and state game lands. Around the Susquehanna River, there are several communities, such as Bloomsburg, from the Susquehanna River north as far as Waller, the county is mostly farmland with several patches of forest. North of Waller, the county is mostly state game lands, the major streams in Columbia County are the Susquehanna River, Fishing Creek, Briar Creek, Catawissa Creek, and Roaring Creek. Sullivan County Luzerne County Schuylkill County Northumberland County Montour County Lycoming County Part of Ricketts Glen State Park is in the portion of Columbia County. As of the census of 2000, there were 64,151 people,24,915 households, the population density was 132 people per square mile. There were 27,733 housing units at a density of 57 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 59% White,0. 80% Black or African-American,0. 15% Native American,0. 52% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 33% from other races, and 0. 58% from two or more races. 0. 95% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,33. 2% were of German,10. 0% American,9. 4% Irish,8. 1% Italian,6. 7% Polish and 6. 2% English ancestry. 26. 60% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.90. In the county, the population was out with 20. 80% under the age of 18,14. 30% from 18 to 24,25. 90% from 25 to 44,23. 10% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 90.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.80 males, the United States Office of Management and Budget has designated Columbia County as the Bloomsburg-Berwick, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of the 2010 U. S. Census the metropolitan area ranked 20th most populous in the State of Pennsylvania, the Combined Statistical Area ranked 8th in the State of Pennsylvania and 115th most populous in the United States with a population of 264,739. As of November 2011, there are 41,026 registered voters in Columbia County. While John McCain received 51. 6% of its vote to 47. 1% for Barack Obama, each of the three row-office statewide winners carried Columbia in 2008
6.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
7.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
8.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
9.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
10.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
11.
Ashland, Pennsylvania
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Ashland is a borough in Schuylkill County in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania,15 miles northwest of Pottsville. A small part of the borough lies in Columbia County. The borough lies in the coal region of eastern Pennsylvania. Settled in 1850, Ashland was incorporated in 1857, and was named for Henry Clays estate near Lexington, the population in 1900 was 6,438, and in 1940,7,045, but had dropped to 2,817 at the 2010 census. Ashland is part of the Pottsville Micropolitan Statistical Area and it is the location of Pioneer Tunnel, a tourist attraction featuring a tour of a coal mine on mine cars and a separate 3 ft 6 in narrow gauge steam train ride. For a long time after southern Pennsylvania was settled, the area that is now Ashland was mostly wilderness except for a hotel in the area in 1820. A prominent citizen of the county, Burd S. Patterson, however, in 1845, John P. Brock and James Hart joined Patterson in buying 800 acres of land in the Ashland area. In 1846, a group of miners led by Patrick Devine developed coal seams in veins in the area, however, the town progressed little over the next three years. By 1857, though, the town had 3,500 people, the first post office was built in 1853, and the first church was built in 1855. The Mothers Memorial is located at the junction of Pennsylvania Route 54, the Mothers Memorial is a bronze reproduction of the famous James Abbott McNeill Whistler artistic painting, An Arrangement in Grey and Black No. 1, commonly known as Whistlers Mother, the WPA-Built Mothers Memorial honors all mothers of the United States and its the only one of its kind in the world. President Franklin D. Roosevelt economic recovery plan of the Works Progress Administration completed the stone masonry work. The Ashland Boys Association was a story of former residents of Ashland who had to leave town for work when the anthracite mining failed in the late 1800s. Ashland men returned home every Labor Day weekend for little more than a century to visit the old hometown, the Ashland Boys Association was honored with a State Historical Marker by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission on August 31,2013. Goyne Brothers was a family owned firm that came into existence in 1881, the Goyne Steam Pump Company in 1911, became known as one of the most substantial exclusive mine pump manufacturing plants in the United States. The Goyne Steam Pump Company changed the name to Goyne Pump Company in 1955, the Ashland Greens were an independent basketball franchise in Ashland. The Ashland Greens played the Boston Celtics in the Ashland High School Gymnasium, the team was owned by Greens Dairy. Mothers’ Memorial – N. Hoffman Blvd, Ashland Boys’ Association Pennsylvania Historical Marker – N. Hoffman Blvd
12.
Ghost town
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A ghost town is an abandoned village, town, or city, usually one that contains substantial visible remains. Some ghost towns, especially those that preserve period-specific architecture, have become tourist attractions, visiting, writing about, and photographing ghost towns is a minor industry. The town of Plymouth on the Caribbean island of Montserrat is a ghost town that is the de jure capital of Montserrat and it was rendered uninhabitable by volcanic ash from an eruption. The definition of a ghost town varies between individuals, and between cultures, lindsey Baker, author of Ghost Towns of Texas, defines a ghost town as a town for which the reason for being no longer exists. Some believe that any settlement with visible tangible remains should not be called a ghost town, others say, conversely, whether or not the settlement must be completely deserted, or may contain a small population, is also a matter for debate. Generally, though, the term is used in a sense, encompassing any. The American author Lambert Florins preferred definition of a ghost town was simply a shadowy semblance of a former self, a town can also be abandoned when it is part of an exclusion zone due to natural or man-made causes. Ghost towns may result when the activity or resource that created a boomtown is depleted or the resource economy undergoes a bust. Boomtowns can often decrease in size as fast as they initially grew, sometimes, all or nearly the entire population can desert the town, resulting in a ghost town. The dismantling of a boomtown can often occur on a planned basis, modular buildings can be used to facilitate the process. A gold rush would often bring intensive but short-lived economic activity to a remote village, in other cases, the reason for abandonment can arise from a towns intended economic function shifting to another, nearby place. This happened to Collingwood, Queensland in Outback Australia when nearby Winton outperformed Collingwood as a centre for the livestock-raising industry. The railway reached Winton in 1899, linking it with the rest of Queensland, the Middle East has many ghost towns that were created when the shifting of politics or the fall of empires caused capital cities to be socially or economically unviable, such as Ctesiphon. The rise of condominium investment caused for real estate bubbles also leads to a ghost town, as real estate prices rise, such examples include China and Canada, where housing is often used as an investment rather than for habitation. Railroads and roads bypassing or no longer reaching a town can create a ghost town. This was the case in many of the ghost towns along Ontarios historic Opeongo Line, some ghost towns were founded along railways where steam trains would stop at periodic intervals to take on water. Amboy, California was part of one series of villages along the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad across the Mojave Desert. River re-routing is another factor, one example being the towns along the Aral Sea, Ghost towns may be created when land is expropriated by a government and residents are required to relocate
13.
Centralia mine fire
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The Centralia mine fire is a coal seam fire that has been burning underneath the borough of Centralia, Pennsylvania, United States since at least May 27,1962. The fire is suspected to be from deliberate burning of trash in a strip mine. The fire burns in underground coal mines at depths of up to 300 feet over a stretch of 3,700 acres. At its current rate, it could burn for over 250 more years, the blaze has resulted in most of the town being abandoned. The population dwindled from 2,761 in 1890 to only 7 in 2013, on May 7,1962, the Centralia Council met to discuss the approaching Memorial Day and how the town would go about cleaning up the Centralia landfill, which was introduced earlier that year. The 300-foot wide, 75-foot long pit was made up of a 50-foot-deep strip mine that had cleared by Edward Whitney in 1935. Trustees at the cemetery were opposed to the proximity to the cemetery. Pennsylvania had passed a law in 1956 to regulate landfill use in strip mines. The law required a permit and regular inspection for a municipality to use such a pit, segaritus informed Joseph Tighe, a Centralia councilman, that the pit would require filling with an incombustible material. This was a world where no human could live, hotter than the planet Mercury, at the heart of the fire, temperatures easily exceeded 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Lethal clouds of carbon monoxide and other gases swirled through the rock chambers, the town council arranged for cleanup of the strip mine dump, but council minutes do not describe the proposed procedure. It is speculated that the process—setting it on fire—was not specified because state law prohibited dump fires, nonetheless, the Centralia council set a date and hired five members of the volunteer firefighter company to clean up the landfill. A fire was ignited to clean the dump on May 27,1962, however, flames were seen once more on May 29. Using hoses hooked up from Locust Avenue, another attempt was made to douse the fire that night, another flare-up in the following week caused the Centralia Fire Company to once again douse it with hoses. A bulldozer stirred up the garbage so that firemen could douse concealed layers of the burning waste, a few days later, a hole as wide as 15 feet and several feet high was found in the base of the north wall of the pit. Garbage had concealed the hole and prevented it from being filled with incombustible material and it is possible that this hole led to the mine fire, as it provided a pathway to the labyrinth of old mines under the borough. Even then, the Centralia council still allowed the dumping of garbage into the pit, a member of the council contacted Clarence Mooch Kashner, the president of the Independent Miners, Breakermen, and Truckers union, to inspect the situation in Centralia. Kashner evaluated the events and called Gordon Smith, an engineer of the DMMI office in Pottsville, Smith told the town that he could dig out the smoldering material using a steam shovel for $175
14.
Conyngham Township, Columbia County, Pennsylvania
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Conyngham Township is a township in Columbia County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 758 at the 2010 census, conyngham Township surrounds the famous borough of Centralia, and part of the mine fire is located here. The abandoned town of Byrnesville is located here, conyngham is the southernmost township in Columbia County, bordered by Northumberland County to the west and by Schuylkill County to the south and southeast. The northern boundary of the township follows the ridgecrest of Little Mountain, Big Mountain, also with a high point of 1820 feet, crosses the center of the township from east to west. The unincorporated community of Aristes is near the center of the township, near the summit of Big Mountain, the borough of Centralia is surrounded by the southern part of the township. The borough of Ashland in Schuylkill County is along the southern border. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 20.5 square miles, of which 20.2 square miles is land and 0.2 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 792 people,337 households, the population density was 39.3 people per square mile. There were 377 housing units at a density of 18. 7/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 99. 62% White,0. 13% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 76% of the population. 27. 6% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.84. In the township the population was out, with 20. 8% under the age of 18,5. 9% from 18 to 24,27. 4% from 25 to 44,25. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 43 years, for every 100 females there were 90.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.4 males, the median income for a household in the township was $27,292, and the median income for a family was $35,391. Males had an income of $29,423 versus $15,769 for females. The per capita income for the township was $14,230, about 8. 9% of families and 11. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20. 4% of those under age 18 and 7. 2% of those age 65 or over
15.
United States Postal Service
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The United States Postal Service, is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the United States. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the United States Constitution, Mail traces its roots to 1775 during the Second Continental Congress, where Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general. The USPS as of February 2015 has 617,254 active employees, the USPS is the operator of the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world. The USPS is legally obligated to serve all Americans, regardless of geography, at uniform price, the USPS has exclusive access to letter boxes marked U. S. The USPS lost $5.5 billion in fiscal year 2014 and $5.1 billion in 2015, in the early years of the North American colonies, many attempts were made to initiate a postal service. These early attempts were of small scale and usually involved a colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony for example, for example, informal independently-run postal routes operated in Boston as early as 1639, with a Boston to New York City service starting in 1672. A central postal organization came to the colonies in 1691, when Thomas Neale received a 21-year grant from the British Crown for a North American Postal Service, the patent included the exclusive right to establish and collect a formal postal tax on official documents of all kinds. The tax was repealed a year later, Neale appointed Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey, as his deputy postmaster. The first postal service in America commenced in February 1692, rates of postage were fixed and authorized, and measures were taken to establish a post office in each town in Virginia. Massachusetts and the other colonies soon passed laws, and a very imperfect post office system was established. Neales patent expired in 1710, when Parliament extended the English postal system to the colonies, the chief office was established in New York City, where letters were conveyed by regular packets across the Atlantic. Before the Revolution, there was only a trickle of business or governmental correspondence between the colonies, most of the mail went back and forth to counting houses and government offices in London. The Revolution made Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress, News, new laws, political intelligence, and military orders circulated with a new urgency, and a postal system was necessary. Journalists took the lead, securing post office legislation that allowed them to reach their subscribers at very low cost, overthrowing the London-oriented imperial postal service in 1774-1775, printers enlisted merchants and the new political leadership, and created a new postal system. The United States Post Office was created on July 26,1775, the official post office was created in 1792 as the Post Office Department. It was based on the Constitutional authority empowering Congress To establish post offices, the 1792 law provided for a greatly expanded postal network, and served editors by charging newspapers an extremely low rate. The law guaranteed the sanctity of personal correspondence, and provided the country with low-cost access to information on public affairs. Rufus Easton was appointed by Thomas Jefferson first postmaster of St. Louis under the recommendation of Postmaster General Gideon Granger, Rufus Easton was the first postmaster and built the first post office west of the Mississippi
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Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
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Reading, Pennsylvania
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Reading, is the county seat of Berks County and with a population of 98,653 is the fifth-largest city in Pennsylvania. Located in southeastern Pennsylvania, it is the city of the Greater Reading Area. Reading Railroad is one of the four properties in the classic United States version of the Monopoly board game. Reading was one of the first localities where outlet shopping became a tourist industry and it has been known as The Pretzel City, because of numerous local pretzel bakeries. Currently, Bachman, Dieffenbach, Tom Sturgis, and Unique Pretzel bakeries call the Reading area home, according to the 2010 census, Reading has the highest share of citizens living in poverty in the nation. In recent years, the Reading area has become a destination for cyclists, with more than 125 miles of trails in five major preserves, it is an International Mountain Bicycling Association Ride Center and it annually hosts the Reading 120 international road cycling race. In April 2017, it was announced that an indoor velodrome, or cycling track, will be built in Reading as the first of its kind on the East Coast and it will also serve as the Cycling Leagues world headquarters. Lenni Lenape people, also known as Delaware Indians, were the inhabitants of the Reading area. The Colony of Pennsylvania was a 1680 land grant from King Charles II of England to William Penn, comprising more than 45,000 square miles, it was named for his father, Sir William Penn. In 1743, Richard and Thomas Penn mapped out the town of Reading with Conrad Weiser, taking its name from Reading, Berkshire, England, the town was established in 1748. Upon the creation of Berks County in 1752, Reading became the county seat, the region was settled by emigrants from southern and western Germany, who bought land from the Penns. The first Amish community in the New World was established in Greater Reading, the Pennsylvanian German dialect was spoken in the area well into the 1950s and later. During the French and Indian War, Reading was a base for a chain of forts along the Blue Mountain. By the time of the American Revolution, the iron industry had a total production which exceeded Englands. That output that would help supply George Washingtons troops with cannons, rifles, during the early period of the conflict, Reading was again a depot for military supply. Hessian prisoners from the Battle of Trenton were also detained here, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was the capital of the United States at the time of the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793. President Washington traveled to Reading, and considered making it the national capital. Susanna Cox was tried and convicted for infanticide in Reading in 1809 and her case attracted tremendous sympathy,20,000 viewers came to view her hanging, swamping the 3,000 inhabitants
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Sunbury, Pennsylvania
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Sunbury /ˈsʌnbɛri/ is a city in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is on the east bank of the Susquehanna River, just downstream of the confluence of its main and it dates to the early 18th century and is the county seat of Northumberland County. Thomas Edison features in the history, and the historic Edison Hotel was renamed in his honor. Other historic sites include the Beck House, Northumberland County Courthouse, Sunbury is the principal city in the Sunbury, PA Micropolitan Statistical Area and one of three principal cities in the Bloomsburg-Berwick-Sunbury, PA Combined Statistical Area. Sunburys population was 9,905 at the 2010 census, the first human settlement of Sunbury was probably Shawnee migrants. A large population of Delaware Indians was also resettled there in the early 18th century after they lost rights to their land in the Walking Purchase. From 1727 to 1756, Sunbury was one of the largest and most influential Indian settlements in Pennsylvania, at that time, it was known as Shamokin, not to be confused with the present-day city of Shamokin, Pennsylvania, which is located to the east. In 1745, Presbyterian missionary David Brainerd described the city as being located on both the east and west sides of the river, and on an island, as well. Brainerd reported that the city housed 300 Indians, half of which were Delawares, in 1754, much of the land west of the Susquehanna was transferred from the Six Nations to Pennsylvania at the Albany Congress. However, Shamokin was not sold and was reserved by the Six Nations, the French and Indian War brought fighting to much of the region. The Delaware Indian residents of Shamokin remained neutral for much of the part of the war, in part because a drought. However, the Delaware Indians at Shamokin joined the war against Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Fort Augusta was built in 1756 at Shamokin. Read more about history of Sunbury in Shamokin. On March 21,1772, Northumberland County was incorporated and subdivided, the settlement of Shamokin was renamed Sunbury that same year, and the present-day city of Sunbury identifies 1772 as the date of its establishment. It was named after Sunbury-on-Thames, a town in the Surrey borough of Spelthorne, England, lorenzo Da Ponte, the librettist of Mozart and of Salieri, lived in Sunbury for some years after his arrival in America. Thomas Edison installed the first successful three-wire electric lighting system in July 1883 at what was known as the City Hotel. At the citys 150th anniversary celebration in 1922, it was renamed the Edison Hotel and it is located at the point where the west and north branches of the Susquehanna converge. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.2 square miles
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Pennsylvania Route 61
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Pennsylvania Route 61 is an 81.801 mi -long state highway in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. The route is signed on a direction, from U. S. Route 222 Business in Reading to U. S. Route 11. PA61 meets up with Pennsylvania Route 54 in Ashland and these highways split just outside Ashland, PA54 goes towards Mount Carmel and PA61 heads towards Centralia. Current PA61 was assigned in 1963, comprising the section of the decommissioned U. S. Route 122 from Sunbury to Reading. PA61 begins at US222 Bus. in the city of Reading in Berks County, heading west on two-lane undivided Greenwich Street, which is maintained by the city. At the intersection of North 4th Street and Centre Avenue, both directions of PA61 continue northwest on two-lane undivided Centre Avenue, passing through areas of homes. The road becomes three lanes with one land and two southbound lanes and curves north, running between residences and businesses to the west and a large cemetery to the east. The route narrows to two lanes and continues past urban development, the road heads into Muhlenberg Township and becomes a divided highway as it reaches a partial cloverleaf interchange with the PA12 freeway. Past this interchange, the continues north into suburban areas as Pottsville Pike. PA61 heads past businesses and passes under Norfolk Southerns Reading Line, the road becomes undivided and runs through more commercial areas. PA61 runs past businesses and industrial development before it heads through the community of Tuckerton, the road becomes a four-lane divided highway as it comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with the US222 freeway. Following this, the route enters Ontelaunee Township and runs along the east bank of the Schuylkill River as it passes through the community of Ontelaunee, PA61 heads farther from the river and passes under a Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad line, heading into industrial areas. The road heads near commercial development and curves northwest, crossing Maiden Creek. The route runs through farmland and comes to an intersection with the terminus of PA73. Past this intersection, PA61 passes a mix of businesses, here, the road becomes four-lane undivided South Centre Avenue and runs past homes and some businesses. The route becomes North Centre Avenue and passes residences, running to the east of a Reading Blue Mountain. PA61 leaves Leesport for Ontelaunee Township again, where it becomes four-lane divided Pottsville Pike, the route curves north and continues through rural land with some industrial development, with the river and railroad tracks heading further to the west. From here, the road fully enters Shoemakersville before crossing into Perry Township, the route becomes undivided and curves north in a wooded area, entering Windsor Township and passing more roadside development
20.
Robert Morris (financier)
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From 1781 to 1784, he served as the powerful Superintendent of Finance, managing the economy of the fledgling United States. As the central civilian in the government, Morris was, next to General George Washington and his successful administration led to the sobriquet, Financier of the Revolution. At the same time he was Agent of Marine, a position he took without pay and he was one of Pennsylvanias original pair of US senators, serving from 1789 to 1795. After he left prison in 1801, he lived a quiet, Morris was born to Robert Morris, Sr. and Elizabeth Murphet in Liverpool, Lancashire, England, on January 20,1734. At the age of 13, Morris immigrated to Oxford, Maryland, to live with his father, as a youth, Morris was provided a tutor and was a quick learner. His father sent him to Philadelphia to study where he stayed with Charles Greenway, Greenway arranged for young Robert to become an apprentice at the shipping and banking firm of the Philadelphia merchant Charles Willing. A year later, Roberts father died after being wounded in an accident when hit by the wadding of a gun that was fired in his honor. When Charles Willing died in 1754, his son Thomas Willing made Morris his partner at the age 24 and they established the prominent shipping-banking firm of Willing, Morris & Co. on May 1,1757. The partnership lasted until about 1779, on March 2,1769, at age 35, Morris married 20-year-old Mary White. White was the daughter of a wealthy and prestigious Maryland landholder, together they had five sons and two daughters. White came from a prominent family in Maryland, her brother was the well-known Anglican Bishop William White, Morris worshiped in Philadelphia at St. Peters Church on Pine Street and Christ Church on 2nd Street, both of which were run by his brother-in-law, Bishop William White. Morris remained a constant worshipper and supporter at this Anglican Church for his entire life, both Morris and his brother-in-law William White are buried at Christ Church, Philadelphia in the churchyard located at Second and Market. In 1757 Morris became a partner with Thomas Willing. Their partnership was a merchant firm with interests in shipping, real estate, the partnership was forged just after the Seven Years War began, which hindered attracting the usual supply of new indentured servants to the colony. Potential immigrants were conscripted in England to fight in Europe, indentured servants could legally break their contracts to join the British forces to fight against the French and their Indian allies. At the same time, the British Crown wanted to encourage the trade which was profitable for the Kings political allies in the African Company of Merchants. While Morris was a partner and Willing was pursuing a political career. Willing, Morris & Co funded its own slave-trading voyage, the ship did not carry enough to be profitable and, during a second trip, was captured by French privateers
21.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
22.
United States Declaration of Independence
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Instead they formed a new nation—the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast, a committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. The term Declaration of Independence is not used in the document itself, John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The next day, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, but Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved. After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms and it was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for printing has been lost. Jeffersons original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, the best known version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is popularly regarded as the official document, is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D. C. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19, the sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. Having served its purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric, and his policies and this has been called one of the best-known sentences in the English language, containing the most potent and consequential words in American history. The passage came to represent a standard to which the United States should strive. Believe me, dear Sir, there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose, and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America. By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765, Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire. Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire, the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliaments authority in the colonies. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, after the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all
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First Bank of the United States
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It followed the Bank of North America, the nations first de facto central bank. In 1791, The First Bank of the United States was one of the four major financial innovations proposed and supported by Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury. In addition to the bank, the other measures were assumption of the state war debts by the U. S. Government, establishment of a mint. The goals of Hamiltons three measures were to, Establish financial order, clarity and precedence in and of the newly formed United States, Establish credit—both in country and overseas—for the new nation. Resolve the issue of the currency, issued by the Continental Congress immediately prior to. The remaining $8 million of stock would be available to the public, there were other, nonnegotiable conditions for the establishment of the First Bank of the United States. Among these were, That the bank was to be a private company and that the bank, to avoid any appearance of impropriety, would, be forbidden to buy government bonds. Have a mandatory rotation of directors, neither issue notes nor incur debts beyond its actual capitalization. That foreigners, whether overseas or residing in the United States, would be allowed to be First Bank of the United States stockholders, but would not be allowed to vote. To achieve this, Hamilton repeated a suggestion he had nearly a year before—increase the duty on imported spirits, plus raise the excise tax on domestically distilled whiskey. Local opposition to the tax led to the Whiskey Rebellion, Hamiltons bank proposal faced widespread resistance from opponents of increased federal power. Like most of the Southern members of Congress, Jefferson and Madison also opposed a second of the three proposals of Hamilton, establishing an official government Mint. Furthermore, they contended that the creation of such a bank violated the Constitution, the Senate version of the bill did likewise, with considerably fewer, and milder, objections. It was when the two bills changed houses, complications set in, in the Senate, Hamiltons supporters objected to the Houses alteration of the plans for the excise tax. The establishment of the also raised early questions of constitutionality in the new government. Hamilton, then Secretary of the Treasury, argued that the bank was a means to utilize the authorized powers of the government implied under the law of the Constitution. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson argued that the bank violated traditional property laws, another argument came from James Madison, who believed Congress had not received the power to incorporate a bank, or any other governmental agency. His argument rested primarily on the Tenth Amendment, that all powers not endowed to Congress are retained by the States, additionally, his belief was that if the Constitutions writers had wanted Congress to have such power, they would have made it explicit
24.
Stephen Girard
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Stephen Girard was a French-born, naturalized American, philanthropist and banker. He personally saved the U. S. Childless, he devoted much of his fortune to philanthropy, particularly the education and his legacy is still felt in his adopted home of Philadelphia. Girard was born in Bordeaux, France and he lost the sight of his right eye at the age of eight and had little education. In May 1776, he was driven into the port of Philadelphia by a British fleet, in 1776, Girard met Mary Lum, a Philadelphia native and nine years his junior. They married soon afterwards and Girard purchased a home at 211 Mill Street in Mount Holly Township and she was the daughter of John Lum, a shipbuilder, who died three months before the marriage. Girard became a resident of Pennsylvania in 1778, by 1785, Mary had started to succumb to sudden, erratic emotional outbursts. Mental instability and violent rages led to a diagnosis of mental instability. Although Girard was at first devastated, by 1787 he took a mistress, in August 1790, Girard committed his wife to the Pennsylvania Hospital as an incurable lunatic. He provided her every luxury for comfort, she gave birth to a girl whose sire is not entirely certain. The child, baptized with the name Mary, died a few later, while under the care of Mrs. John Hatcher. Girard spent the rest of his life with mistresses, in 1793, there was an outbreak of yellow fever in Philadelphia. Although many other well-to-do citizens chose to leave the city, Girard stayed to care for the sick and he supervised the conversion of a mansion outside the city limits into a hospital and recruited volunteers to nurse victims, and personally cared for patients. For his efforts, Girard was feted as a hero after the outbreak subsided, again during the yellow fever epidemic of 1797-1798 he took the lead in relieving the poor and caring for the sick. Or also as Stephen Girard’s Bank or even the Bank of Stephen Girard, Girard hired George Simpson, the cashier of the First Bank, as cashier of the new bank, and with seven other employees, opened for business on May 18,1812. Girards Bank was a source of government credit during the War of 1812. Towards the end of the war, when the credit of the U. S. After the war, he became a stockholder in and one of the directors of the Second Bank of the United States. Girards bank became the Girard Trust Company, and later Girard Bank and it merged with Mellon Bank in 1983, and was largely sold to Citizens Bank two decades later
25.
Anthracite
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Anthracite is a hard, compact variety of coal that has a submetallic luster. It has the highest carbon content, the fewest impurities, Anthracite is the most metamorphosed type of coal, in which the carbon content is between 92. 1% and 98%. The term is applied to varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other hydrocarbon vapours when heated below their point of ignition. Anthracite ignites with difficulty and burns with a short, blue, Anthracite is categorized into standard grade, which is used mainly in power generation, and high grade and ultra high grade, the principal uses of which are in the metallurgy sector. Anthracite accounts for about 1% of global reserves, and is mined in only a few countries around the world. China accounts for the majority of production, other producers are Russia, Ukraine, North Korea, South Africa, Vietnam, the UK, Australia, Canada. Total production in 2010 was 670 million tons, Anthracite derives from the Greek anthrakítēs, literally coal-like. Other terms which refer to anthracite are black coal, hard coal, stone coal, dark coal, coffee coal, blind coal, Kilkenny coal, crow coal or craw coal, markets to distinguish it from its competitors. Culm has different meanings in British and American English, england, culm is the imperfect anthracite of north Devon and Cornwall, which was used as a pigment. The term is used to refer to the rock strata whose deposits are found in both Britain and in the Rhenish hill countries. Lastly, it may refer to coal exported from Britain during the 19th century, america, culm refers to the waste or slack from anthracite mining, mostly dust and small pieces not suitable for use in home furnaces. Anthracite is similar in appearance to the jet and is sometimes used as a jet imitation. Anthracite differs from ordinary bituminous coal by its hardness, its higher relative density of 1. 3–1.4, and luster. It contains a percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter. It is also free from included soft or fibrous notches and does not soil the fingers when rubbed, anthracitization is the transformation of bituminous coal into anthracite. The moisture content of fresh-mined anthracite generally is less than 15 percent, the heat content of anthracite ranges from 22 to 28 million Btu per short ton on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis. The heat content of coal consumed in the United States averages 25 million Btu/ton, on the as-received basis. Since the 1980s, anthracite refuse or mine waste has been used for power generation in a form of recycling
26.
United States Post Office Department
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The Post Office Department was the predecessor of the United States Postal Service, in the form of a Cabinet department officially from 1872 to 1971. It was headed by the Postmaster General, the Postal Service Act signed by President George Washington on February 20,1792, established the Department. Postmaster General John McLean, in office from 1823 to 1829, was the first to call it the Post Office Department rather than just the Post Office. The organization received a boost in prestige when President Andrew Jackson invited his Postmaster General, William T. Barry, the Post Office Act of 1872 elevated the Post Office Department to Cabinet status. The Postal Reorganization Act was signed by President Richard Nixon on August 12,1970 and it replaced the cabinet-level Post Office Department with the independent United States Postal Service on July 1,1971. The regulatory role of the services was then transferred to the Postal Regulatory Commission. Postage stamps and postal history of the United States
27.
Lehigh Valley Railroad
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The Lehigh Valley Railroad was one of a number of railroads built in the northeastern United States primarily to haul anthracite coal. On January 7,1853, the name was changed to Lehigh Valley Railroad. It was sometimes known as the Route of the Black Diamond, at the time, anthracite was transported by boat down the Lehigh River, the railroad was meant to be faster transportation. The railroad ended operations in 1976 and merged into Conrail along with several railroads that same year. During its existence, the Lehigh Valley Railroad used a line that later became known as the Lehigh Line in order for it to operate. The line was known as the Lehigh Valley Mainline during the majority of its time under the ownership of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, Conrail shortened the line by abandoning most of its route to Buffalo. The Lehigh Line still exists and retains its original route but it now also doesnt reach close to New York City, the Lehigh Line is now owned by the Norfolk Southern Railway and has lost its trackage miles between Manville, New Jersey and Newark, New Jersey. As of 31 Dec 1925,1363.7 miles of road,3533.3 miles of track, the Lehigh Valley Railroad was authorized on April 21,1846 for freight and transportation of passengers, goods, wares, merchandise and minerals in Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania. The route was surveyed and grading started in 1850, but progress was slow, the railroad began to survey a route from Mauch Chunk to Easton, Pennsylvania and the route was to be double tracked. The survey was conducted by Robert H. Sayre, the railroads Chief Engineer, with a rail of not less than 55 lb to the yard, and aiding along the line not less than four miles additional. Asa Packer wanted thorough rock cuts throughout the length of the line and doubled tracked bridge over the Delaware River into Phillipsburg. The railroads growth occurred after Asa Packer invested in the company in 1852, on January 7,1853, the railroad was renamed to the Lehigh Valley Railroad. Sayre, the chief engineer, the lines route to Mauch Chunk was delayed. At Easton, the LVRR constructed a bridge across the Delaware River for connections to the CNJ. From Easton to Allentown, the LVRR ran two trains daily from its opening date until September 11,1855, during this time, the LVRR was finishing construction of an extension of the line from Allentown to Mauch Chunk. After October 1,1855, the LVRR added more services to the Allentown-Mauch Chunk route. Through a connection with the Central Railroad of New Jersey, LVRR passengers had a route to Newark, New Jersey, Jersey City, New Jersey, a daily freight train was put into operation leaving Easton in the morning and returning in the evening. In the early part of October 1855, a contract was made with Howard & Co of Philadelphia to do the business of the railroad
28.
Lehigh and Mahanoy Railroad
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The railroad is mentioned as part of the engineering report following the survey of 1846 by Robert H. The official incorporated name on the report is the Delaware, Lehigh, Schuylkill, accordingly, the Quakake Railroad would become part of the Mahanoy Branch of the Lehigh Valley Railroad in northeastern to north-central Pennsylvania. The Catawissa region was an important source of iron ores and developed into an Anthracite pig iron smelting center, as did Catasauqua, the Quakake Railroad was chartered on April 25,1857 to build a connection between the Beaver Meadow Railroad and the Catawissa, Williamsport and Erie Railroad. The original plan took it to the Catawissa near the Lofty Tunnel, however, that plan and the inclined plane were abandoned prior to completion, and instead the junction was moved to the south to Quakake Junction, near Tamanend. The full line opened on August 25,1858 from Black Creek Junction on the Beaver Meadow Railroad west to Quakake Junction on the Catawissa, the extension was built later that year. The company went into foreclosure on September 30,1862, and was reorganized as the Lehigh, in 1865 a branch was built from Park Place to Mahanoy City. On June 30,1866 the company was merged into the Lehigh Valley Railroad, under the Lehigh & Mahanoy, the line between Raven Run and Centralia was completed in 1865. In 1866 it was built to Mount Carmel and connected to the Shamokin Valley, in 1884 the line, which lay low in the valley, was rebuilt higher up on the mountainside by the Lehigh Valley. This avoided flooding from Mine Run, a branch extended from Centralia eastward to the LVRRs Continental Colliery. It was abandoned when the closed in 1954. A branch was built in 1877 from Kohinoor Junction via Girardville to Ashland, a two-mile switchback was built in 1939 from Logan Junction, west of Centralia to the Germantown Colliery. It as used until 1960 when that closed down. In 1890 a one-mile line was constructed from Morris Ridge Junction, in 1892 a three-mile line was built from Montana junction, east of Centralia, to Midvalley Colliery No.2. These lines were abandoned by 1965 when the coal plant at Midvalley closed. The decline of coal mining brought about the abandonment of these lines. The Ashland Branch was cut back to Girardville in 1951, and in 1953, one mile of the Mahanoy City Branch was abandoned in 1957, and the line from Delano to about Gerhards in 1963. The line to Mt. Carmel was cut back to Aristes Junction in 1965, the remaining trackage was all abandoned by 1976. List of Pennsylvania railroads Klein Township and East Union Township, railroads of Pennsylvania Encyclopedia and Atlas
29.
Molly Maguires
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After a series of often violent conflicts, twenty suspected members of the Molly Maguires were convicted of murder and other crimes and were executed by hanging in 1877 and 1878. This history remains part of local Pennsylvania lore, the Molly Maguires originated in Ireland, where secret societies with names such as Whiteboys and Peep o Day Boys were common beginning in the 18th century and through most of the 19th century. In some areas the terms Ribbonmen and Molly Maguires were both used for similar activism but at different times. The main distinction between the two appears to be that the Ribbonmen were regarded as secular, cosmopolitan, and protonationalist, with the Molly Maguires considered rural, local, and Gaelic. Agrarian resistance often took the form of destruction, night-time plowing of croplands that had been converted to pasture. The victims of violence were frequently Irish land agents, middlemen. Merchants and millers were often threatened or attacked if their prices were high, landlords agents were threatened, beaten, and assassinated. New tenants on lands secured by evictions also became targets, local leaders were reported to have sometimes dressed as women, i. e. as mothers begging for food for their children. The leader might approach a storekeeper and demand a donation of flour or groceries, if the storekeeper failed to provide, the Mollies would enter the store and take what they wanted, warning the owner of dire consequences if the incident was reported. While the Whiteboys were known to white linen frocks over their clothing. The Threshers, the Peep o Day Boys, the Lady Rocks, similar imagery was used during the Rebecca Riots in Wales. British and Irish newspapers reported about the Mollies in Ireland in the nineteenth century, Thomas Campbell Foster in The Times on 25 August 1845 traced the commencement of Molly Maguireism to Lord Lorton ejecting tenants in Ballinamuck, County Longford, in 1835. An Address of Molly Maguire to her children containing twelve rules was published in Freemans Journal on July 7,1845, the person making the address claimed to be Molly Maguire of Maguires Grove, Parish of Cloone, in County Leitrim. 2-No Rent to be paid until Harvest, 3-Not even then without an abatement, where the land is too high. 4-No underminding of Tenants, nor bailiffs Fees to be Paid, 5-No turning out of Tenants, unless Two Years Rent due before Ejectment served. 6-Assist to the utmost of your power the Good Landlord, in getting his Rents, 7-Cherish and Respect the Good Landlord, and Good Agent. 9-Take no arms by day, or by night, from any man, as such acts a deal of misfortune springs, having, I trust you have. 10-Avoid coming in contact with either the Military, or Police, 11-For my sake, then, no distinction to any man, on account of his religion, his acts alone you are to look to
30.
Mount Carmel, Pennsylvania
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Mount Carmel is a borough in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 6,390 at the 2000 census and it is located 88 miles northwest of Philadelphia and 71 miles northeast of Harrisburg, in the Anthracite Coal Region. It is completely encompassed by Mount Carmel Township, sawmill operator, Albert Bradford, gave Mount Carmel its name because of its elevation and beautiful setting in the mountains. He decided that it deserved a name and named it after the holy mountain in Israel. Mount Carmel began as a logging town, Coal wasnt discovered until 1790 by Isaac Tomlinson. It took twenty-four years until the first shipment of anthracite was shipped from the borough, Mount Carmel Inn was opened in 1812 by Richard Yarnall and was strategically located on the Centre Turnpike halfway between Pottsville and Danville. During the latter part of 1854 the Philadelphia and Sunbury Railroad was completed from Shamokin to Mt. Carmel, the township was erected in 1854, formed from part of Coal Township, by 1862 the borough was incorporated within the township. Mount Carmel was among the first towns in the country to have its streets lit by electricity, thomas Edison placed one of his first generators plants here in 1883. The Edison Plant in Mount Carmel was the 7th in the world, in the past, there were extensive anthracite mining interests here and in the vicinity. Currently that area supports light manufacturing in paper and plastics and it is drained by the Shamokin Creek and is part of the Lower Susquehanna watershed. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 0.7 square miles. Mount Carmels terrain is mostly flat, the boroughs land is mostly urban. Mount Carmel is served by Pennsylvania Route 61, as of the census of 2000, there were 6,390 people,3,035 households, and 1,678 families residing in the borough. The population density was 9,655.6 people per square mile, there were 3,629 housing units at an average density of 5,483.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 98. 56% White,0. 06% African American,0. 16% Native American,0. 28% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 25% from other races, and 0. 67% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 89% of the population,41. 2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 24. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.10 and the family size was 2.86. In the borough the population was out, with 19. 7% under the age of 18,7. 0% from 18 to 24,23. 8% from 25 to 44,23. 6% from 45 to 64
31.
Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania
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Bloomsburg is a town in Columbia County, Pennsylvania, United States, located 40 miles southwest of Wilkes-Barre along the Susquehanna River. It is the county seat of Columbia County and the incorporated town in Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, Bloomsburg had a population of 14,855, the first signs of European settlement date to the year 1772, when James McClure established a log cabin in the area. Until the mid-19th century, it was just a small village, traditionally, Bloomsburgs founding in 1802 has been ascribed to settler Ludwig Eyer, son of Johann Martin Eyer. For 75 years after the discovery of ore in the area, for more than a century, starting from its incorporation on March 4,1870, Bloomsburg held the distinction of being the only incorporated town in Pennsylvania. While other municipalities are commonly referred to as towns, they were all officially classified as either cities, boroughs. Bloomsburg still uses the slogan of The only incorporated TOWN in Pennsylvania, however, in 1975, McCandless Township in Allegheny County adopted a home rule charter under the name Town of McCandless. The Bloomsburg Historic District and Rupert Covered Bridge No.56 are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. On 28 October 2015, a North American Aerospace Defense Command blimp broke free from Aberdeen Proving Ground and headed north, Bloomsburg is located west of the center of Columbia County, along the north bank of the Susquehanna River and on the east side of Fishing Creek. The southern half of the town occupies level ground along the Susquehanna, the campus of Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania occupies a large portion of the hill. According to the United States Census Bureau, Bloomsburg has an area of 4.7 square miles, of which 4.4 square miles is land and 0.3 square miles. Mount Pleasant Township Scott Township Catawissa Township Montour Township Hemlock Township In January the average temperature is 35 °F. In July the average temperature is 85 °F, while the average low temperature is 62 °F. The month with the least precipitation is February, which has 2.37 inches on average, the month with the most precipitation is June, which has 4.5 inches on average. As of the census of 2010, there were 14,855 people residing in the town, the population density was 3,414.9 people per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 89. 6% White,6. 2% African American,0. 10% Native American,1. 6% Asian,0. 04% Pacific Islander and 1. 4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 4% of the population,35. 6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the family size was 2.83
32.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
33.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
34.
Wall Street Crash of 1929
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The crash, which followed the London Stock Exchanges crash of September, signaled the beginning of the 12-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. The Roaring Twenties, the decade that followed World War I and led to the crash, was a time of wealth, while the American cities prospered, the overproduction of agricultural produce created widespread financial despair among American farmers throughout the decade. This would later be blamed as one of the key factors that led to the 1929 stock market crash, despite the dangers of speculation, many believed that the stock market would continue to rise forever. On March 25,1929, after the Federal Reserve warned of excessive speculation, two days later, banker Charles E. Mitchell announced his company the National City Bank would provide $25 million in credit to stop the markets slide. Mitchells move brought a halt to the financial crisis and call money declined from 20 to 8 percent. Despite all these economic trouble signs and the breaks in March and May 1929, stocks resumed their advance in June. The market had been on a run that saw the Dow Jones Industrial Average increase in value tenfold. Shortly before the crash, economist Irving Fisher famously proclaimed, Stock prices have reached what looks like a high plateau. The optimism and financial gains of the bull market were shaken after a well publicized early September prediction from financial expert Roger Babson that a crash was coming. The initial September decline was thus called the Babson Break in the press and this was the start of the Great Crash, although until the severe phase of the crash in October, many investors regarded the September Babson Break as a healthy correction and buying opportunity. On September 20, the London Stock Exchange crashed when top British investor Clarence Hatry and many of his associates were jailed for fraud, the London crash greatly weakened the optimism of American investment in markets overseas. In the days leading up to the crash, the market was severely unstable, periods of selling and high volumes were interspersed with brief periods of rising prices and recovery. On October 24, the market lost 11 percent of its value at the bell on very heavy trading. Several leading Wall Street bankers met to find a solution to the panic and chaos on the trading floor. The meeting included Thomas W. Lamont, acting head of Morgan Bank, Albert Wiggin, head of the Chase National Bank and they chose Richard Whitney, vice president of the Exchange, to act on their behalf. With the bankers financial resources behind him, Whitney placed a bid to purchase a block of shares in U. S. Steel at a price well above the current market. As traders watched, Whitney then placed similar bids on other blue chip stocks and this tactic was similar to one that ended the Panic of 1907. It succeeded in halting the slide, the Dow Jones Industrial Average recovered, closing with it down only 6.38 points for the day
35.
Coal mining
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Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its content, and, since the 1880s, has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore, in the United Kingdom and South Africa a coal mine and its structures are a colliery, a coal mine a pit, the above-ground structures the pit head. In Australia, colliery generally refers to a coal mine. In the United States colliery has been used to describe a coal mine operation, Coal mining has had many developments over the recent years, from the early days of men tunnelling, digging and manually extracting the coal on carts, to large open cut and long wall mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines, trucks, conveyors, hydraulic jacks, small-scale mining of surface deposits dates back thousands of years. For example, in Roman Britain, the Romans were exploiting most of the major coalfields by the late 2nd century AD. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 18th century and later spread to continental Europe, international trade expanded rapidly when coal-fed steam engines were built for the railways and steamships. Until the late nineteenth century coal was mined using a pick and shovel. Coal-cutting machines were introduced in the 1880s, by 1912, surface mining was conducted with steam shovels designed for coal mining. The most economical method of extraction from coal seams depends on the depth and quality of the seams. Coal mining processes are differentiated by whether they operate on the surface or underground, many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant. Surface mining and deep underground mining are the two methods of mining. Coal that occurs at depths of 180 to 300 ft are usually deep mined, for example, some western U. S. coal that occur at depths in excess of 200 ft are mined by the open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam 60–90 feet. Coals occurring below 300 ft are usually deep mined, However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to 1000–1500 feet below ground level, for instance Tagebau Hambach in Germany. When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open cut mining methods, open cast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through the surface or overburden, the overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured, the coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used
36.
Bootleg mining
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Bootleg mining shoemaker mining is illegal coal mining. The term originated around the 1920s, though the practice probably predates that, generally, a bootleg mine is a small mine dug by a handful of men. Often this took place surreptitiously on land owned by somebody else and they were frequently dug by coal miners off official tunnels in order to procure additional, free coal for themselves, a practice that causes additional ramifications when fighting mine fires. Sometimes small pits are hidden under houses or outbuildings, usually, the mine is not large enough to turn around in. The pits are known for being unsafe, and often causing collapse, the practice has died away in the United States, an American with simple equipment cannot dig enough coal in a day to reach a living wage. Bootleg mines in China are very common, as are the fatalities resulting from unregulated mining, artisanal mining Freeminer The Great Bootleg Coal Industry in Shamokin, Pennsylvania
37.
Surface mining
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Surface mining, including strip mining, open-pit mining and mountaintop removal mining, is a broad category of mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit are removed. In contrast to mining, in which the overlying rock is left in place. Surface mining began in the century and is practiced throughout the world. It gained popularity throughout the 20th century, and surface mines now produce most of the coal mined in the United States, in most forms of surface mining, heavy equipment, such as earthmovers, first remove the overburden. Next, huge machines, such as dragline excavators or Bucket wheel excavators, there are five main forms of surface mining, detailed below. Strip mining is the practice of mining a seam of mineral, by first removing a strip of overlying soil. It is most commonly used to mine coal and lignite, strip mining is only practical when the ore body to be excavated is relatively near the surface. This type of mining uses some of the largest machines on earth, there are two forms of strip mining. The more common method is area stripping, which is used on flat terrain. As each long strip is excavated, the overburden is placed in the produced by the previous strip. Contour stripping involves removing the overburden above the seam near the outcrop in hilly terrain. Contour stripping is often followed by auger mining into the hillside and this method commonly leaves behind terraces in mountainsides. Open-pit mining refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth through their removal from a pit or borrow. Although open-pit mining is sometimes referred to as strip mining. Mountaintop removal mining is a form of mining that mines coal seams beneath mountaintops by first removing the mountaintop overlying the coal seam. Explosives are used to break up the layers above the seam. Excess mining waste or overburden is dumped by large trucks into fills in nearby hollow or valley fills, MTR involves the mass restructuring of earth in order to reach the coal seam as deep as 400 feet below the surface. Mountaintop removal replaces the original steep landscape with a flatter topography
38.
Open-pit mining
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Open-pit, open-cast or open cut mining is a surface mining technique of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow. This form of mining differs from extractive methods that require tunneling into the earth, for minerals that occur deep below the surface—where the overburden is thick or the mineral occurs as veins in hard rock—underground mining methods are used to extract the valued material. Open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as quarries, open-pit mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral resource is exhausted, or an increasing ratio of overburden to ore makes further mining uneconomic. When this occurs, the mines are sometimes converted to landfills for disposal of solid wastes. Open-cast mines are dug on benches, which describe vertical levels of the hole and these benches are usually on four to sixty meter intervals, depending on the size of the machinery that is being used. Many quarries do not use benches, as they are usually shallow, most walls of the pit are generally blast mined on an angle less than vertical, to prevent and minimize damage and danger from rock falls. This depends on how weathered the rocks are, and the type of rock, the inclined section of the wall is known as the batter, and the flat part of the step is known as the bench or berm. The steps in the walls help prevent rock falls continuing down the face of the wall. In some instances additional ground support is required and rock bolts, cable bolts, de-watering bores may be used to relieve water pressure by drilling horizontally into the wall, which is often enough to cause failures in the wall by itself. A haul road is situated at the side of the pit, forming a ramp up which trucks can drive, carrying ore. Waste rock is piled up at the surface, near the edge of the open pit and this is known as the waste dump. The waste dump is also tiered and stepped, to minimize degradation, ore which has been processed is known as tailings, and is generally a slurry. This is pumped to a dam or settling pond, where the water evaporates. This toxicity can harm the surrounding environment, after mining finishes, the mine area may undergo land rehabilitation. Waste dumps are contoured to flatten out, to further stabilise them. This is then covered with soil, and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the material. There are no long term studies on the success of these due to the relatively short time in which large scale open pit mining has existed. It may take hundreds to thousands of years for some waste dumps to become acid neutral, the dumps are usually fenced off to prevent livestock denuding them of vegetation
39.
Catholic school
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Catholic schools are parochial schools or education ministries of the Catholic Church. As of 2011, the Church operates the worlds largest non-governmental school system, in 2016, the church supported 43,800 secondary schools, and 95,200 primary schools. Catholic schools participate in the mission of the Church, integrating religious education as the core subject within their curriculum. Irish immigration provides the main contribution to the increases in Catholic communities across the globe, the Irish immigration established the revival of Catholicism through movement to countries across Europe, United Kingdom and Australia. Historically, the establishment of Catholic schools in Europe encountered various struggles following the creation of the Church of England in the Elizabethan Religious settlements of 1558-63, anti-Catholicism in this period encouraged Catholics to create modern Catholic education systems to preserve their traditions. The Relief Acts of 1782 and the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 later increased the possibility to openly practice Catholicism in England and this led to the development of numerous native religious congregations which established schools, hospitals, orphanages, reformatories, and workhouses. Traditionally, Catholic schools originated as single sex schools, Catholic schools were previously required to depend on school fees and endowments. Endowments dropped off sharply causing fees to rise and this prevented some students from enrolling due to their inability to pay. Catholic schools are distinct from their public school counterparts in focusing on the development of individuals as practitioners of the Catholic faith, the leaders, teachers and students are required to focus on four fundamental rules initiated by the Church and school. This includes the Catholic identity of the school, education in regards to life and faith, celebration of life and faith, however, non-Catholics, whether Christian or not, may need to participate in or be exempted from required activities, particularly those of a religious nature. These are in keeping with the spirit of social inclusiveness. ”The education also involves, “the distinct but complementary aspect of the religious dimension of liturgical and prayer life of the school community. ”In Catholic schools. Both teacher and Bishop therefore, contribute to the planning and teaching Religious Education Lessons, Catholic schools in Malaysia have been the backbone of formal education in the country. Catholic schools have many changes since independence in the late 50s. The education policy in Malaysia is very centralized, in 1988, all Catholic religious brothers older than 55 were asked to retire with immediate effect, creating vacancies for lay teachers to take over. Any new brother wanting to join the profession in Malaysia have to be in the civil service. Many of the Lasallian traditions such as inter-La Salle games or sports are now integrated into other government funded programmes. With Islam being the religion, compulsory or elective Bible lessons today are limited only to those of the Catholic faith. The missionaries who opened schools in Malaysia gave a solid education framework, today, there are 68 Sisters of the Infant Jesus,11 Parish Convents and 46 La Salle Brothers schools in the country
40.
Landfill
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A landfill site is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and the oldest form of waste treatment. Historically, landfills have been the most common method of organized waste disposal, some landfills are also used for waste management purposes, such as the temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or processing of waste material. A landfill also may refer to ground that has filled in with rocks instead of waste materials, so that it can be used for a specific purpose. Unless they are stabilized, these areas may experience severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the ground during a large earthquake, afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face, before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without their load, the weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers, the use of rail-haul permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips. Typically, in the face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other waste, several sprayed-on foam products, chemically fixed bio-solids. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by the waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill, factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities. Landfills are often the most cost-efficient way to dispose of waste, in addition, landfill gas can be upgraded to natural gas—landfill gas utilization—which is a potential revenue stream. Another advantage is having a location for disposal that can be monitored. Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues, infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and water courses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant, pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well. Extensive efforts are made to capture and treat leachate from landfills before it reaches groundwater aquifers, eventually, every landfill liner will leak, allowing the leachate to contaminate the groundwater. Installation of composite liners with flexible membrane and soil barrier is enforced by the EPA to ensure that leachate is withheld, rotting food and other decaying organic waste allows methane and carbon dioxide to seep out of the ground and up into the air
41.
Independent Order of Odd Fellows
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The order is also known as the Triple Link Fraternity, referring to the orders Triple Links symbol, alluding to its motto Friendship, Love and Truth. The following year, the affiliated with the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity and was granted the authority to institute new lodges. In 1842, after a dispute on authority, the American Lodges formed a governing system separate from the English Order. Beyond fraternal and recreational activities, the Independent Order of Odd Fellows promotes the ethic of reciprocity and charity, several theories aim to explain the etymological background of the fraternity, see Odd Fellows#Name. The first Odd Fellow Lodges were first documented in 1730 in England, the following year, the lodge affiliated with the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity and was granted the authority to institute new lodges. In the following years, lodges were instituted all over the country, first in the east, on September 20,1851, IOOF became the first national fraternity to accept both men and women when it formed the Daughters of Rebekah. Schuyler Colfax, was the force behind the movement, both the Odd Fellows and Rebekahs have appendant branches known as Encampments and Patriarchs Militant. The American Civil War shattered the IOOF in America, membership decreased and many lodges were unable to continue their work, after the Civil War, with the beginning of industrialization, the deteriorating social circumstances brought large numbers of people to the IOOF and the lodges rallied. From 1860 to 1910/1920, also known as the Golden age of fraternalism in America, by 1889, the IOOF had lodges in every American state. In 1896, the World Almanac showed the Odd Fellows as the largest among all fraternal organizations, by the late nineteenth century, the Order had spread to most of the rest of the world, establishing lodges in the Americas, Australasia, and Europe. According to the Journal of the Annual Communication of the Sovereign Grand Lodge 1922, page 426, while this data from 1921 may not be the exact zenith of its membership, the organization experienced a loss in membership of 23. 5% between 1920-1930 and has continually declined. The Great Depression and the introduction of Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal brought a decline in membership. During the depression, people could not afford Odd Fellows membership fees, and when the New Deals social reforms started to take effect, in 1971 the IOOF changed its constitution, removing its whites only clause. In 1979 the Order had 243,000 members, some branches of the order have allowed women to join the Odd Fellows itself, leading to the Rebekahs decline in importance. Also, the appendant branches and their degrees are, in countries, becoming regarded as less important or too time-consuming. Although there was a decline in membership in fraternal organizations in general during the 20th century, currently, there are about 12,000 lodges with nearly 600,000 members. Teachings in the Order are conducted through the exemplification of the Degrees of membership, the Degrees are conferred on the candidate by their Lodge, and are teachings of principles and truths by ceremonies and symbols. The Degrees are presented largely by means of allegory and drama, for Odd Fellows, the degrees in Odd Fellowship emphasize a leaving of the old life and the start of a better one, of welcoming travelers, and of helping those in need
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Memorial Day
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Memorial Day is a federal holiday in the United States for remembering the people who died while serving in the countrys armed forces. It marks the start of the summer vacation season, while Labor Day marks its end. Many people visit cemeteries and memorials, particularly to honor those who have died in military service, many volunteers place an American flag on each grave in national cemeteries. Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in rural areas of the American South. People gather on the day and put flowers on graves and renew contacts with relatives. There often is a service and a picnic-like dinner on the grounds. It is believed that this practice began before the American Civil War, the practice of decorating soldiers graves with flowers is an ancient custom. Soldiers graves were decorated in the U. S. before, following President Abraham Lincolns assassination in April 1865, there were a variety of events of commemoration. The sheer number of soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance, under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the government began creating national military cemeteries for the Union war dead. The Richmond Times-Dispatch newspaper claimed in 1906 that Warrenton, Virginia, was the location of the first Civil War soldiers grave ever to be decorated, there is also documentation that women in Savannah, Georgia, decorated Confederate soldiers graves in 1862. The 1863 cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was, of course, in addition, local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania, claim that ladies there decorated soldiers graves on July 4,1864, and Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day. But more recent researches have also pointed to the birthplace of Confederacy as the location of the first post-war Memorial Day type observance, but in 2012 Blight stated that he has no evidence that the event in Charleston inspired the establishment of Memorial Day across the country. Accordingly, Snopes labels Blights claims mostly false, despite this ongoing lively debate, there is an official birthplace. On May 26,1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, Snopes also regards the Waterloo legend as apocryphal. Logan issued a proclamation calling for Decoration Day to be observed annually and it was observed for the first time that year on Saturday May 30, the date was chosen because it was not the anniversary of any particular battle. According to the White House, the May 30 date was chosen as the date for flowers to be in bloom. Memorial events were held in 183 cemeteries in 27 states in 1868, the northern states quickly adopted the holiday
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Fahrenheit
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Fahrenheit is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, after whom the scale is named. It uses the degree Fahrenheit as the unit, several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist. The lower defining point,0 °F, was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from parts of ice. Further limits were established as the point of ice and his best estimate of the average human body temperature. All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale, defined since 1954 by absolute zero being −273.15 °C, on the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit and the boiling point is 212 °F. This puts the boiling and freezing points of water exactly 180 degrees apart, therefore, a degree on the Fahrenheit scale is 1⁄180 of the interval between the freezing point and the boiling point. On the Celsius scale, the freezing and boiling points of water are 100 degrees apart, a temperature interval of 1 °F is equal to an interval of 5⁄9 degrees Celsius. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales intersect at −40°, absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F. For an exact conversion, the formulas can be applied. Again, f is the value in Fahrenheit and c the value in Celsius, f °Fahrenheit to c °Celsius, C °Celsius to f °Fahrenheit, −40 = f. Fahrenheit proposed his temperature scale in 1724, basing it on two points of temperature. In his initial scale, the point is determined by placing the thermometer in a mixture of ice, water. This is a mixture which stabilizes its temperature automatically, that stable temperature was defined as 0 °F. The second point,96 degrees, was approximately the human bodys temperature, in any case, the definition of the Fahrenheit scale has changed since. According to a letter Fahrenheit wrote to his friend Herman Boerhaave, his scale was built on the work of Ole Rømer, whom he had met earlier. In Rømers scale, brine freezes at zero, water freezes and melts at 7.5 degrees, body temperature is 22.5, Fahrenheit multiplied each value by four in order to eliminate fractions and increase the granularity of the scale. Fahrenheit observed that water boils at about 212 degrees using this scale, under this system, the Fahrenheit scale is redefined slightly so that the freezing point of water is exactly 32 °F, and the boiling point is exactly 212 °F or 180 degrees higher. It is for this reason that human body temperature is approximately 98° on the revised scale
