Centralia, Pennsylvania

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Centralia, Pennsylvania
Bull's Head
Borough
Centralia as seen from South Street, July 2010
Centralia as seen from South Street, July 2010
Location of Centralia in Columbia County, Pennsylvania.
Location of Centralia in Columbia County, Pennsylvania.
Map showing Columbia County in Pennsylvania
Map showing Columbia County in Pennsylvania
Centralia is located in Pennsylvania
Centralia
Centralia
Location of Centralia in Pennsylvania
Centralia is located in the US
Centralia
Centralia
Centralia (the US)
Coordinates: 40°48′12″N 76°20′30″W / 40.80333°N 76.34167°W / 40.80333; -76.34167Coordinates: 40°48′12″N 76°20′30″W / 40.80333°N 76.34167°W / 40.80333; -76.34167
Country United States
State Pennsylvania
County Columbia
Settled 1841 (as Bull's Head)
Incorporated 1866 (1866) (Borough of Centralia)
Founded by Jonathan Faust[1]
Government[2][3]
 • Mayor a Carl Womer (d.2014)
Area[4]
 • Total 0.24 sq mi (0.62 km2)
 • Land 0.24 sq mi (0.62 km2)
 • Water 0.00 sq mi (0.00 km2)  0%
Elevation[5] 1,467 ft (447 m)
Population (2010)[6]
 • Total 10
 • Estimate (2013)[7] 7
 • Density 41.84/sq mi (16.16/km2)
Time zone UTC-5 (Eastern (EST))
 • Summer (DST) UTC-4 (EDT)
ZIP code 17927 (discontinued 2002[8])
17921 (Ashland 2002-present)
Area code 570
FIPS code 42-12312
a Upon his death, Womer became the last official mayor of Centralia.

Centralia is a borough and near-ghost town in Columbia County, Pennsylvania, United States. Its population has dwindled from more than 1,000 residents in 1980 to 63 by 1990, to only seven in 2013[7]—a result of the coal mine fire which has been burning beneath the borough since 1962. Centralia, which is part of the Bloomsburg–Berwick metropolitan area, is the least-populated municipality in Pennsylvania.[9] It is completely surrounded by Conyngham Township.

All real estate in the borough was claimed under eminent domain in 1992 and therein condemned by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Centralia's ZIP code was discontinued by the Postal Service in 2002.[8] State and local officials reached an agreement with the seven remaining residents on October 29, 2013, allowing them to live out their lives there, after which the rights to their houses will be taken through eminent domain.[7]

History[edit]

Early history[edit]

Many of the Native American tribes in what is now Columbia County sold the land that makes up Centralia to colonial agents in 1749 for the sum of £500. In 1770, during the construction of the Reading Road, which stretched from Reading to Fort Augusta (present-day Sunbury), settlers surveyed and explored the land. A large portion of the Reading Road was developed later as Route 61, the main highway east into and south out of Centralia.[10]

In 1793, Robert Morris, a hero of the Revolutionary War and a signatory of the Declaration of Independence, acquired a third of Centralia's valley land. When he declared bankruptcy in 1798, the land was surrendered to the Bank of the United States. A French sea captain named Stephen Girard purchased Morris' lands for $30,000, including 68 tracts east of Morris'. He had learned that there was anthracite coal in the region.[10]

The Centralia coal deposits were largely overlooked before the construction of the Mine Run Railroad in 1854. In 1832, Johnathan Faust opened the Bull's Head Tavern in what was called Roaring Creek Township; this gave the town its first name, Bull's Head. In 1842, Centralia's land was bought by the Locust Mountain Coal and Iron Company. Alexander Rae, a mining engineer, moved his family in and began planning a village, laying out streets and lots for development. Rae named the town Centreville, but in 1865 changed it to Centralia because the U.S. Post Office already had a Centreville in Schuylkill County. The Mine Run Railroad was built in 1854 to transport coal out of the valley.[1]

Mining begins[edit]

Censign.jpg

The first two mines in Centralia opened in 1856, the Locust Run Mine and the Coal Ridge Mine. Afterward came the Hazeldell Colliery Mine in 1860, the Centralia Mine in 1862, and the Continental Mine in 1863. The Continental was located on Stephen Girard's former estate. Branching from the Lehigh Valley Railroad, the Lehigh and Mahanoy Railroad was constructed to Centralia in 1865; it enabled transport and expansion of Centralia's coal sales to markets in eastern Pennsylvania.[10]

Centralia was incorporated as a borough in 1866. Its principal employer was the anthracite coal industry. Alexander Rae, the town's founder, was murdered in his buggy by members of the Molly Maguires on October 17, 1868, during a trip between Centralia and Mount Carmel.[11] Three men were eventually convicted of his death and were hanged in the county seat of Bloomsburg, on March 25, 1878.

Several other murders and incidents of arson also took place during the violence, as Centralia was a hotbed of Molly Maguires activity during the 1860s to organize a mineworkers union in order to improve wages and working conditions. A legend among locals in Centralia tells that Father Daniel Ignatius McDermott, the first Roman Catholic priest to call Centralia home, cursed the land in retaliation for being assaulted by three members of the Maguires in 1869. McDermott said that there would be a day when St. Ignatius Roman Catholic Church would be the only structure remaining in Centralia. Many of the Molly Maguires' leaders were hanged in 1877, ending their crimes. Legends say that a number of descendants of the Molly Maguires still lived in Centralia up until the 1980s.[10]

According to numbers of Federal census records, the town of Centralia reached its maximum population of 2,761 in the year 1890. At its peak the town had seven churches, five hotels, 27 saloons, two theaters, a bank, a post office, and 14 general and grocery stores. Thirty-seven years later the production of anthracite coal had reached its peak in Pennsylvania. In the following years, production declined, as many young miners from Centralia enlisted in the military when the US entered World War I.

In 1929 the crash of the stock market resulted in the Lehigh Valley Coal Company closing five of its Centralia-local mines. Bootleg miners continued mining in several idle mines, using techniques such as what was called "pillar-robbing," where miners would extract coal from coal pillars left in mines to support their roofs. This caused the collapse of many idle mines, further complicating the prevention of the mine fire in 1962. Efforts to seal off the abandoned mines ran into the collapsed areas.

In the year 1950, Centralia Council acquired the rights to all anthracite coal beneath Centralia through a state law passed in 1949 that enabled the transaction. That year, the federal census counted 1,986 residents in Centralia.

Coal mining continued in Centralia until the 1960s, when most of the companies shut down. Bootleg mining continued until 1982, and strip and open-pit mining are still active in the area. An underground mine about three miles to the west employs about 40 people.

Centralia area showing conditions before mine fire

Rail service ended in 1966. Centralia operated its own school district, including elementary schools and a high school. There were also two Catholic parochial schools. By 1980, it had 1,012 residents. Another 500 or 600 lived nearby.[8]

Mine fire[edit]

Main article: Centralia mine fire
A small part of the Centralia mine fire as it appeared after being exposed during an excavation in 1969

Triggers[edit]

Analysts disagree about the specific cause of the Centralia fire. Writer David Dekok concluded that it started with an attempt to clean up the town landfill. In May 1962, the Centralia Borough Council hired five members of the volunteer fire company to clean up the town landfill, located in an abandoned strip-mine pit next to the Odd Fellows Cemetery just outside the borough limits. This had been done prior to Memorial Day in previous years, when the landfill was in a different location.

On May 27, 1962, the firefighters, as they had in the past, set the dump on fire and let it burn for some time. Unlike in previous years, however, the fire was not fully extinguished. An unsealed opening in the pit allowed the fire to enter the labyrinth of abandoned coal mines beneath Centralia.[12][page needed]

By contrast, Joan Quigley states in her book The Day the Earth Caved In (2007) that the fire had started the previous day, when a trash hauler dumped hot ash or coal discarded from coal burners into the open trash pit. She noted that borough council minutes from June 4, 1962 referred to two fires at the dump, and that five firefighters had submitted bills for "fighting the fire at the landfill area." The borough, by law, was responsible for installing a fire-resistant clay barrier between each layer of the landfill,[13] but fell behind schedule, leaving the barrier incomplete. This allowed the hot coals to penetrate the vein of coal underneath the pit and start the subsequent subterranean fire.[14][15]

Another theory proposes that the Bast Colliery fire of 1932 was never fully extinguished, and that fire reached the landfill area by 1962; however, a miner named Frank Jurgill Sr. disputes that theory. Jurgill claims he operated a bootleg mine with his brother near the landfill from 1960 to 1962. If the Bast Colliery fire had not been extinguished, the brothers would likely have been overcome or killed by the noxious gases via many interconnected tunnels in the area.[10]

Immediate effects[edit]

In 1979, locals became aware of the scale of the problem when a gas-station owner, then-mayor John Coddington, inserted a dipstick into one of his underground tanks to check the fuel level. When he withdrew it, it seemed hot. He lowered a thermometer into the tank on a string and was shocked to discover that the temperature of the gasoline in the tank was 172 °F (77.8 °C).[16]

Statewide attention to the fire began to increase, culminating in 1981 when a 12-year-old resident named Todd Domboski fell into a sinkhole, 4 feet (1.2 m) wide by 150 feet (46 m) deep, that suddenly opened beneath his feet in a backyard. His cousin, 14-year-old Eric Wolfgang, pulled Domboski out of the hole and saved his life. The plume of hot steam billowing from the hole was tested and found to contain a lethal level of carbon monoxide.[17]

Although there was physical, visible evidence of the fire, residents of Centralia were bitterly divided over the question of whether or not the fire posed a direct threat to the town. In The Real Disaster is Above Ground, Steve Kroll-Smith and Steve Couch identified at least six community groups, each organized around varying interpretations of the amount and kind of risk posed by the fire. In 1983, the U.S. Congress allocated more than $42 million for relocation efforts.[18] The vast majority of residents accepted the government's buyout offers. More than 1,000 people moved out of the town, and 500 structures were demolished.[19]

In 1992, Pennsylvania governor Bob Casey invoked eminent domain on all property in the borough, condemning all the buildings within. A subsequent legal effort by residents to overturn the action failed. In 2002, the U.S. Postal Service discontinued Centralia's ZIP code, 17927.[8][20] In 2009, Governor Ed Rendell began the formal eviction of the remaining Centralia residents.[19]

The Centralia mine fire extended beneath the village of Byrnesville, a short distance to the south, and required it also to be abandoned.[21]

Condemnation and abandonment[edit]

Toxic gas and smoke rising from the ground above the underground fire in 2006
1999 photo showing the abandoned highway and its replacement
A semi-detached house separated from its attached neighbor with five buttresses being used to support the shared wall after the attached house was removed
and an unbuttressed side of a similar house on an otherwise deserted street with a single street light on a utility pole
Separated duplex houses: on the left, brick buttresses were added to support the shared wall after removal of the attached house; on the right, an unbuttressed side of a similar house on an otherwise deserted street

Few homes remain standing in Centralia. Most of the abandoned buildings have been demolished by the Columbia County Redevelopment Authority or reclaimed by nature. At a casual glance, the area now appears to be a field with many paved streets running through it. Some areas are being filled with new-growth forest. The remaining church in the borough, St. Mary's, holds weekly services on Sunday. It has not yet been directly affected by the fire. The town's four cemeteries—including one on the hilltop that has smoke rising around and out of it—are maintained in good condition.[citation needed]

The only indications of the fire, which underlies some 400 acres (160 ha) spreading along four fronts, are low round metal steam vents in the south of the borough. Several signs warn of underground fire, unstable ground, and dangerous levels of carbon monoxide. Additional smoke and steam can be seen coming from an abandoned portion of Pennsylvania Route 61, the area just behind the hilltop cemetery, and other cracks in the ground scattered about the area. Route 61 was repaired several times until it was closed.

The current route was formerly a detour around the damaged portion during the repairs and became a permanent route in 1993; mounds of dirt were placed at both ends of the former route, effectively blocking the road. Pedestrian traffic is still possible due to a small opening about two feet wide at the north side of the road. The underground fire is still burning and may continue to do so for 250 years.[17] The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania did not renew the relocation contract at the end of 2005.[22]

The last remaining house on Locust Avenue was demolished in September 2007. It was notable for a period for the five chimney-like support buttresses along each of two opposite sides of the house. The house had formerly been supported by a row of adjacent buildings. Another house with similar buttresses was visible from the northern side of the cemetery, just north of the burning, partially subsumed hillside.[23]

Residents John Comarnisky and John Lokitis, Jr. were evicted in May and July 2009, respectively. In May 2009, the remaining residents mounted another legal effort to reverse the 1992 eminent domain claim.[24] In 2010, only five homes remained as state officials tried to vacate the remaining residents and demolish what was left of the town. In March 2011, a federal judge refused to issue an injunction that would have stopped the condemnation.[25]

The Borough Council still had regular meetings as of 2011. It was reported that the town's highest bill at the meeting reported on came from PPL, a power utility, at $92 and the town's budget was "in the black."[26]

In February 2012, the Commonwealth Court ruled that a declaration of taking could not be re-opened or set aside on the basis that the purpose for the condemnation no longer exists; seven people, including the Borough Council president, had filed suit claiming the condemnation was no longer needed because the underground fire had moved and the air quality in the borough was the same as that in Lancaster.[25] In October 2013, the remaining residents settled their lawsuit, receiving $218,000 in compensation for the value of their homes, along with $131,500 to settle additional claims, and the right to stay in their homes for the rest of their lives.[7][27]

Time capsule[edit]

The town's residents and former residents decided to open a time capsule buried in 1966 a few years earlier than planned after someone had attempted to unearth and steal the capsule in May 2014. The capsule was not scheduled to be opened until 2016. Items found in the footlocker-sized capsule, which had been inundated with about 12 inches (30 cm) of water, included a miner’s helmet, a miner’s lamp, some coal, a Bible, local souvenirs, and a pair of bloomers signed by the men of Centralia in 1966.[28][29]

Mineral rights[edit]

Several current and former Centralia residents believe the state's eminent domain claim was a plot to gain the mineral rights to the anthracite coal beneath the borough. Residents have asserted its value to be in the hundreds of millions of dollars, although the exact amount of coal is not known.[25][19][30][31]

This theory is based on the municipality laws of the state. According to state law, when the municipality can no longer form a functioning municipal government, i.e., when there are no longer any residents, the borough legally ceases to exist.[citation needed] At that point, the mineral rights, which are owned by the Borough of Centralia (they are not privately held) would revert to the ownership of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.[citation needed]

Demographics[edit]

Historical population
Census Pop. %±
18701,342—
18801,88640.5%
18902,76146.4%
19002,048−25.8%
19102,42918.6%
19202,336−3.8%
19302,4464.7%
19402,4490.1%
19501,986−18.9%
19601,435−27.7%
19701,165−18.8%
19801,017−12.7%
199063−93.8%
200021−66.7%
201010−52.4%
Est. 20137[7]−30.0%
Sources:[32][33][34]

2000 census[edit]

As of the census[35] of 2000, there were 21 people, 10 households, and 7 families residing in the borough. The population density was 87.5 people per square mile (3.38 km²). There were 16 housing units at an average density of 66.7 people per square mile (2.57 km²). The racial makeup of the borough was 100% white.

There were 10 households, out of which 1 (10%) had children under the age of 18 living with them, 5 (50%) were married couples living together, 1 had a female householder with no husband present, and 3 (30%) were non-families. 3 of the households were made up of individuals, and 1 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.10, and the average family size was 2.57.

In the borough the population was spread out, with 1 resident under the age of 18, 1 from 18 to 24, 4 from 25 to 44, 7 from 45 to 64, and 8 who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 62 years. There were 10 females and 11 males with 1 male under the age of 18.

The median income for a household in the borough was $23,750, and the median income for a family was $28,750. The per capita income for the borough was $16,083. None of the population was below the poverty line.

2010 census[edit]

As of the census of 2010[36] there were 10 people (down 52% since 2000), 5 households (down 50%), and 3 families (down 57%) residing in the borough. The population density was 42 people per square mile (16/km²) (down 52%). There were 6 housing units (down 62.5%) at an average density of 0.4 units per square mile (.015 units/km²). The racial makeup of the borough was 100% white.[37]

Of the five households, none had children under the age of 18. Two (40%) were married couples living together, one (20%) had a female householder with no spouse present, and two (40%) were non-families. One of those non-family households was an individual, and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.0 persons, and the average family size was 2.33 persons.[37]

There were no residents under the age of 18, one aged 25–29, one aged 50–54, one aged 55–59, four aged 60–64, two aged 70–74, and one aged 80–84. The median age was 62.5 years, and there were five females and five males in total.[37]

Public services[edit]

Fire engine inside municipal building

The borough is served by a small group of volunteer firefighters operating one fire engine that is more than 30 years old. The fire company's ambulance was given to the nearby Wilburton Fire Company in Conyngham Township in 2012. The town's Ukrainian Catholic church remains in use and attracts worshipers from surrounding towns including people who were once resident in the town. A geological survey found there was no coal under the church so it is not in danger of collapse due to the fire.[38]

In popular culture[edit]

Road damage and graffiti on abandoned section of PA Route 61

Centralia has been used as a model for many different ghost towns and physical manifestations of Hell. Prominent examples include Dean Koontz's Strange Highways and David Wellington's Vampire Zero.[39]

Screenwriter Roger Avary researched Centralia while working on the screenplay for the Silent Hill film adaptation.[40]

The 1982 PBS documentary Centralia Mine Fire contains interviews with residents and relates the story of the mine fire.[41]

The 1987 film Made in U.S.A. opens in Centralia and the surrounding coal region of Pennsylvania.[42]

The 2007 documentary The Town That Was is about the history of the town and its current and former residents.[43]

Centralia had a segment entitled "City on Fire" on the Travel Channel television series America Declassified which aired in 2013.[44]

The Centralia story was explored in the documentary segment "Dying Embers" from public radio station WNYC's Radiolab.[45]

See also[edit]

A berm blocks entry to the abandoned section of Route 61

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b DeKok, David (1986). Unseen Danger; A Tragedy of People, Government, and the Centralia Mine Fire. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-595-09270-3. 
  2. ^ "Carl Womer, Centralia Pennsylvania's Last Mayor". Centralia PA. November 25, 2014. Retrieved December 14, 2015. 
  3. ^ "Obituary of Carl T. Womer". Dean W. Kriner Funeral Home. 
  4. ^ "2016 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved Aug 13, 2017. 
  5. ^ U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Borough of Centralia
  6. ^ "Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Centralia borough, Pennsylvania". U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved May 20, 2015. 
  7. ^ a b c d e Ratchford, Dan (October 30, 2013). "Agreement Reached With Remaining Centralia Residents". WNEP 16. Archived from the original on May 29, 2016. Retrieved November 3, 2016. 
  8. ^ a b c d Krajick, Kevin (May 2005). "Fire in the hole". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved July 27, 2009. 
  9. ^ Rivero, Nicolas (25 August 2017). "The Smallest Town in Each of the 50 States". Mental Floss. Retrieved 25 June 2018. 
  10. ^ a b c d e DeKok, David. Fire Underground: The Ongoing Tragedy of the Centralia Mine Fire. 
  11. ^ "The Murder of Alexander W. Rea". 
  12. ^ David Dekok, 'Unseen Danger and successor edition, Fire Underground: The Ongoing Tragedy of the Centralia Mine Fire
  13. ^ "Abandoned Mines in Pennsylvania". Maiello, Brungo & Maiello. Retrieved December 15, 2015. 
  14. ^ Quigley, Joan (2007). The Day the Earth Caved In: An American Mining Tragedy. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6180-8. 
  15. ^ Quigley, Joan (2007). "Chapter Notes to The Day the Earth Caved In" (DOC). p. 8. Retrieved March 13, 2012. 
  16. ^ Morton, Ella. "How an Underground Fire Destroyed an Entire Town". Slate. Retrieved August 2, 2014. 
  17. ^ a b O'Carroll, Eoin. "Centralia, Pa.: How an underground coal fire erased a town". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved August 5, 2013. 
  18. ^ Amos, Owen (25 January 2018). "The church that thrives in a ghost town". BBC News. Retrieved 25 January 2018. 
  19. ^ a b c Rubinkam, Michael (February 5, 2010). "Few Remain as 1962 Pa. Coal Town Fire Still Burns". ABC News (Australia). Archived from the original on November 29, 2012. Retrieved February 6, 2010. 
  20. ^ Currie, Tyler (April 2, 2003). "Zip Code 00000". Washington Post. Retrieved December 19, 2009. 
  21. ^ Holmes, Kristin E. (October 21, 2008). "Minding a legacy of faith: In an empty town, a shrine still shines". Philly.com. 
  22. ^ Reading Eagle, January 3, 2006
  23. ^ "A modern day Ghost Town, Centralia Pennsylvania". Retrieved October 10, 2007. 
  24. ^ "Few remain as 1962 Pa. coal town fire still burns," Yahoo News, February 5, 2010
  25. ^ a b c Beauge, John (February 23, 2012). "Court denies Centralia property owners looking to keep their homes". The Patriot-News. Retrieved March 12, 2012. The same individuals have a suit pending in U.S. Middle District Court that alleges the condemnation was part of the commonwealth's plot to obtain mineral rights to the anthracite coal they claim are worth hundreds of millions of dollars. 
  26. ^ Wheary, Rob (February 13, 2011). "'Regular borough council' in Centralia". Pottsville Republican. Retrieved April 24, 2012. 
  27. ^ Rubinkam, Michael (October 31, 2013). "Pa. residents living above mine fire free to stay". Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved November 3, 2016 – via Yahoo Finance. 
  28. ^ "Centralia PA Time Capsule Opened Early". October 5, 2014. Retrieved March 14, 2016. 
  29. ^ "Centralia Time Capsule to be Opened in 2016 [see Update: The Centennial Vault time capsule was opened in 2014]". September 5, 2014. Retrieved March 14, 2016. 
  30. ^ This is stated in Joan Quigley's The Day the Earth Caved In in a section that indicated that Centralia is the only municipality within the Commonwealth that owned its mineral rights.
  31. ^ Walter, Greg (June 22, 1981). "A Town with a Hot Problem Decides Not to Move Mountains but to Move Itself". People. Retrieved December 25, 2008. Despite the inferno below them and the gases that seep into their basements, some Centralians do not want to leave their homes and remain convinced that it's all a plot by coal companies to drive them off valuable land since the borough owns mineral rights to the coal below. (Other rumored villains have variously included anonymous Arabs and large energy cartels.) 
  32. ^ "Census of Population and Housing". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on May 12, 2015. Retrieved December 11, 2013. 
  33. ^ "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008. Enter 'Centralia borough, Pennsylvania' to search under Community Facts 
  34. ^ "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: Pennsylvania: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013". Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved May 20, 2015. 
  35. ^ "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on September 11, 2013. Retrieved January 31, 2008. 
  36. ^ "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on September 11, 2013. Retrieved May 14, 2011. 
  37. ^ a b c "Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010: 2010 Demographic Profile Data". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved April 16, 2013. 
  38. ^ Amos, Owen. "This church has survived a fire that started back in 1962". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 11 February 2018. 
  39. ^ Eby, Margaret. "American Inferno". Paris Review. Retrieved May 3, 2013. 
  40. ^ Davidson, Paul. "Silent Hill Round Up". IGN. Retrieved May 3, 2013. 
  41. ^ "1982 Film Showing Centralia PA & Mine Fire - Centralia PA". July 4, 2016. Retrieved June 20, 2017. 
  42. ^ "Centralia PA in the 1987 Movie, Made In USA". September 4, 2014. 
  43. ^ "Watch "The Town That Was" Full Movie Online - Snagfilms". 
  44. ^ "City on Fire". Travel Channel. Retrieved December 3, 2013. 
  45. ^ "Dying Embers". RadioLab. Retrieved March 19, 2015. 

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

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