1.
Peru
–
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
–
Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
–
A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
–
The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
2.
Regions of Peru
–
The regions of Peru are the first-level administrative subdivisions of Peru. Since its 1821 independence, Peru had been divided into departments but faced the problem of a centralization of political and economic power in its capital. Under the new arrangement, the former 24 departments plus the Callao Province has become regional circumscriptions, the province of Lima has been excluded from this process and does not form part of any region. Unlike the earlier departments, regions have a government and have a wide array of responsibilities within their jurisdiction. Under the 2002 Organic Law of Regional Governments, there is a process of transfer of functions from the central government to the regions. A2005 referendum for the merger of several failed to get the necessary electoral support. Peruvian regions and departments are subdivided in provinces and districts, the 1979 Peruvian Constitution contained provisions for the decentralization of power through the creation of autonomous regions, but they were not implemented. As a way of creating a source of power, the regime established twelve autonomous regions on January 20,1989 in the hope of winning some elections at this level. However, due to the haste of their creation, these governments were not provided with fiscal resources of their own so they depended on the goodwill of the central government for funding. The 1990 presidential elections were marked by the discredit of political parties as evidenced in the election of Alberto Fujimori, Fujimori withheld financial transfers to regional governments and then, on December 29,1992, replaced them with government-designated Transitory Councils of Regional Administration. Having dissolved Congress in the 1992 Peruvian constitutional crisis, Fujimori called an election for a Constitutional Assembly which drafted the 1993 Constitution and this new text included provisions for the creation of regions with autonomous, elected governments but they were not carried out. A framework law on decentralization issued on January 30,1998, confirmed the permanence of transitory councils, Fujimori was forced to resign in November 2000 under accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations. After an interim government led by Valentín Paniagua, Alejandro Toledo was elected president for the 2001–2006 period on a platform that included creating regional governments. New regional governments were elected on November 20,2002, one in each of the former departments, the province of Lima, containing the capital, was excluded from the process thus it is not part of any region. In the 2002 elections, most regional governments went to parties in opposition, with going to the APRA and only one to Possible Peru. Thus, no merger was carried out, new elections for regional governments were held on November 19,2006, most regions went to local political movements rather than to national parties. The APRA, which had won the elections held on June 4,2006. The Regional Coordination Council has a role on planning and budget issues
Regions of Peru
3.
Provinces of Peru
–
The provinces of Peru, known in Spanish as provincias, are the second-level administrative subdivisions of the country. There are 196 provinces in Peru, grouped into 25 regions except for the Lima Province which does not belong to any region and this makes an average of 7 provinces per region. The region with the fewest provinces is Callao and the region with the most is Ancash, while provinces in the sparsely populated Amazon rain forest of eastern Peru tend to be larger, there is a large concentration of them in the north-central area of the country. The province with the least number of districts is Purús Province, the province with the most districts is Lima Province, with 43 districts. The most common number of districts per province is 8, a total of 29 provinces share this number of districts, the table below shows all provinces with their capitals and the region in which they are located. The UBIGEO code uniquely identifies each province, capitals in bold are also a regional capital. Provinces in which the capital is located all have an UBIGEO code ending in 01. Administrative divisions of Peru Regions of Peru Districts of Peru Municipalities of Peru
Provinces of Peru
–
Peru
4.
Pasco Province
–
The Pasco Province is one of the three provinces that make up the Pasco Region in Peru. The capital of province is the city Cerro de Pasco. North, Huánuco Region East, Oxapampa Province South, Junín Region West, Lima Region, one of the highest mountains of the province is Waqurunchu at 5,748 m. Other mountain are listed below, The province has an area of 4,758.57 square kilometers and is divided into thirteen districts
Pasco Province
–
Location of Pasco in the
Pasco Region
5.
Demonym
–
A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
Demonym
–
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary has not adopted the term "demonyn" for these adjectives and nouns
6.
Mining
–
Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
Mining
–
Surface
coal mining
Mining
–
Chalcolithic copper mine in
Timna Valley,
Negev Desert
Mining
–
Ancient Roman development of the
Dolaucothi Gold Mines, Wales
Mining
–
Agricola, author of
De Re Metallica
7.
La Rinconada, Peru
–
La Rinconada is a town in the Peruvian Andes located near a gold mine. At 5,100 m above sea level, it is the highest permanent settlement in the world, the town is located in the Ananea District, San Antonio de Putina Province. It lies at a height of 5,100 m above sea level and it sits at the foot of La Bella Durmiente, The Sleeping Beauty glacier. Some successful miners in La Rinconada have homes in Juliaca which has services and is at a lower altitude. Far above the line, La Rinconada is unique in its high elevation and population with the highest city of comparable population being located over 700m closer to sea level. Due to the elevation of the town climate conditions more closely resembles that of west coast Greenland than anything located only 14 degrees from the equator. The town has wet/rainy summers and dry winters with a diurnal variation seeing cool to cold days and freezing night time temperatures throughout the year. The average annual temperature in La Rinconada is 1.2 °C, between the years of 2001 and 2009, the population increased to 30,000 people from just a small prospector camp because the price of gold rose 235% in the same time. The economy is based on the production of gold from nearby gold mines. Many miners work at the mine owned by Corporación Ananea. Under the cachorreo system they work for 30 days without payment, on the 31st day they are allowed to take with them as much ore as they can carry on their shoulders. Whether the ore contains any gold or not is a matter of luck, pocketing of nuggets or promising chunks of rich ore is tolerated. Women are banned from the mines, but pallaqueras can be seen working though rock on the mine dumps, the town lacks plumbing and sanitation systems. There is also significant contamination by mercury, due to the mining practices, local miners refine the ore by grinding and treating it with mercury and pressing the mass through a cloth to filter it. The resulting amalgam is heated, to remove the mercury, list of highest cities in the world Gorakshep - a base camp in Nepal at 5,164 m, near Mount Everest. Media related to La Rinconada, Puno at Wikimedia Commons La Rinconada travel guide from Wikivoyage Documentary film shown on www. dev. tv
La Rinconada, Peru
–
View of the city
8.
Lima
–
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
Lima
–
Collage of Lima
Lima
–
Flag
Lima
–
Pachacamac was an important religious centre before the arrival of Spanish conquistadors
Lima
–
Balconies were a major feature of Lima's architecture during the colonial period.
9.
Silver
–
Silver is a metallic element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. The symbol Ag stems from Latin argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς, a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earths crust in the pure, free form, as an alloy with gold and other metals. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, Silver is more abundant than gold, but it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is measured on a per mille basis, a 94%-pure alloy is described as 0.940 fine. As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had a role in most human cultures. Silver has long valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many premodern monetary systems in bullion coins, Silver is used in numerous applications other than currency, such as solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils, and as an investment medium. Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, Silver compounds are used in photographic film and X-rays. Dilute silver nitrate solutions and other compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides, added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters. Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. This distinctive electron configuration, with an electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell. Silver is a soft, ductile and malleable transition metal. Silver crystallizes in a cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak and this observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a polish. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm, at wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silvers reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, during World War II in the US,13540 tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper
Silver
–
Electrolytically refined silver
Silver
–
Silver 1000
oz t (~31 kg) bullion bar
Silver
–
Cessna 210 equipped with a silver iodide generator for
cloud seeding
Silver
–
A Canadian 50 cent piece from 1951, with King George the 6th on the obverse and Canada's (now former) coat of arms on the reverse. It is made of 80% silver and 20% copper.
10.
Oxide minerals
–
The oxide mineral class includes those minerals in which the oxide anion is bonded to one or more metal ions. The hydroxide bearing minerals are typically included in the oxide class, the minerals with complex anion groups such as the silicates, sulfates, carbonates and phosphates are classed separately. This list uses it to modify the Classification of Nickel–Strunz,00 Clinobirnessite*,00 Kleberite*,00 Chubutite*,00 Struverite
Oxide minerals
–
Oxide mineral exhibit at the Museum of Geology in South Dakota
11.
Ore deposit
–
An ore is a type of rock that contains sufficient minerals with important elements including metals that can be economically extracted from the rock. The ores are extracted from the earth through mining, they are refined to extract the valuable element. The grade or concentration of an ore mineral, or metal, as well as its form of occurrence, will directly affect the costs associated with mining the ore. The cost of extraction must thus be weighed against the value contained in the rock to determine what ore can be processed. Metal ores are generally oxides, sulfides, silicates, or native metals that are not commonly concentrated in the Earths crust, the ores must be processed to extract the metals of interest from the waste rock and from the ore minerals. Ore bodies are formed by a variety of geological processes, the process of ore formation is called ore genesis. An ore deposit is an accumulation of ore and this is distinct from a mineral resource as defined by the mineral resource classification criteria. An ore deposit is one occurrence of a particular ore type, Ore deposits are classified according to various criteria developed via the study of economic geology, or ore genesis. Stratiform arkose-hosted and shale-hosted copper, typified by the Zambian copperbelt and this identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. This is because the distribution of ores is unequal and dislocated from locations of peak demand. Other, lesser, commodities do not have international clearing houses and benchmark prices and this generally makes determining the price of ores of this nature opaque and difficult. Such metals include lithium, niobium-tantalum, bismuth, antimony and rare earths, most of these commodities are also dominated by one or two major suppliers with >60% of the worlds reserves. The London Metal Exchange aims to add uranium to its list of metals on warrant, the World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the USA and Japan. Economic geology Mineral resource classification Ore genesis Petrology Froth Flotation Extractive metallurgy DILL, the “chessboard” classification scheme of mineral deposits, Mineralogy and geology from aluminum to zirconium, Earth-Science Reviews, Volume 100, Issue 1-4, June 2010, Pages 1-420
Ore deposit
–
Manganese ore –
psilomelane (size: 6.7 × 5.8 × 5.1 cm)
Ore deposit
–
Iron ore (
Banded iron formation)
Ore deposit
–
Lead ore –
galena and
anglesite (size: 4.8 × 4.0 × 3.0 cm)
Ore deposit
–
Gold ore (size: 7.5 × 6.1 × 4.1 cm)
12.
Richard Trevithick
–
Richard Trevithick was a British inventor and mining engineer from Cornwall, England. The son of a captain, and born in the mining heartland of Cornwall. He performed poorly in school, but went on to be a pioneer of steam-powered road. His most significant contribution was the development of the first high-pressure steam engine and he also built the first full-scale working railway steam locomotive. Turning his interests abroad, Trevithick also worked as a consultant in Peru. Throughout his professional career, he went through ups and downs. During the prime of his career, he was a well-respected and known figure in mining and engineering, Richard Trevithick was born at Tregajorran, between Camborne and Redruth, in the heart of one of the rich mineral mining areas of Cornwall. He was the child and the only boy in a family of six children. He was very tall for the era at 6 ft 2in, as well as athletic, an exception was arithmetic, for which he had an aptitude, but arrived at the correct answers by unconventional means. Trevithick was the son of mine captain Richard Trevithick and of miners daughter Ann Teague, as a child he would watch steam engines pump water from the deep tin and copper mines in Cornwall. For a time he was a neighbour to William Murdoch, the steam carriage pioneer, Trevithick first went to work at the age of 19 at the East Stray Park Mine. He was enthusiastic and quickly gained the status as a consultant and he was popular with the miners because of the respect they had for his father. In 1797, Trevithick married Jane Harvey of Hayle and his company became famous worldwide for building huge stationary beam engines for pumping water, usually from mines, based on Newcomens and Watts engines. Until this time, such engines were of the condensing or atmospheric type, originally invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Trevithick became engineer at the Ding Dong Mine in 1797, and he worked on building and modifying steam engines to avoid the royalties due to Watt on the separate condenser patent. He also experimented with the pump, a type of pump – with a beam engine – used widely in Cornwalls tin mines. He was not the first to think of so-called strong steam, William Murdoch had developed and demonstrated a model steam carriage, starting in 1784, and demonstrated it to Trevithick at his request in 1794. In fact, Trevithick lived next door to Murdoch in Redruth in 1797 and 1798, Oliver Evans in the U. S. had also concerned himself with the concept, but there is no indication that his ideas had ever come to Trevithicks attention
Richard Trevithick
–
Richard Trevithick in 1816 by
John Linnell
Richard Trevithick
–
Camborne Hill street name and plaque commemorating Trevithick's steam carriage demonstration in 1801.
Richard Trevithick
–
A replica of Trevithick's "Puffing Devil", built by the
Trevithick Society and regularly demonstrated in Cornwall
Richard Trevithick
–
A drawing of the Coalbrookdale locomotive from the Science Museum.
13.
Cornwall
–
Cornwall is a ceremonial county and unitary authority area of England within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, Cornwall has a population of 551,700 and covers an area of 3,563 km2. Cornwall forms the westernmost part of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain, and this area was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, there is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found. In the mid-19th century, however, the tin and copper mines entered a period of decline, subsequently, china clay extraction became more important and metal mining had virtually ended by the 1990s. Traditionally, fishing and agriculture were the important sectors of the economy. Railways led to a growth of tourism in the 20th century, however, the area is noted for its wild moorland landscapes, its long and varied coastline, its attractive villages, its many place-names derived from the Cornish language, and its very mild climate. Extensive stretches of Cornwalls coastline, and Bodmin Moor, are protected as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. Some people question the present constitutional status of Cornwall, and a nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom in the form of a devolved legislative Cornish Assembly. On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people will be granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The modern English name Cornwall derives from the concatenation of two ancient demonyms from different linguistic traditions, Corn- records the native Brythonic tribe, the Cornovii. The Celtic word kernou is cognate with the English word horn. -wall derives from the Old English exonym walh, the Ravenna Cosmography first mentions a city named Purocoronavis in the locality. This is thought to be a rendering of Duro-cornov-ium, meaning fort of the Cornovii. The exact location of Durocornovium is disputed, with Tintagel and Carn Brea suggested as possible sites, in later times, Cornwall was known to the Anglo-Saxons as West Wales to distinguish it from North Wales. The name appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 891 as On Corn walum, in the Domesday Book it was referred to as Cornualia and in c.1198 as Cornwal. Other names for the county include a latinisation of the name as Cornubia, the present human history of Cornwall begins with the reoccupation of Britain after the last Ice Age. The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods and it continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age people. The Common Brittonic spoken at the time developed into several distinct tongues
Cornwall
–
"Cornweallas" shown on an early 19th-century map of "Saxon England" (and Wales) based on the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
Cornwall
–
Flag
Cornwall
–
Mên-an-Tol.
Cornwall
–
St German's Priory Church (Norman)
14.
Peruvian War of Independence
–
Because of this the viceroy often had the support of the Lima oligarchy, who saw their elite interests threatened by popular rebellion and were opposed to the new commercial class in Buenos Aires. During the first decade 1800s Peru had been a stronghold for royalists, among the most important events during the war was the proclamation of independence of Peru by José de San Martín on July 28,1821. During the Peninsular War central authority in the Spanish Empire was lost, after success of the royalist armies, Abascal annexed Upper Peru to the viceroyalty, which benefited the Lima merchants as trade from the silver-rich region was now directed to the Pacific. Because of this, Peru remained strongly royalist and participated in the reforms implemented by the Cádiz Cortes. Peru was represented at the first session of the Cortes by seven deputies, therefore, Peru became the second to last redoubt of the Spanish Monarchy in South America, after Upper Peru. Peru eventually succumbed to patriot armies after the continental campaigns of José de San Martín. Some of the early Spanish conquistadors that explored Peru made the first attempts for independence from the Spanish crown and they tried to liberate themselves from the Viceroyalty, who governed for the king of Castile. Throughout the eighteenth century, there were several uprisings against colonial rule. Some of these uprisings became true rebellions and it is debated whether these movements should be considered as precedents of the emancipation that was led by chiefs, Peruvian towns, and other countries in the American continent. The independence of Peru was an important chapter in the Hispano-American wars of independence, the campaign of Sucre in Upper Peru concluded in April 1825, and in November of the same year Mexico obtained the surrender of the Spanish bastion of San Juan de Ulúa in North America. The Spanish strongholds in Callao and Chiloé in South America fell in January 1826, Spain renounced all their continental American territories ten years later in 1836 leaving very little of its vast empire intact. Despite the royalist tendencies of Peru, junta movements did emerge, there were two short-lived uprisings in the southern city of Tacna in 1811 and 1813. One significant movement, led by Natives in Huánuco, began on February 22,1812 and it involved various leaders, including curacas and township magistrates, but was suppressed within a few weeks. More enduring was the rebellion of Cuzco from 1814 to 1815, the rebellion began in a confrontation between the Constitutional Cabildo and the Audiencia of Cuzco over the administration of the city. Cabildo officials and their allies were arrested by the Audiencia, Criollo leaders appealed to retired brigadier Mateo Pumacahua, who was curaca of Chinchero, and decades earlier had been instrumental in suppressing the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II. Pumacahua joined the Criollo leaders in forming a junta on August 3 in Cuzco, in 1814, the first expedition was successful in reconquering Chile after winning the Battle of Rancagua. In 1817 following the royalist defeat in the Battle of Chacabuco, initially it was successful in the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada, the expedition was finally defeated by José de San Martín in the Battle of Maipú. To begin the liberation of Peru, Argentina and Chile signed a treaty on February 5,1819 to prepare for the invasion, General José de San Martín believed that the liberation of Argentina wouldnt be secure until the royalist stronghold in Peru was defeated
Peruvian War of Independence
–
The
Battle of Ayacucho Painting by
Antonio Herrera Toro
Peruvian War of Independence
–
Mateo Pumacahua
Peruvian War of Independence
–
San Martín proclaims the independence of Peru. Oil painting by
Juan Lepiani.
15.
William Randolph Hearst
–
Hearst entered the publishing business in 1887 after being given control of The San Francisco Examiner by his wealthy father. Acquiring more newspapers, Hearst created a chain that numbered nearly 30 papers in major American cities at its peak and he later expanded to magazines, creating the largest newspaper and magazine business in the world. Politically he espoused the Progressive Movement, speaking on behalf of the working class and he controlled the editorial positions and coverage of political news in all his papers and magazines and thereby exercised enormous political influence. He also called for war in 1898 against Spain—as did many other newspaper editors—but he did it in sensational fashion, after 1918, he called for an isolationist foreign policy to avoid any more entanglement in what he regarded as corrupt European affairs. He was at once a militant nationalist, a fierce anti-communist, and deeply suspicious of the League of Nations and of the British, French, Japanese, and Russians. He was a supporter of Franklin Roosevelt in 1932–34, but then broke with FDR. His life story was the inspiration for Charles Foster Kane. His famous mansion, Hearst Castle, on a hill overlooking the Pacific Ocean near San Simeon, is now a State Historical Monument and a National Historic Landmark. William R. Hearst was born in San Francisco, to mining engineer, goldmine owner and U. S. senator George Hearst. His paternal great-grandfather was John Hearst, of Ulster Protestant origin and he migrated to America from Ballybay, County Monaghan as part of the Cahans Exodus with his wife and six children in 1766 and settled in South Carolina. Their immigration to South Carolina was spurred in part by the governments policy that encouraged the immigration of Irish Protestants. The names John Hearse and John Hearse Jr, the Hearse spelling of the family name never was used afterward by the family members themselves, or any family of any size. Hearsts mother, née Phoebe Elizabeth Apperson, was also of Irish ancestry and she was the first woman regent of University of California, Berkeley, funded many anthropological expeditions and founded the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology. Following preparation at St. Pauls School in Concord, New Hampshire, while there he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon, the A. D. Searching for an occupation, in 1887, Hearst took over management of a newspaper, the San Francisco Examiner, a self-proclaimed populist, Hearst went on to publish stories of municipal and financial corruption, often attacking companies in which his own family held an interest. Within a few years, his paper dominated the San Francisco market, outcault, the inventor of color comics, and all of Pulitzers Sunday staff as well. Another prominent hire was James J. Montague, who came from the Portland Oregonian, Hearst imported his best managers from the San Francisco Examiner and quickly established himself as the most attractive employer among New York newspapers. Hearsts activist approach to journalism can be summarized by the motto, While others Talk, the New York Journal and its chief rival, the New York World, mastered a style of popular journalism that came to be derided as yellow journalism, after Outcaults Yellow Kid comic
William Randolph Hearst
–
Hearst in 1906, photograph by
James E. Purdy
William Randolph Hearst
–
An ad asking automakers to place ads in Hearst chain, noting their circulation.
William Randolph Hearst
–
From left to right: Hearst,
Robert Vignola and Arthur Brisbane in New York, during the filming of Vignola's
The World and His Wife (1920)
William Randolph Hearst
–
William Hearst with fascists: Alfred Rosenberg, Carl Bomer, Tilo von Trota, Rosenberg's adjutant
16.
Hydrothermal vein
–
In geology, a vein is a distinct sheetlike body of crystallized minerals within a rock. Veins form when mineral constituents carried by a solution within the rock mass are deposited through precipitation. The hydraulic flow involved is usually due to hydrothermal circulation and this certainly is the method for the formation of some veins. However, it is rare in geology for significant open space to open in large volumes of rock. Thus, there are two main mechanisms considered likely for the formation of veins, open-space filling and crack-seal growth, open space filling is the hallmark of epithermal vein systems, such as a stockwork, in greisens or in certain skarn environments. For open space filling to take effect, the pressure is generally considered to be below 0.5 GPa. Often evidence of fluid boiling is present, vugs, cavities and geodes are all examples of open-space filling phenomena in hydrothermal systems. Alternatively, hydraulic fracturing may create a breccia which is filled with vein material, when the confining pressure is too great, or when brittle-ductile rheological conditions predominate, vein formation occurs via crack-seal mechanisms. Crack-seal veins are thought to form quite quickly during deformation by precipitation of minerals within incipient fractures and this happens swiftly by geologic standards, because pressures and deformation mean that large open spaces cannot be maintained, generally the space is in the order of millimeters or micrometers. Veins grow in thickness by reopening of the fracture and progressive deposition of minerals on the growth surface. Veins generally need either hydraulic pressure in excess of pressure or they need open spaces or fractures. In all cases except brecciation, therefore, a vein measures the plane of extension within the rock mass, measurement of enough veins will statistically form a plane of principal extension. In ductilely deforming compressional regimes, this can in turn give information on the stresses active at the time of vein formation, in extensionally deforming regimes, the veins occur roughly normal to the axis of extension. Veins are of importance to mineral deposits, because they are the source of mineralisation either in or proximal to the veins. Typical examples include gold lodes, as well as skarn mineralisation, hydrofracture breccias are classic targets for ore exploration as there is plenty of fluid flow and open space to deposit ore minerals. Ores related to hydrothermal mineralisation, which are associated with vein material, in many gold mines exploited during the gold rushes of the 19th century, vein material alone was typically sought as ore material. In most of todays mines, ore material is composed of the veins. The difference between 19th-century and 21st-century mining techniques and the type of ore sought is based on the grade of material being mined and the methods of mining which are used
Hydrothermal vein
–
A
quartz vein, prominent from the surrounding weathered rock
Hydrothermal vein
–
Boudinaged quartz vein (with strain fringe) showing
sinistral shear sense. Starlight Pit, Fortnum Gold Mine,
Western Australia.
Hydrothermal vein
–
In situ gold-bearing vein (in brown) at the
Toi gold mine,
Japan.
Hydrothermal vein
–
Gold bearing quartz veins, Blue Ribbon Mine, Alaska
17.
Clay
–
Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to water content and become hard, brittle. Depending on the content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size, silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline, geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm, sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils Atterberg limits, ISO14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation, secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes. Depending on the source, there are three or four main groups of clays, kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of clays in these categories. Varve is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion. This type of deposit is common in glacial lakes
Clay
–
Gay Head cliffs in
Martha's Vineyard consist almost entirely of clay.
Clay
–
Electron microscope photograph of smectite clay – magnification 23,500
Clay
–
Quaternary clay in
Estonia
Clay
–
Deforestation for clay extraction in
Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. The picture is of Morro da Covanca, Jacarepaguá.
18.
Jurassic
–
The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that spans 56.3 million years from the end of the Triassic Period 201.3 million years ago to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period 145 Mya. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic Era, also known as the Age of Reptiles, the start of the period is marked by the major Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. The Jurassic is named after the Jura Mountains within the European Alps, by the beginning of the Jurassic, the supercontinent Pangaea had begun rifting into two landmasses, Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south. This created more coastlines and shifted the continental climate from dry to humid, on land, the fauna transitioned from the Triassic fauna, dominated by both dinosauromorph and crocodylomorph archosaurs, to one dominated by dinosaurs alone. The first birds also appeared during the Jurassic, having evolved from a branch of theropod dinosaurs, other major events include the appearance of the earliest lizards, and the evolution of therian mammals, including primitive placentals. Crocodilians made the transition from a terrestrial to a mode of life. The oceans were inhabited by marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs, the chronostratigraphic term Jurassic is directly linked to the Jura Mountains. The name Jura is derived from the Celtic root jor, which was Latinised into juria, the Jurassic period is divided into the Early Jurassic, Middle, and Late Jurassic epochs. The Jurassic System, in stratigraphy, is divided into the Lower Jurassic, Middle, the separation of the term Jurassic into three sections goes back to Leopold von Buch. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous period, the Tethys Sea closed, and the Neotethys basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of glaciation, as in the Triassic, there was apparently no land over either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed. In contrast, the North American Jurassic record is the poorest of the Mesozoic, the Jurassic was a time of calcite sea geochemistry in which low-magnesium calcite was the primary inorganic marine precipitate of calcium carbonate. Carbonate hardgrounds were thus very common, along with calcitic ooids, calcitic cements, the first of several massive batholiths were emplaced in the northern American cordillera beginning in the mid-Jurassic, marking the Nevadan orogeny. Important Jurassic exposures are found in Russia, India, South America, Japan, Australasia. As the Jurassic proceeded, larger and more groups of dinosaurs like sauropods and ornithopods proliferated in Africa. Middle Jurassic strata are well represented nor well studied in Africa. Late Jurassic strata are also poorly represented apart from the spectacular Tendaguru fauna in Tanzania, the Late Jurassic life of Tendaguru is very similar to that found in western North Americas Morrison Formation. During the Jurassic period, the primary living in the sea were fish
Jurassic
–
Various
dinosaurs roamed forests of similarly large
conifers during the Jurassic period.
Jurassic
–
Jurassic limestones and marls (the
Matmor Formation) in southern
Israel.
Jurassic
–
The late Jurassic
Morrison Formation in
Colorado is one of the most fertile sources of dinosaur fossils in North America.
Jurassic
–
Gigandipus, a
dinosaur footprint in the Lower Jurassic
Moenave Formation at the St. George Dinosaur Discovery Site at Johnson Farm, southwestern
Utah.
19.
Limestone
–
Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
Limestone
–
Limestone outcrop in the
Torcal de Antequera nature reserve of
Málaga, Spain
Limestone
–
Limestone quarry at
Cedar Creek, Virginia, USA
Limestone
–
Cutting the limestone blocks at a quarry in
Gozo,
Malta
Limestone
–
Limestone as building material
20.
Porphyry (geology)
–
Porphyry is a textural term for an igneous rock consisting of large-grained crystals such as feldspar or quartz dispersed in a fine-grained silicate rich, generally aphanitic matrix or groundmass. The larger crystals are called phenocrysts, in its non-geologic, traditional use, the term porphyry refers to the purple-red form of this stone, valued for its appearance. The term porphyry is from Ancient Greek and means purple, purple was the color of royalty, and the imperial porphyry was a deep purple igneous rock with large crystals of plagioclase. Some authors claimed the rock was the hardest known in antiquity, Imperial grade porphyry was thus prized for monuments and building projects in Imperial Rome and later. Subsequently, the name was given to any igneous rocks with large crystals, the adjective porphyritic now refers to a certain texture of igneous rock regardless of its chemical and mineralogical composition. Its chief characteristic is a difference in size between the tiny matrix crystals and the much larger phenocrysts. Porphyries may be aphanites or phanerites, that is, the groundmass may have invisibly small crystals as in basalt, or crystals easily distinguishable with the eye, most types of igneous rocks display some degree of porphyritic texture. Porphyry deposits are formed when a column of rising magma is cooled in two stages, in the first, the magma is cooled slowly deep in the crust, creating the large crystal grains with a diameter of 2 mm or more. In the second and final stage, the magma is cooled rapidly at relatively shallow depth or as it erupts from a volcano, the term porphyry is also used for a mineral deposit called a copper porphyry. The different stages of cooling that create porphyritic textures in intrusive and this enrichment occurs in the porphyry itself, or in other related igneous rocks or surrounding country rocks, especially carbonate rock. Collectively, these type of deposits are known as porphyry copper deposits, rhomb porphyry is a volcanic rock with gray-white large porphyritic rhomb- shaped phenocrysts embedded in a very fine-grained red-brown matrix. The composition of rhomb porphyry places it in the classification of the QAPF diagram. Rhomb porphyry lavas are known from three rift areas, the East African Rift, Mount Erebus near the Ross Sea in Antarctica. Plinys Natural History affirmed that the Imperial Porphyry had been discovered at a site in Egypt in AD18. This particular Imperial grade of porphyry came from a quarry in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. After the fourth century the quarry was lost to sight for many centuries, as early as 1850 BC on Crete in Minoan Knossos there were large column bases made of porphyry. Porphyry was also used for the blocks of the Column of Constantine in Istanbul, list of rock textures Quartz-porphyry Sarcophagi of Helena and Constantina Tyrian purple Pictures of the Mons Porphyrites, Red Sea, Egypt. Rhomb porphyry lavas at the Wayback Machine Flash showing rhomb porphyry formation at the Wayback Machine
Porphyry (geology)
–
A piece of porphyry
Porphyry (geology)
–
Rhyolite porphyry. Scale bar in lower left is 1 cm.
Porphyry (geology)
–
Diagram of zonation in a porphyry copper deposit
Porphyry (geology)
–
The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from the Byzantine
Philadelphion palace in 1204, Treasury of St. Marks,
Venice
21.
Dacite
–
Dacite is an igneous, volcanic rock. It has an aphanitic to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite, the word dacite comes from Dacia, a province of the Roman Empire which lay between the Danube River and Carpathian Mountains where the rock was first described. Dacite consists mostly of feldspar with biotite, hornblende. It has quartz as rounded, corroded phenocrysts, or as an element of the ground-mass, the relative proportions of feldspars and quartz in dacite, and in many other volcanic rocks, are illustrated in the QAPF diagram. The TAS classification, based on silica and alkali contents, puts dacite in the O3 sector, the plagioclase ranges from oligoclase to andesine and labradorite. Sanidine occurs, although in small proportions, in some dacites, the groundmass of these rocks is composed of plagioclase and quartz. In the hand specimen many of the hornblende and biotite dacites are grey or pale brown and yellow rocks with white feldspars, other dacites, especially pyroxene bearing dacites, are darker colored. In thin section, dacites may have an aphanitic to porphyritic texture, porphyritic dacites contain blocky highly zoned plagioclase phenocrysts and/or rounded corroded quartz phenocrysts. Subhedral hornblende and elongated biotite grains are present, sanidine phenocrysts and augite are found in some samples. Dacite usually forms as a rock such as a dike or sill. Examples of this type of dacite outcrop are found in northwestern Montana, nevertheless, because of the moderate silica content, dacitic magma is quite viscous and therefore prone to explosive eruption. A notorious example of this is Mount St. Helens in which dacite domes formed from previous eruptions, pyroclastic flows may also be of dacitic composition as is the case with the Fish Canyon Tuff of La Garita Caldera. Dacitic magma is formed by the subduction of oceanic crust under a thick felsic continental plate. Oceanic crust is hydrothermally altered causing addition of quartz and sodium, as the young, hot oceanic plate is subducted under continental crust, the subducted slab partially melts and interacts with the upper mantle through convection and dehydration reactions. The process of subduction creates metamorphism in the subducting slab, when this slab reaches the mantle and initiates the dehydration reactions, minerals such as talc, serpentine, mica and amphiboles break down generating a more sodic melt. The magma then continues to migrate upwards causing differentiation and becomes even more sodic and silicic as it rises, once at the cold surface, the sodium rich magma crystallizes plagioclase, quartz and hornblende. Accessory minerals like pyroxenes provide insight to the history of the magma, the formation of dacite provides a great deal of information about the connection between oceanic crust and continental crust. It provides a model for the generation of felsic, buoyant, perennial rock from a mafic, dense, the process by which dacite forms has been used to explain the generation of continental crust during the Archean eon
Dacite
–
Dacite
Dacite
–
Grey, red, black, altered white/tan, flow-banded pumice dacite
Dacite
–
Thin section of a porphyritic dacite from
Mount St. Helens
Dacite
–
Volcano types
22.
Stock (geology)
–
In geology, a stock is a discordant igneous intrusion having a surface exposure of less than 40 sq mi, differing from batholiths only in being smaller. The term stock usually refers to individual, relatively small plutons, most stocks are probably the cupolas of hidden batholiths. Circular or elliptical stocks may have been vents feeding former volcanoes
Stock (geology)
–
A stock of nordmarkite (quartz-alkali
syenite) of
Triassic age, in the Gevanim Valley, Makhtesh Ramon, southern Israel.
23.
Intruded
–
Intrusive rock is formed when magma crystallizes and solidifies underground to form intrusions, for example plutons, batholiths, dikes, sills, laccoliths, and volcanic necks. Intrusive rock forms within Earths crust from the crystallization of magma, magma slowly pushes up from deep within the earth into any cracks or spaces it can find, sometimes pushing existing country rock out of the way, a process that can take millions of years. As the magma slowly cools into a solid, the different parts of the magma crystallize into rocks, many mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada in California, are formed mostly from large granite intrusions, see Sierra Nevada Batholith. Intrusions are one of the two ways igneous rock can form, the other is extrusive rock, that is, an eruption or similar event. Technically speaking, an intrusion is any formation of igneous rock, rock formed from magma that cools. In contrast, an extrusion consists of rock, rock formed above the surface of the crust. Large bodies of magma that solidify underground before they reach the surface of the crust are called plutons, plutonic rocks form 7% of the Earths current land surface. Coarse-grained intrusive igneous rocks form at depth within the earth are called abyssal while those that form near the surface are called subvolcanic or hypabyssal. The term intrusive suite seems near synonymous, there is, however, a modest difference, An intrusive suite is a group of plutons related in time and space. Intrusions vary widely, from mountain-range-sized batholiths to thin veinlike fracture fillings of aplite or pegmatite, when exposed by erosion, such batholiths may occupy large areas. A well-known example of an intrusion is Devils Tower, another is Shiprock, New Mexico, USA. Be the pluton is large, it may be called a batholith or a stock, Intrusive rocks are characterized by large crystal sizes, and as the individual crystals are visible, the rock is called phaneritic. This is as the magma cools underground, and while cooling may be fast or slow, cooling is slower than on the surface, if it runs parallel to rock layers, it is called a sill. If an intrusion makes rocks above rise to form a dome, as heat dissipation is slow, and as the rock is under pressure, crystals form, and no vitreous rapidly chilled matter is present. The intrusions did not flow while solidifying, hence do not show lines, contained gases could not escape through the thick strata, thus form cavities, which can often be observed. Because their crystals are of the rough equal size, these rocks are said to be equigranular, there is typically no distinction between a first generation of large well-shaped crystals and a fine-grained ground-mass. Earlier crystals originated at a time when most of the rock was still liquid and are more or less perfect, later crystals are less regular in shape because they were compelled to occupy the spaces left between the already-formed crystals. The former case is said to be idiomorphic, the latter is xenomorphic, there are also many other characteristics that serve to distinguish the members of these two groups
Intruded
–
Devils Tower, an igneous intrusion exposed when the surrounding softer rock eroded away.
Intruded
–
A dike intrudes into the
country rock,
Baranof Island,
Alaska,
USA.
Intruded
–
An intrusion (pink
Notch Peak monzonite) inter-fingers (partly as a
dike) with highly metamorphosed black-and-white-striped host rock (
Cambrian carbonate rocks). Near Notch Peak,
House Range,
Utah.
24.
Fault (geology)
–
In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movement. Large faults within the Earths crust result from the action of tectonic forces. Energy release associated with movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes. A fault plane is the plane that represents the surface of a fault. A fault trace or fault line is the intersection of a plane with the ground surface. A fault trace is also the line commonly plotted on maps to represent a fault. Since faults do not usually consist of a single, clean fracture, the two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the hanging wall and footwall. By definition, the wall occurs above the fault plane. This terminology comes from mining, when working a tabular ore body, because of friction and the rigidity of rocks, they cannot glide or flow past each other easily, and occasionally all movement stops. A fault in ductile rocks can also release instantaneously when the rate is too great. The energy released by instantaneous strain-release causes earthquakes, a common phenomenon along transform boundaries, slip is defined as the relative movement of geological features present on either side of a fault plane, and is a displacement vector. A faults sense of slip is defined as the motion of the rock on each side of the fault with respect to the other side. In practice, it is only possible to find the slip direction of faults. Based on direction of slip, faults can be categorized as, strike-slip. Dip-slip, offset is predominantly vertical and/or perpendicular to the fault trace, oblique-slip, combining significant strike and dip slip. The fault surface is usually vertical and the footwall moves either left or right or laterally with very little vertical motion. Strike-slip faults with left-lateral motion are known as sinistral faults. Those with right-lateral motion are known as dextral faults
Fault (geology)
–
Large normal fault in
Triassic to
Lower Jurassic Blue Anchor Formation sediments near
Blue Anchor,
Somerset, UK, with several smaller normal faults in its hanging wall
Fault (geology)
–
A fault in the Grands Causses as seen from
Bédarieux,
France. The left side moved down relative to the right side
Fault (geology)
–
Microfault showing a
piercing point (the coin's diameter is 18 mm)
Fault (geology)
–
The Piqiang Fault, a northwest trending strike-slip fault in the
Taklamakan Desert south of the
Tien Shan Mountains, China (40.3°N, 77.7°E)
25.
Galena
–
Galena, also called lead glance, is the natural mineral form of lead sulfide. It is the most important ore of lead and an important source of silver, Galena is one of the most abundant and widely distributed sulfide minerals. It crystallizes in the crystal system often showing octahedral forms. It is often associated with the minerals sphalerite, calcite and fluorite, Galena is the main ore of lead, used since ancient times. Because of its low melting point, it was easy to liberate by smelting. In some deposits galena contains about 1–2% silver, a byproduct that far outweighs the main ore in revenue. Galena deposits often contain significant amounts of silver as included silver sulfide mineral phases or as limited solid solution within the galena structure. These argentiferous galenas have long been the most important ore of silver, Galena deposits are found worldwide in various environments. Galena also occurs in North African countries and at Mount Hermon in Northern Israel, in the United States, it occurs most notably in the Mississippi Valley type deposits of the Lead Belt in southeastern Missouri, and in the Driftless Area of Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin. The economic importance of galena to the history of the Driftless Area was so great that one of the towns in the region was named Galena. Galena also was a mineral of the zinc-lead mines of the tri-state district around Joplin in southwestern Missouri. Galena is also an important ore mineral in the mining regions of Colorado, Idaho, Utah. Of the latter, the Coeur dAlene district of northern Idaho was most prominent, Galena is the official state mineral of the U. S. states of Missouri and Wisconsin, the former mining town of Galena, Kansas takes its name from deposits of this mineral. Derbyshire in the UK was one of the areas where galena was mined. The largest documented crystal of galena is composite cubo-octahedra from the Great Laxey Mine, Isle of Man, Galena belongs to the octahedral sulfide group of minerals that have metal ions in octahedral positions, such as the iron sulfide pyrrhotite and the nickel arsenide niccolite. The galena group is named after its most common member, with other members that include manganese bearing alabandite and niningerite. Divalent lead cations and sulfur anions form a cubic unit cell much like the mineral halite of the halide mineral group. Zinc, cadmium, iron, copper, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, selenium substitutes for sulfur in the structure constituting a solid solution series
Galena
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Galena close-up
Galena
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Galena with
baryte and
pyrite from
Cerro de Pasco,
Peru (5.8×4.8×4.4 cm)
Galena
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Galena with
druzy calcite
Galena
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Cubic galena with calcite from Jasper County, Missouri, USA (size: 5.1×3.2×2.8 cm)
26.
Sphalerite
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Sphalerite is a mineral that is the chief ore of zinc. It consists largely of zinc sulfide in crystalline form but almost always contains variable iron, when iron content is high it is an opaque black variety, marmatite. It is usually found in association with galena, pyrite, and other sulfides along with calcite, dolomite, miners have also been known to refer to sphalerite as zinc blende, black-jack, and ruby jack. The mineral crystallizes in the crystal system. In the crystal structure, zinc and sulfur atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated, the structure is closely related to the structure of diamond. The hexagonal analog is known as the wurtzite structure, the lattice constant for zinc sulfide in the zinc blende crystal structure is 0.541 nm, calculated from geometry and ionic radii of 0.074 nm and 0.184 nm. Its color is yellow, brown, or gray to gray-black. Its luster is adamantine, resinous to submetallic for high iron varieties and it has a yellow or light brown streak, a Mohs hardness of 3. 5–4, and a specific gravity of 3. 9–4.1. Some specimens have a red iridescence within the crystals, these are called ruby sphalerite. The pale yellow and red varieties have very little iron and are translucent, the darker, more opaque varieties contain more iron. Some specimens are also fluorescent in ultraviolet light, the refractive index of sphalerite is 2.37. Sphalerite crystallizes in the crystal system and possesses perfect dodecahedral cleavage. Gemmy, pale specimens from Franklin, New Jersey, are highly fluorescent orange and/or blue under ultraviolet light and are known as cleiophane. Sphalerite is the ore of zinc and is found in thousands of locations worldwide. Sources of high quality crystals include, Freiberg, Saxony, and Neudorf, Harz Mountains of Germany The Lengenbach Quarry, Binntal, Valais, freshly cut gems have an adamantine luster. Owing to their softness and fragility the gems are often left unset as collectors or museum pieces, gem-quality material is usually a yellowish to honey brown, red to orange, or green. List of minerals Danas Manual of Mineralogy ISBN 0-471-03288-3 Webster, R. Read, P. G. Gems, Their sources, descriptions and identification, p.386. ISBN 0-7506-1674-1 Minerals. net Minerals of Franklin, NJ The sphalerite structure Possible relation of Sphalerite to origins of life and precursor chemicals in Primordial Soup
Sphalerite
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Sphalerite on dolomite from the Tri-State District, Jasper County, Missouri, USA
Sphalerite
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Sharp, tetrahedral sphalerite crystals with minor associated chalcopyrite from the Idarado Mine, Telluride, Ouray District, Colorado, USA (size: 2.3×2.3×1.2 cm)
Sphalerite
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Gem quality twinned cherry-red sphalerite crystal (1.8 cm) from Hunan Province, China
Sphalerite
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faceted Sphalerite, 3.86ct, Spain
27.
Snow
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Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air. Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets, snowflakes take on a variety of shapes, basic among these are platelets, needles, columns and rime. As snow accumulates into a snowpack, it may blow into drifts, over time, accumulated snow metamorphoses, by sintering, sublimation and freeze-thaw. Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation, a glacier may form, otherwise, snow typically melts seasonally, causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater. Major snow-prone areas include the regions, the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture. In the Southern Hemisphere, snow is confined primarily to mountainous areas, Snow affects ecosystems, as well, by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold. Snow develops in clouds that themselves are part of a weather system. The physics of snow crystal development in clouds results from a set of variables that include moisture content. The resulting shapes of the falling and fallen crystals can be classified into a number of shapes and combinations. Occasionally, some plate-like, dendritic and stellar-shaped snowflakes can form under clear sky with a cold temperature inversion present. Two additional and locally productive sources of snow are lake-effect storms and elevation effects, miid-latitude cyclones are low pressure areas which are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild snow storms to heavy blizzards. During a hemispheres fall, winter, and spring, the atmosphere over continents can be cold enough through the depth of the troposphere to cause snowfall, in the Northern Hemisphere, the northern side of the low pressure area produces the most snow. For the southern mid-latitudes, the side of a cyclone that produces the most snow is the southern side, a cold front, the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, can produce frontal snowsqualls—an intense frontal convective line, when temperature is near freezing at the surface. The strong convection that develops has enough moisture to produce whiteout conditions at places which line passes over as the wind causes intense blowing snow. This type of snowsquall generally lasts less than 30 minutes at any point along its path, in cases where there is a large amount of vertical growth and mixing the squall may develop embedded cumulonimbus clouds resulting in lightning and thunder which is dubbed thundersnow. A warm front can produce snow for a period, as warm, moist air overrides below-freezing air, often, snow transitions to rain in the warm sector behind the front. The same effect occurs over bodies of salt water, when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow. The effect is enhanced when the air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores
Snow
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Snow on the
Carpathian Mountains, Romania
Snow
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Snow on the mountains of
Southern California
Snow
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Satellite photo of sea-effect snow bands near the
Korean Peninsula
Snow
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Road and trees covered in snow,
Bârnova
28.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
Precipitation
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A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation
Precipitation
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Long-term mean precipitation by month
Precipitation
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Late-summer
rainstorm in
Denmark
Precipitation
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Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming
Peru
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cerro de Pasco". Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 762.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
