1.
Yuma, Arizona
–
Yuma is a city in and the county seat of Yuma County, Arizona, United States. It is located in the corner of the state. Yuma is the city of the Yuma, Arizona Metropolitan Statistical Area. According to the United States Census Bureau, the 2014 estimated population of the Yuma MSA is 203,247, more than 85,000 retirees make Yuma their winter residence. The areas first settlers for thousands of years were Native American cultures and their descendants now occupy the Cocopah and Quechan reservations. In 1540, Spanish colonial expeditions under Hernando de Alarcon and Melchior Diaz visited the area, the Colorado River narrows to slightly under 1,000 feet wide in one area. Military expeditions that crossed the Colorado River at the Yuma Crossing include Juan Bautista de Anza, the Mormon Battalion, during and after the California Gold Rush to the late 1870s, the Yuma Crossing was known for its ferry crossings for the Southern Emigrant Trail. This was considered the gateway to California, as it was one of the few spots where travelers could cross the otherwise very wide Colorado River. Following the United States establishing Fort Yuma, two towns developed one mile down river, the one on the California side was called Jaeger City, named after the owner of Jaegers Ferry, which crossed the river there. It was for a time the larger of the two, with the Butterfield Overland Mail office and station, two blacksmiths, a hotel, two stores, and other dwellings, the other was called Colorado City. Developed on the side of the river in what is now Arizona by speculator Charles Poston. When started, it was just north of the border between Mexican-ruled Sonora, Mexico and California, after the Gadsden Purchase by the United States, the town bordered on the Territory of New Mexico. This area was designated as the Territory of Arizona in 1863, the county of San Diego collected taxes from there for many years. From 1853 a smaller settlement, Arizona City, grew up on the ground across from the fort and was organized under the name of its post office in 1858. It had adobe dwellings, two stores and two saloons, Colorado City and Jaeger City were almost completely destroyed by the Great Flood of 1862 and had to be rebuilt on higher ground. At that time Colorado City became part of Arizona City and it took the name Yuma in 1873. From 1854, Colorado City was the major stop for traffic up. After the 1862 flood, it part of Arizona City
2.
San Luis, Arizona
–
San Luis is a city in Yuma County, Arizona, United States. The population was 25,505 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Yuma Metropolitan Statistical Area. San Luis, located in the southwest corner of the state adjacent to Mexicos Federal Highway 2, was the second fastest-growing city or town in Arizona from 1990 to 2000. According to 2014 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the city is 31,091, the city was established in 1930 with the opening of a border-crossing station. In the last twenty years it has registered a population increase, going from 1,946 inhabitants in 1980. San Luis is located at 32°29′46″N 114°46′6″W and it stands on the U. S. -Mexico border, opposite San Luis Río Colorado, Sonora. The lowest point in Arizona is located on the Colorado River in San Luis, where it flows out of Arizona and into Sonora. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 26.5 square miles. The Gulf of Santa Clara is located 70 miles south of San Luis and sits on the northernmost point of the Gulf of California, large holiday crowds converge here to ride all-terrain vehicles on 30 miles of undeveloped beach. Retail trade, agriculture and manufacturing form a portion of the local economy. Another significant segment is the industry located on both sides of the U. S. /Mexico border. San Luis is an excellent site for manufacturing and assembly plants. Laguna, Imperial and Morelos Dams and the California sand dunes are also nearby, fishing, water skiing and swimming at lakes along the Colorado River attract residents of the area and tourists alike. Located across the border is San Luis, Sonora, Mexico and this area has curio shops, night clubs and various other attractions for tourists. As of the census of 2000, there were 15,322 people,3,018 households and 2,876 families residing in the city, the population density was 579.5 people per square mile. There were 3,325 housing units at a density of 125.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 58. 8% White,3. 0% Black or African American,1. 5% Native American,0. 2% Asian,89. 1% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 3. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 1. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 4.31 and the average family size was 4.38
3.
Trade union
–
The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
4.
Civil and political rights
–
Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes
5.
Activism
–
Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, or direct social, political, economic, and/or environmental reform or stasis with the desire to make improvements in society. One can also express activism through different forms of art, daily acts of protest such as not buying clothes from a certain clothing company because they exploit workers is another form of activism. One view holds that acknowledging privileges and oppressions on a daily basis ranks as a form of activism, research has begun to explore how activist groups use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. The Online Etymology Dictionary records the English words activism and activist from 1920, Activists can function in roles as public officials, as in judicial activism. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. introduced the term judicial activism in a January 1946 Fortune magazine article titled The Supreme Court,1947, some activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than to persuade governments to change or not to change laws. Other activists try to persuade people to remain the same, in an effort to counter change, the cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Activism is not always an action by Activists, every year more than 100 environmental activists are killed, in 2014116 environmental activists were assassinated, in 2015185 activists were killed around this planet. Since the 1990s, the Internet has been a tool used by activists for mobilization and communication of causes, specific platforms like MoveOn. org, founded in 1998, allow individuals to establish petitions and movements for social change. Protesters in Seattle in 1999 used email to organize protests against the WTO Ministerial Conference, throughout the 2000s, protesters continued to use social media platforms to generate interest. The power of Internet Activism came into a lens with the Arab Spring protests. They use different means to political persecution, such as Tor Browser. The activism industry consists of organizations and individuals engaged in activism, Activism is often done full-time, as part of an organizations core business. Many organizations in the industry are either non profit organizations or non-governmental organizations. Most activist organizations do not manufacture goods, the term activism industry has often been used to refer to outsourced fundraising operations. However, activist organizations engage in activities as well. Lobbying, or the influencing of decisions made by government, is another activist tactic, many groups, including law firms, have designated staff assigned specifically for lobbying purposes. In the United States, lobbying is regulated by the federal government, many government systems encourage public support of non-profit organizations by granting various forms of tax relief for donations to charitable organizations. Governments may attempt to deny these benefits to activists by restricting the political activity of tax-exempt organizations, randy Shaw, The Activists Handbook, A Primer for the 1990s and Beyond
6.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
–
The Presidential Medal of Freedom is an award bestowed by the President of the United States and is—along with the comparable Congressional Gold Medal—the highest civilian award of the United States. The award is not limited to U. S. citizens and, while it is an award, it can also be awarded to military personnel. It was established in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy, President John F. Kennedy established the current decoration in 1963 through Executive Order 11085, with unique and distinctive insignia, vastly expanded purpose, and far higher prestige. It was the first U. S. civilian neck decoration and, in the grade of Awarded With Distinction, is the only U. S. sash and star decoration. The Executive Order calls for the medal to be awarded annually on or around July 4, and at other convenient times as chosen by the president, Recipients are selected by the president, either on his own initiative or based on recommendations. The order establishing the medal also expanded the size and the responsibilities of the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board so it could serve as a source of such recommendations. The medal may be awarded to a more than once. It may also be awarded posthumously, examples include John F, golden American bald eagles with spread wings stand between the points of the star. It is worn around the neck on a ribbon with white edge stripes. When the medal With Distinction is awarded, the star may be presented descending from a neck ribbon, the sash and medal of the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction has never been worn in public since its inception. Andrew Presidential Medal of Freedom, an article from jfklibrary. org, Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, a list of recipients from May 5,1993, through August 19,2009, from senate. gov, the U. S. Senates official website. Hosted on georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov, a section of the U. S. National Archives, Medal of Freedom Ceremony, a news release, August 12,2009, from the White House Press Secretary at whitehouse. gov, the White Houses official website. War Figures Honored With Medal of Freedom, The New York Times, December 15,2004
7.
Dolores Huerta
–
Dolores Clara Fernández Huerta is an American labor leader and civil rights activist who was the co-founder of the National Farmworkers Association, which later became the United Farm Workers. Huerta has received awards for her community service and advocacy for workers, immigrants. Debs Foundation Outstanding American Award, the United States Presidential Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights, as a role model to many in the Latino community, Huerta is the subject of many corridos and murals. Born on April 10,1930, in the town of Dawson, New Mexico, Huerta was the daughter of Juan Fernández—a miner, field/farm worker, union activist. Huerta was the second child and only daughter, the couple divorced when Huerta was three years old. Chávez raised Huerta and her two brothers in the central California farm worker community of Stockton, California, Huertas mother was known for her kindness and compassion towards others and was active in community affairs, numerous civic organizations, and the church. She encouraged the cultural diversity that was a part of Huertas upbringing in Stockton. Alicia Chávez was a businesswoman who owned a restaurant and a 70-room hotel where she welcomed low-wage workers and this served as the inspiration for her caring and willingness to help farm workers later on in her life. In an interview Huerta stated that “The dominant person in my life is my mother and she was a very intelligent woman and a very gentle woman”. This prompted Huerta to think about civil rights and her mother’s generous actions during Dolores childhood provided the foundation for her own non-violent, strong spiritual stance. In the same interview she said “When we talk about spiritual forces and we know what fasting is, and that it is part of the culture. We know what relationships are, and we know what sacrifice is”, Huertas community activism began when she was a student at Stockton High School. Huerta was active in school clubs, and was a majorette. In school she remembered a teacher accusing her of stealing another student’s work and giving her an unfair grade, having lived life being marginalized because of her Hispanic origin, she grew up knowing that there were things in the society that needed to be changed. Huerta attended college at the University of the Pacifics Stockton College, after teaching grammar school, Huerta left her job and began her lifelong crusade to correct economic injustice, I couldnt tolerate seeing kids come to class hungry and needing shoes. I thought I could do more by organizing farm workers than by trying to teach their hungry children, due to her dedication and willingness to serve, Ross often delegated huge responsibilities to her. He knew she was capable of delivering the message and promoting its agenda. In 1962, she co-founded the National Farm Workers Association with César Chávez, in 1966, she negotiated a contract between the UFWOC and Schenley Wine Company, marking the first time that farm workers were able to effectively bargain with an agricultural enterprise
8.
United Farm Workers
–
The United Farm Workers of America, or more commonly just United Farm Workers, is a labor union for farmworkers in the United States. As a result of the commonality in goals and methods, the NFWA and this organization was accepted into the AFL-CIO in 1972 and changed its name to the United Farmworkers Union. Dolores Huerta grew up in Stockton, California, which was in the San Joaquin Valley, in the early 1950s, she completed a degree at Delta Community College, part of the University of the Pacific. She briefly worked as a school teacher. Huerta saw that her students, many of children of farm workers, were living in poverty without enough food to eat or other basic necessities. To help, she one of the founders of the Stockton chapter of the Community Service Organization. The CSO worked to improve social and economic conditions for farm workers, in 1952, Chávez met Fred Ross who was a community organizer working on behalf of the Community Service Organization. This was a group which was affiliated with the Industrial Areas Foundation which was headed by Saul Alinsky, to further her cause, Huerta created the Agricultural Workers Association in 1960. In 1962, she co-founded a workers union with César Chávez, the two made a great team. Chávez was the leader and speaker and Huerta was a skilled organizer. Huerta was instrumental in the many successes, including the strikes against California grape growers in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1950s, César Chávez and Fred Ross developed twenty-two new Community Service Organization chapters in the Mexican American neighborhoods of San Jose, in 1959, Chávez would claim the rank of executive director in the Community Service Organization. During this time, Chávez observed and adopted the notion of having the community become more involved in order to bring about the social changes that the community sought. This would be a tactic in Chávez’s future struggles in fighting for immigrant rights. César Chávez’s ultimate goal in his participation with the Community Service Organization, Saul Alinsky did not share Chávez’s sympathy for the farm workers struggle, claiming that organizing farm workers, was like fighting on a constantly disintegrating bed of sand. In March 1962 at the Community Service Organization convention, Chávez proposed a project for organizing farm workers which was rejected by the organization’s members. By 1965 the National Farm Workers Association had acquired twelve hundred members through Chávez’s person-to-person recruitment efforts which he learned from Fred Ross just a decade earlier, Out of those twelve hundred, only about two hundred paid dues. Also in 1962, Richard Chavez, the brother of César Chávez, designed the black Aztec eagle insignia that would become the symbol of the NFW, César Chávez chose the red and black colors used by the organization
9.
Mexican Americans
–
Mexican Americans are Americans of full or partial Mexican descent. As of July 2015, Mexican Americans made up 11. 1% of the United States population, as of July 2015, Mexican Americans comprised 63. 4% of all Hispanics and Latinos in the United States. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world, second only to Mexico itself, canada is a distant third, with a small Mexican Canadian population of 96,055 as of 2011. Over 60% of all Mexican Americans reside in the states of California, in 2015, the United States admitted 157,227 Mexican immigrants, and as of November 2016,1.31 million Mexicans were on the waiting list to immigrate to the United States through legal means. Communities of Spanish-speaking Tejanos, Nuevomexicanos, Californios and Mission Indians have existed in the American southwest since the area was part of New Spains Provincias Internas, the majority of these historically Hispanophone populations eventually adopted English as their first language as part of their overall Americanization. Mexican-American history spans more than 400 years and varies from region to region within the United States, in 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics of Mexican descent living in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, California and Texas. Most were Mexican Americans of Spanish descent and other Hispanicized European settlers who settled in the Southwest during Spanish colonial times, as well as local and Mexican Indians. Approximately ten percent of the current Mexican-American population are descended from the colonial settlers. As early as 1813, some of the Tejanos who colonized Texas in the Spanish Colonial Period established a government in Texas that desired independence from Spanish-ruled Mexico, in those days, there was no concept of identity as Mexican. Many Mexicans were more loyal to their states/provinces than to their country as a whole and this was particularly true in frontier regions such as Zacatecas, Texas, Yucatán, Oaxaca, New Mexico, etc. As shown by the writings of colonial Tejanos such as Antonio Menchaca, Mexico encouraged immigration from the United States to settle east Texas and, by 1831, English-speaking settlers outnumbered Tejanos ten to one in the region. Both groups were settled mostly in the part of the territory. The Mexican government became concerned about the volume of Anglo-American immigration. Consistent with its abolition of slavery, the Mexican government banned slavery within the state and his story is complex because he joined the Anglo rebels and helped defeat the Mexican forces of Santa Anna. But later on, as Mayor of San Antonio, he, after receiving a series of death threats, Seguín relocated his family in Mexico, where he was coerced into military service and fought against the US in 1846–1848 Mexican–American War. As a Spanish colony, the territory of California also had an population of colonial settlers. In the mid-19th century, more settlers from the United States began to enter the territory, in California, Spanish settlement began in 1769 with the establishment of the Presidio and Catholic mission of San Diego. 20 more missions were established along the California coast by 1823, along with military Presidios, settlers in California tended to stay close to the coast and outside of the California interior
10.
Hispanic and Latino Americans
–
Hispanic Americans and Latino Americans, are Americans who are descendants of the peoples of Spain, Portugal, or the Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries of Latin America. More generally, it includes all persons in the United States who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino, other U. S. government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term, including Brazilians and other Portuguese-speaking groups. The Census Bureau uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably, origin can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the persons parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race, as the only specifically designated category of ethnicity in the United States, Hispanics form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic Americans are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, the predominant origin of regional Hispanic populations varies widely in different locations across the country. Hispanic Americans are the second fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States after Asian Americans, hispanic/Latinos overall are the second-largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic Whites. Hispanics have lived within what is now the United States continuously since the founding of St. Augustine by the Spanish in 1565, after Native Americans, Hispanics are the oldest ethnic group to inhabit much of what is today the United States. Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, the terms Hispanic and Latino refer to an ethnicity, people of this group may be of any race. Hispanic people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, according to the Smithsonian Institution, the term Latino includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians, as well as those of Spanish-language origin. In the United States, many Hispanics and Latinos are of both European and Native American ancestry, others are wholly or predominately of European ancestry, or wholly or predominantly of Amerindian ancestry. Many Hispanics and Latinos from the Caribbean, as well as regions of Latin America where African slavery was widespread. The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is confusing to some, the U. S. Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas. The term Latino has developed a number of definitions, one definition of Latino is a Latin male in the United States. This is the oldest and the definition used in the United States. This definition encompasses Spanish speakers from both Europe and the Americas, under this definition, immigrants from Spain and immigrants from Latin America are both Latino. This definition is consistent with the 21st-century usage by the U. S. Census Bureau and OMB, a later definition of Latino is as a condensed form of the term Latino-Americano, the Spanish word for Latin-American, or someone who comes from Latin America. Under this definition a Mexican American or Puerto Rican, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino, a Brazilian American is also a Latino by this definition, which includes those of Portuguese-speaking origin from Latin America. An immigrant from Spain, however, would be classified as Hispanic, while the U. S. Census Bureaus definition of Hispanic is limited to Spain and Spanish-speaking Latin America, other government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term
11.
Labor history of the United States
–
The labor history of the United States describes the history of organized labor, as well as more general history of working people, in the United States. Unions have been important components of the Democratic Party, but that began in the 1930s, however, historians have long debated why no Labor Party emerged in the United States, in contrast to Western Europe. As commentator E. J. Dionne has noted, the movement has traditionally espoused a set of values—solidarity being the most important. Dionne notes that these values are increasingly foreign to American culture, in most industrial nations the labor movement sponsored its own political parties, with the U. S. as a conspicuous exception. Both major American parties vied for votes, with the Democrats usually much more successful. Labor unions became an element of the New Deal Coalition that dominated national politics from the 1930s into the mid-1960s during the Fifth Party System. Liberal Republicans who supported unions in the Northeast lost power after 1964, the history of organized labor has been a specialty of scholars since the 1890s, and has produced a large amount of scholarly literature focused on the structure of organized unions. In the 1960s, as social history gained popularity, a new emphasis emerged on the history of workers, including unorganized workers and this is called the new labor history. Much scholarship has attempted to bring the social history perspectives into the study of organized labor, the history of labor disputes in America substantially precedes the Revolutionary period. In 1636, for instance, there was a strike on an island off the coast of Maine. However, most instances of labor unrest during the period were temporary and isolated. Little legal recourse was available to those injured by the unrest, the only known case of criminal prosecution of workers in the colonial era occurred as a result of a carpenters strike in Savannah, Georgia, in 1746. By the beginning of the 19th century, after the revolution, the career path for most artisans still involved apprenticeship under a master, followed by moving into independent production. However, over the course of the Industrial Revolution, this rapidly changed. For instance, in Boston in 1790, the vast majority of the 1,300 artisans in the city described themselves as master workman, by 1815, journeymen workers without independent means of production had displaced these masters as the majority. By that time journeymen also outnumbered masters in New York City and this shift occurred as a result of large-scale transatlantic and rural-urban migration. Migration into the cities created a larger population of potential laborers. These conditions led to the first labor combination cases in America, the cases overwhelmingly resulted in convictions
12.
Nonviolent resistance
–
This type of action highlights the desires of an individual or group that feels that something needs to change to improve the current condition of the resisting person or group. It is largely but wrongly taken as synonymous with civil resistance, each of these terms has its distinct merits and also quite different connotations and commitments. The modern form of non-violent resistance was popularised and proven to be effective by the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi in his efforts to gain independence from the British Empire, there are hundreds of books and papers on the subject — see Further reading below. From 1966 to 1999, nonviolent civic resistance played a role in 50 of 67 transitions from authoritarianism. Recently, nonviolent resistance has led to the Rose Revolution in Georgia, current nonviolent resistance includes the Jeans Revolution in Belarus, the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia, and the fight of the Cuban dissidents. Many movements which promote philosophies of nonviolence or pacifism have pragmatically adopted the methods of nonviolent action as a way to achieve social or political goals. Nonviolent action differs from pacifism by potentially being proactive and interventionist, clayborne Carson, In Struggle, SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press,1981, mineola, NY, Dover Publications,2001, orig. Gene Sharp, Making Europe Unconquerable, The Potential of Civilian-Based Deterrence and Defence, united Kingdom, Taylor & Francis,1985. ISBN 978-0-85066-336-5/ Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, Michael Bröning, The Politics of Change in Palestine. London, Pluto Press,2011, Part 5, judith Hand, A Future Without War, The Strategy of a Warfare Transition. San Diego, CA, Questpath Publishing,2006, Michael King, The Penguin History of New Zealand. London, Penguin Books,2003, pp 219–20,222, 247–8, mark Kurlansky, Nonviolence, The History of a Dangerous Idea. New York, Modern Library / Random House,2006, david McReynolds, A Philosophy of Nonviolence. Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash, eds, civil Resistance and Power Politics, The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present. Oxford, England, Oxford University Press,2009, adam Roberts, Michael J. Willis, Rory McCarthy and Timothy Garton Ash, eds. Civil Resistance in the Arab Spring, Triumphs and Disasters, Oxford, England, Oxford University Press,2016. Jonathan Schell, The Unconquerable World, Power, Nonviolence, New York, Metropolitan Books / Henry Holt and Company,2003
13.
Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2008
–
The 2008 presidential campaign of Barack Obama, then junior United States Senator from Illinois, was announced on February 10,2007 in Springfield, Illinois. At the 2008 Democratic National Convention on August 27, Barack Obama was formally selected as the Democratic Party nominee for President of the United States in 2008 and he was the first African American in history to be nominated on a major party ticket. On November 4,2008, Obama defeated the Republican nominee, Senator John McCain of Arizona, making him the President-elect and he was the third sitting U. S. Senator, after Warren G. Harding and John F. Kennedy, to be elected President. On June 3,2008, after the Montana and South Dakota primaries and his opponent in the general election, Republican John McCain, passed the delegate threshold to become the apparent nominee of his party on March 4. On June 7, Hillary Clinton, Obamas remaining opponent in the quest for the Democratic nomination, conceded defeat, over the first two weeks of July, the campaign ran a heavier schedule of fundraising events, drawing from former donors to Clintons campaign. Obama strategically had pictures made with financial experts Warren Buffett and Paul Volcker so the public would perceive him as having knowledge of Wall Street. Obamas vice presidential running mate had been a subject of speculation since the end of the primaries, on August 21,2008, Obama announced that he had made a selection for the VP spot, but would not reveal until August 23 who it was. Obamas campaign encouraged supporters to sign up for a text messaging system that would alert them the moment he announced his choice, on August 22, KMBC News of Kansas City spotted bumper stickers of an Obama/Bayh 08 ticket that were being printed in Lenexa, Kansas. Three sources close to a printing plant reported that such material was being produced. The image of the bumper sticker circulated on the internet, however, NBC News later quoted sources stating that Bayh had been informed by Obamas campaign that he was not the pick. According to an Associated Press report that same evening, Joe Biden was selected as Obamas candidate, the Associated Press report was confirmed several hours later, on August 23, on his official campaign website and by a mass text message to supporters. In July 2008 Obama traveled to Kuwait, Afghanistan, Iraq, Jordan, the West Bank, Israel, Germany, France, and Britain. On July 24,2008 he gave a speech at the Victory Column in Berlin before a crowd of estimated 200,000 to 240,000 people, there were three presidential debates between Obama and McCain. The first presidential debate was held on Friday, September 26,2008 at the University of Mississippi, Oxford and this debate was held in a traditional debate format. The second presidential debate was held on Tuesday, October 7,2008 at Belmont University, in Nashville and this debate was held in the town hall format. The third presidential debate was held on Wednesday, October 15,2008 at Hofstra University, in Hempstead and this debate was held in a seated, talk show format. On June 4, John McCain proposed a series of ten joint town hall meetings with Obama, hank Paulson, President Bushs Treasury Secretary, said Obamas comprehension of the financial crisis compared to McCain’s was as broad as night and day. McCain’s confidence vastly lowered when Obama questioned his ideas on the crisis in a meeting on September 25 at the White House with Bush
14.
Barack Obama
–
Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed more landmark legislation than any Democratic president since LBJs Great Society. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
15.
Cesar Chavez Day
–
Cesar Chavez Day is a federal commemorative holiday in the U. S. by proclamation of President Obama in 2014. On March 31 of each year, it celebrates the birth and legacy of the civil rights, Cesar Chavez was an American farm worker, labor leader and civil rights activist, who, with Dolores Huerta, co-founded the National Farm Workers Association. It is commemorated to promote service to the community in honor of Cesar Chavezs life, some state government offices, community colleges, libraries, and public schools are closed. Texas also recognizes the day, and it is a holiday in Arizona. Americans are urged to observe this day with appropriate service, community, as a senator, Barack Obama made a call in 2008 for a national holiday in Chavezs honor, saying, Chavez left a legacy as an educator, environmentalist, and a civil rights leader. As farm workers and laborers across America continue to struggle for fair treatment and fair wages, and we should honor him for what hes taught us about making America a stronger, more just, and more prosperous nation. Thats why I support the call to make Cesar Chavezs birthday a national holiday and its time to recognize the contributions of this American icon to the ongoing efforts to perfect our union. Grassroots organizations continue to advocate to create a national holiday, on March 30,2011, President Obama reiterated his support for the cause, Cesar Chavezs legacy provides lessons from which all Americans can learn. Cesar Chavez Day has been celebrated in Reno, Nevada, since 2003, a state law passed in 2009 requires Nevadas governor to annually issue a proclamation declaring March 31 as Cesar Chavez Day. On March 28,2014, President Obama used his authority to proclaim March 31 as the national Cesar Chavez Day, Cesar Chavez Day as a national holiday has gained support from musician Carlos Santana, civil rights and labor leaders. Rallies were held in 2006 in Los Angeles with the goal of raising awareness beyond California, currently, a major obstacle to this day becoming a national holiday is caused by a rule in Congress that prevents bills with national holiday provisions from being introduced. The holiday proposal would need to overcome that obstacle before legislation can be introduced, public holidays in the United States Susan B. Anthony Day Harriet Tubman Day Martin Luther King Jr. Day Harvey Milk Day Rosa Parks Day A Model curriculum for teaching Cesar Chavezs legacy
16.
Richard Chavez
–
Richard Estrada Chavez was an American labor leader, organizer and activist. Chavez was the brother of labor leader César Chávez, who co-founded the National Farm Workers Association. Richard Chavez is credited with building the United Farm Workers into a major California agricultural and political organization, Chavez was born to a migrant family on November 12,1929, near Yuma, Arizona, on a family farm. He worked as a migrant worker during the Great Depression. He transitioned from farm work to carpentry and moved to San Jose, in the early 1960s, Chavez would leave his job as a carpenter in order to assist Cesar Chavez in his effort to organize California farm workers. Richard Chavez was a co-founder of the National Farm Workers Association, Richard Chavez spearheaded the construction of the United Farm Workers union hall, which became its headquarters, in Delano, California. Paul Chavez, the president of the Cesar Chavez Foundation and son of Cesar Chavez, in 1962, Richard Chavez designed the now iconic logo of the United Farm Workers, which features a black Aztec eagle. Decades later, U. S. President Barack Obama called the eagle a symbol of hope that has helped carry the struggle for the rights of farm workers forward for almost five decades. In 1966, Chavez became the director of the National Farm Workers Service Center. Chavez also put his own home up for collateral to establish the UFWs credit union, Chavez organized the Delano grape strike and boycott, which spanned five years during the late 1960s. He later helped organize other strikes in Detroit and New York City, Richard Chavez served as the third Vice President of the United Farm Workers from 1972 until his retirement in 1984. Chavez retired from the United Farm Workers union in 1983, but continued to serve on the board of directors of the Cesar Chavez Foundation, Chavez worked as a Los Angeles-based custom home builder during the 1990s after he received a California contractors license. Chavez had a romantic relationship with labor leader, Dolores Huerta. Chavez and Huerta never married, but had four children during their relationship, Richard Chavez died from complications of surgery at a hospital in Bakersfield, California, on July 27,2011, at the age of 81. He was survived by ten children, six from his first marriage, Chavez was also survived by two sisters, Rita Chavez Medina and Vicki Chavez Lastra, and one surviving brother, Librado Chavez. President Barack Obama issued a statement calling Chavez a symbol of hope, Chavez had visited Obama at the White House in 2010 to mark Cesar Chavez Day
17.
Adobe
–
Adobe is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world, modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Puebloan peoples built their structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages and its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines. The word adobe /əˈdoʊbiː/ has existed for around 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word ɟbt mudbrick, Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or pre-Coptic, and finally to Coptic, where it appeared as τωωβε tōʾpə. This was borrowed into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached, tuba, English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. In more modern English usage, the adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America. An adobe brick is a material made of earth mixed with water. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay, straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight, no more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the resulting in cracking. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where construction is in use, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are bearing, i. e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure
18.
Great Depression
–
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
19.
United States Navy
–
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
20.
Community Service Organization
–
The Community Service Organization was an important California Latino civil rights organization, most famous for training Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta. It was founded in 1947 by Fred Ross, Antonio Rios, Ross had been hired by Saul Alinsky and was employed by his Industrial Areas Foundation. More than five decades ago, in colonias and barrios across California and they were workers and housewives, recent immigrants and returning soldiers. They toiled in the fields and on the railroads, in construction, for many years, they experienced racism and discrimination, and they believed they had no power to change the status quo. But through their efforts, they discovered otherwise and that main experiment was the Community Service Organization, a grassroots organizing effort trying to empower a generation of Mexican-Americans and change the course of history for their children. The CSO Project was formed to capture the stories of the pioneers whose work in the 1950s marked the beginning of the Chicano civil rights movement, the alumni of CSO include famous figures, such as former U. S. Rep. It is the story of Hector Tarango, who in 1948 made history in Orange County by winning the first school desegregation case in the country, the Lessons of the Community Service Organization
21.
Delano, California
–
Delano is a city in Kern County, California, United States. Delano is located 31 miles north-northwest of Bakersfield at an elevation of 315 feet, the population was 62,088 in 2016, up from 38,824 in 2000. It is Kern Countys second largest city after Bakersfield, the area is particularly well known as a center for the growing of table grapes. Delano is also home to two California state prisons, North Kern State Prison and Kern Valley State Prison, the Voice of America once operated its largest, most powerful shortwave broadcast facility outside Delano at 35°45′15″N 119°17′7″W. However, the Voice of America ceased broadcasts in October 2007, citing a changing mission, reduced budgets. Delanos two school districts currently operate eight schools, three middle schools, three comprehensive high schools and two alternative high schools. The city has its own department and contracts with the Kern County Fire Department for fire services, EMS services are privately provided by local company. Delano was founded on July 14,1869 as a town, not because the railroad passed through the town but because the railroad coming down from San Francisco. The name was given by the Southern Pacific Railroad in honor of Columbus Delano. The first post office opened in 1874, the town naturally started with a boom. Great loads of bullion were delivered here from the mines in the mountains, Delano became the northern terminus for the passenger stages that ran south to Bakersfield and Los Angeles. The fare from Bakersfield to Delano was $7.00 a trip, Delano was a major hub of farmworker organization efforts and Chicano movement politics. Filipino immigrants Philip Vera Cruz and Larry Dulay Itliong were instrumental in shaping the direction of farm worker movement in the 1950s, the strikers goal was to improve farmworkers wages and working conditions. The National Farm Workers Association, a largely Hispanic union led by Cesar Chavez, during the strike, the two groups joined forces and formed the United Farm Workers of America. By 1970, the UFW won a contract with major grape growers across California, Delano is also known as The Town because of the many towns folk that roam there. Major farm employers in Delano include Wonderful Citrus, Columbine Vineyards, Munger Farms, Lucich Farms, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 14.4 square miles, over 99% of which is land. Delanos climate is characteristic of the San Joaquin Valley, the weather is hot and dry during the summer and cool and damp in winter. Frequent winter ground fog known regionally as tule fog can obscure vision, record temperatures range between 115 °F and 14 °F. Delano is located within a desert climatic zone, receiving 7.51 in of rainfall annually
22.
Filipino Americans
–
Filipino Americans are Americans of Filipino descent. The term Filipino American is sometimes shortened to Fil-Ams, or Pinoy, according to Filipino American historian Dawn Mabalon, the earliest appearance of the term Pinoy, was in a 1926 issue of the Filipino Student Bulletin. The article that featured the terms, is titled, Filipino Women in U. S, excel in Their Courses, Invade Business, Politics. Some Filipinos believe that the term Pinoy was coined by Filipinos who came to the United States to distinguish themselves from Filipinos living in the Philippines, Filipinos in North America were first documented in the 16th century, with small settlements beginning in the 18th century. Mass migration did not begin until the early 20th Century when the Philippines was ceded from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris, Philippine independence was recognized by the United States on July 4,1946. Immigration was reduced significantly during the 1930s, except for those who served in the United States Navy, Filipino sailors were the first Asians in North America. Mass migration began in the early 20th century when, for a following the 1898 Treaty of Paris. During the 1920s, a majority of Filipino workers who arrived in the United States lacked necessary training, after independence in 1946, Filipino American numbers continued to grow. The population of Filipino immigrant workers, as well the quality of their skills, improved following the passing of the Immigration Act of 1965. The 2010 Census counted 3.4 million Filipino Americans, while the United States Department of State in 2011 estimated the total at 4 million, the total at 4 million, or 1. 1% of the U. S. population. They are the second largest self-reported Asian ancestry group after Chinese Americans according to 2010 American Community Survey. They are also the largest population of Overseas Filipinos, significant populations of Filipino Americans can be found in California, Hawaii, the New York metropolitan area and Illinois. The history of Spanish and American rule and contact with merchants, Filipino American cultural identity has been described as fluid, adopting aspects from various cultures, that said there has not been significant research into the culture of Filipino Americans. In areas of sparse Filipino population, they often form loosely-knit social organizations aimed at maintaining a sense of family and these organizations generally arrange social events, especially of a charitable nature, and keep members up-to-date with local events. Organizations are often organized into regional associations, the associations are a small part of Filipino American life. Filipino Americans formed close-knit neighborhoods, notably in California and Hawaii, a few communities have Little Manilas, civic and business districts tailored for the Filipino American community. Reflecting its 333 years of Spanish rule, many Filipinos adopted Hispanic surnames, due to the legacy of colonization, Filipinos are considered Latinos of Asia. Despite being from Asia, Filipinos are sometimes called Latinos due to their relationship to Spanish colonialism
23.
Delano grape strike
–
The Delano grape strike was a labor strike by the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee and the United Farm Workers against grape growers in California. The strike began on September 8,1965, and lasted more than five years, due largely to a consumer boycott of non-union grapes, the strike ended with a significant victory for the United Farm Workers as well as its first contract with the growers. The strike rapidly spread to over 2,000 workers, by July 1970, the UFW had succeeded in reaching a collective bargaining agreement with the table-grape growers, affecting in excess of 10,000 farm workers. An estimated crowd of more than twelve hundred supporters and members of Chavez’s organization repeatedly chanted, “Huelga. ”The Spanish word for strike, on March 17,1966 Cesar Chavez embarked on a three-hundred mile pilgrimage from Delano, California to the state’s capital of Sacramento. The pilgrimage was also intended to bring public attention to the farm worker’s cause. Shortly after this, the National Farm Workers Association and the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee merged, in August 1966, the AFL-CIO charted the UFW, officially combining the AWOC and the NFWA. After a record harvest in the fall of 1965, thousands of California farm workers went on strike, many were arrested by police and injured by growers while picketing. Chavez sent two workers and a student activist to follow a grape shipment from one of the growers to the end destination at the Oakland docks. Once there, the protestors were instructed to persuade the longshoremen to refrain from loading the shipment of grapes, the group was successful in its course of action, and this resulted in the spoilage of a thousand ten-ton cases of grapes which were left to rot on the docks. This event sparked the decision to use the protest tactic of boycotting as the means by which the movement would win the struggle against the Delano grape growers. This initial successful boycott was followed by a series of lines on Bay Area docks. The International Longshoremen’s and Warehousemen’s Union, whose members were responsible for loading the shipments, cooperated with the protesters, starting in December 1965, Chavez’s organization participated in several consumer boycotts against the Schenley corporation. The large corporations affected by the strikes led by Chavez employed fear tactics in order to protect profits, the documentary The Wrath of Grapes mentions that the Delano-based company, M Caratan Inc. hired thugs to break up from workers voting to unionize. They attacked voters, overturned tables and even smashed ballot boxes, the DiGiorgio Corporation was finally pressured into holding an election amongst its workers allowing them to choose the union they wanted to represent them on August 30,1967. This came as a result of the tactic of blocking grape distribution centers. With their products not on the shelves of retailers as a result of the boycott, in June 1975, California passed a law allowing for secret ballot union representation elections for farm workers. By mid-September, the UFW won the right to represent 4,500 workers at 24 farms, the UFW won the majority of the elections in which it participated. The Teamsters signed an agreement with the UFW in 1977, promising to end its efforts to represent farm workers, the boycott of grapes, lettuce, and Gallo Winery products officially ended in 1978
24.
Sacramento, California
–
Sacramento is the capital city of the U. S. state of California and the seat of Sacramento County. It is at the confluence of the Sacramento River and the American River in the portion of Californias expansive Central Valley. Its estimated 2014 population of 485,199 made it the sixth-largest city in California, Sacramento is the cultural and economic core of the Sacramento metropolitan area, which includes seven counties with a 2010 population of 2,414,783. In 2002, the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University conducted for Time magazine named Sacramento Americas Most Diverse City, Sacramento became a city through the efforts of the Swiss immigrant John Sutter, Sr. his son John Augustus Sutter, Jr. and James W. Marshall. Sacramento grew quickly thanks to the protection of Sutters Fort, which was established by Sutter in 1839, the city was named after the Sacramento River, which forms its western border. The river was named by Spanish cavalry officer Gabriel Moraga for the Santísimo Sacramento, California State University, Sacramento, is the largest university in the city and one of 23 campuses in the California State University system. University of the Pacific is a university with one of its three campuses in Sacramento. In addition, the University of California, Davis, located in nearby Davis, operates its UC Davis Medical Center, nisenan and Plains Miwok Native Americans had lived in the area for perhaps thousands of years. Unlike the settlers who would eventually make Sacramento their home, these Native Americans left little evidence of their existence. Traditionally, their diet was dominated by acorns taken from the oak trees in the region, and by fruits, bulbs, seeds. In 1808, the Spanish explorer Gabriel Moraga discovered and named the Sacramento Valley, a Spanish writer with the Moraga expedition wrote, Canopies of oaks and cottonwoods, many festooned with grapevines, overhung both sides of the blue current. Birds chattered in the trees and big fish darted through the pellucid depths, the air was like champagne, and drank deep of it, drank in the beauty around them. The valley and the river were then christened after the Most Holy Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ, John Sutter first arrived on August 13,1839 at the divergence of the American and Sacramento Rivers with a Mexican land grant of 50,000 acres. The next year, he and his party established Sutters Fort, representing Mexico, Sutter called his colony New Helvetia, a Swiss inspired name, and was the political authority and dispenser of justice in the new settlement. Soon, the colony began to grow as more and more pioneers headed west, within just a few short years, John Sutter had become a grand success, owning a ten-acre orchard and a herd of thirteen thousand cattle. Fort Sutter became a stop for the increasing number of immigrants coming through the valley. In 1847, Sutter hired James Marshall to build a sawmill so that he could continue to expand his empire, Sutter received 2,000 fruit trees in 1847, which started the agriculture industry in the Sacramento Valley. In 1848, when gold was discovered by James W. Marshall at Sutters Mill in Coloma and he hired topographical engineer William H
25.
Boycott
–
The purpose of a boycott is to inflict some economic loss on the target, or to indicate a moral outrage, to try to compel the target to alter an objectionable behavior. Sometimes, a boycott can be a form of consumer activism, when a similar practice is legislated by a national government, it is known as a sanction. As harvests had been poor that year, Lord Erne offered his tenants a ten percent reduction in their rents, in September of that year, protesting tenants demanded a twenty five percent reduction, which Lord Erne refused. Boycott then attempted to evict eleven tenants from the land, while Parnells speech did not refer to land agents or landlords, the tactic was first applied to Boycott when the alarm was raised about the evictions. Despite the short-term economic hardship to those undertaking this action, Boycott soon found himself isolated – his workers stopped work in the fields and stables, local businessmen stopped trading with him, and the local postman refused to deliver mail. The concerted action taken against him meant that Boycott was unable to hire anyone to harvest the crops in his charge, eventually 50 Orangemen from Cavan and Monaghan volunteered to do the work. This protection ended up costing far more than the harvest was worth, after the harvest, the boycott was successfully continued. Within weeks Boycotts name was everywhere, the New York Tribune reporter, James Redpath, first wrote of the boycott in the international press. The Irish author, George Moore, reported, Like a comet the verb boycott appeared and it was used by The Times in November 1880 as a term for organized isolation. According to an account in the book The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland by Michael Davitt, john OMalley of County Mayo to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or agent like Boycott. The Times first reported on November 20,1880, The people of New Pallas have resolved to boycott them, the Daily News wrote on December 13,1880, Already the stoutest-hearted are yielding on every side to the dread of being Boycotted. By January of the year, the word was being used figuratively. She Boycotted London from Kew to Mile End, girlcott is a portmanteau of girl and boycott intended to focus on the rights or actions of women. The term was coined in 1968 by American track star Lacey ONeal during the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, speaking for black women athletes, she advised that the group would not girlcott the Olympic Games, because female athletes were still focused on being recognized. It also appeared in Time magazine in 1970, and was used by retired tennis player Billie Jean King in reference to Wimbledon. The term girlcott was revived in 2005 by women in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania protesting what they said were sexist, during the 1973 oil crisis, the Arab countries enacted a crude oil embargo against the West. The first Olympic boycott was in the 1956 Summer Olympics with several countries boycotting the games for different reasons, iran also has an informal Olympic boycott against participating against Israel, and Iranian athletes typically bow out or claim injuries when pitted against Israelis. A boycott is typically a one-time affair intended to correct a single wrong. g
26.
Walter Reuther
–
He was a socialist in the early 1930s and worked closely with the Communist Party in the auto industry in the middle and late 1930s. He was a leader in removing communists from the offices in UAW, during the 1960s he was a major supporter of the civil rights movement. Reuther was born on September 1,1907 in Wheeling, West Virginia, the son of Anna and Valentine Reuther, throughout his career he was close to his brothers and co-workers Victor Reuther and Roy Reuther. Reuther joined the Ford Motor Company in 1927 as an expert tool and he was laid off in 1932 as the Great Depression worsened. His Ford employment record states that he quit voluntarily, but Reuther himself always maintained that he was fired for his increasingly visible socialist activities. He and his brother Victor went to Europe and then worked 1933–35 in a plant at Gorky in the Soviet Union. What we have experienced here has reeducated us along new and more practical lines, Reuther returned to the United States where he found employment at General Motors and became an active member of the United Automobile Workers. Reuther was a Socialist Party member and he may have paid dues to the Communist Party for some months in 1935–36, and he has been reported as attending a Communist Party planning meeting as late as February 1939. Reuther remained active in the Socialist Party and in 1937 failed in his attempt to be elected to the Detroit Common Council, however, impressed by the efforts by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to tackle inequality, he eventually joined the Democratic Party. In 1936 he became president of United Automobile Workers Local 174, Reuther led several strikes and in 1937 and 1940 was hospitalized after being badly beaten by strikebreakers. He survived two attempts, and his right hand was permanently crippled in an attack on April 20,1948. He had a highly publicized confrontation with Ford security forces on May 26,1937, by this time, thanks to the sit-down strikes, UAW membership had exploded and Local 174 was a power inside the UAW. As a senior union organizer, Reuther helped win major strikes for union recognition against General Motors in 1940 and he is remembered for a famous exchange with a Ford executive when Ford was automating its production lines. Leading Reuther into a hall filled with machines, with just one or two human workers programming them, an executive joked, How do you plan to get these boys to pay your union dues. Reuther looked around, shook his head, and said, How do you plan to get them to buy your cars, after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Reuther strongly supported the war effort and refused to tolerate wildcat strikes that might disrupt munitions production. He worked for the War Manpower Commission, the Office of Production Management, and he led a 113-day strike against General Motors in 1945–1946, it only partially succeeded. He never received the power he wanted to inspect company books or have a say in management, in 1946 he narrowly defeated R. J. Thomas for the UAW presidency, and promptly he purged the UAW of all communist elements. He was active in the Congress of Industrial Organizations umbrella as well, as a prominent figure in the anti-communist left, he was a founder of the Americans for Democratic Action in 1947
27.
Robert F. Kennedy
–
Robert Francis Bobby Kennedy, commonly known by his initials RFK, was an American politician from Massachusetts. He served as the United States junior senator from New York from January 1965 until his assassination in June 1968. He was previously the 64th U. S. Attorney General from January 1961 to September 1964, serving under his older brother President John F. Kennedy and his successor, Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and is seen as an icon of modern American liberalism. After serving in the United States Naval Reserve as a Seaman Apprentice from 1944 to 1946, Kennedy graduated from Harvard University, prior to entering public office, he worked as a correspondent for The Boston Post and as an assistant counsel to the Senate committee chaired by Joe McCarthy. Kennedy was the manager for his brother John in the 1960 presidential election. He was appointed Attorney General after the election and served as the closest adviser to the president from 1961 to 1963. His tenure is best known for its advocacy for the Civil Rights Movement, the fight against organized crime and the Mafia, after his brothers assassination, he remained in office in the Johnson administration for a few months. He left to run for the United States Senate in New York in 1964, in 1968, Kennedy was a leading candidate for the Democratic nomination for the presidency, he appealed especially to poor, African-American, Hispanic, Catholic and young voters. Robert F. Kennedy was born on November 20,1925, in Brookline, Massachusetts and his older brothers were Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. and John F. Jack Kennedy, who was elected the 35th President of the United States in 1960. His younger brother was longtime United States Senator Edward M. Ted Kennedy, all four of his grandparents were children of Irish immigrants. His father was a businessman and a leading Irish Catholic figure in the Democratic Party. After he stepped down as ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1940, Joe Sr. focused his attention on his oldest son, Joseph Jr. expecting that he would enter politics and be elected president. He also urged the children to examine and discuss current events in order to propel them to public service. After Joseph Jr. was killed during World War II, the senior Kennedys hopes fell on his son, John. Joseph Sr. had the money and connections to play a role in the familys political ambitions. Kennedys older brother John was often bedridden by illness and, as a result, although he made little effort to get to know his younger brother during his childhood, John would take him for walks and regale him with the stories of heroes and adventures he had read. One of their favorite authors was John Buchan, who wrote The Thirty-Nine Steps, John sometimes referred to Robert as Black Robert due to his prudishness and disposition. He described his position in the hierarchy by saying, When you come from that far down
28.
Starr County, Texas
–
Starr County is a county located in the U. S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 census, its population was 60,968 and its county seat is Rio Grande City. The county was created in 1848 and it is named for James Harper Starr, who served as Secretary of the Treasury of the Republic of Texas. Starr County comprises the Rio Grande City, TX Micropolitan Statistical Area and it is northeast from the Mexican border. From 2000 to 2010 the population of Starr County increased from 53,597 to 60,968. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,229 square miles. U. S. Highway 83 Lower Rio Grande Valley National Wildlife Refuge As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 60,968 people residing in the county. 0. 4% were White,0. 2% Asian,0. 1% Native American,0. 1% Black or African American,3. 0% of some other race and 0. 5% of two or more races. According to the Census Bureau, Starr County had the highest percentage of Hispanic residents of any county in the United States, as of the census of 2000, there were 53,597 people,14,410 households, and 12,666 families residing in the county. The population density was 44 people per square mile, there were 17,589 housing units at an average density of 14 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 87. 92% White,0. 15% Black or African American,0. 25% Native American,0. 28% Asian,0. 04% Pacific Islander,9. 91% from other races, and 1. 46% from two or more races. 11. 30% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 3.69 and the average family size was 4.01. In the county, the population was out with 37. 40% under the age of 18,11. 00% from 18 to 24,27. 10% from 25 to 44,16. 30% from 45 to 64. The median age was 26 years, for every 100 females there were 94.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.10 males, the median income for a household in the county was $16,504, and the median income for a family was $17,556. Males had an income of $17,398 versus $13,533 for females. The per capita income for the county was $7,069, about 47. 40% of families and 50. 90% of the population were below the poverty line, including 59. 40% of those under age 18 and 43. 30% of those age 65 or over. As of 2009 the median income was $22,418
29.
Austin, Texas
–
Austin is the capital of the U. S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County. It is the 11th-most populous city in the U. S. and it is the fastest growing large city in the United States and the second most populous capital city after Phoenix, Arizona. As of the U. S. Census Bureaus July 1,2015 estimate and it is the cultural and economic center of the Austin–Round Rock metropolitan area, which had an estimated population of 2,056,405 as of July 1,2016. In the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River, in 1839, the site was officially chosen to replace Houston as the new capital of the Republic of Texas and was incorporated under the name Waterloo. Shortly thereafter, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the Father of Texas and the republics first secretary of state. The city subsequently grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin. After a lull in growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its development into a city and, by the 1980s, it emerged as a center for technology. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including Amazon. com, cisco, eBay, Google, IBM, Intel, Oracle Corporation, Texas Instruments, 3M, and Whole Foods Market. Dells worldwide headquarters is located in nearby Round Rock, a suburb of Austin, residents of Austin are known as Austinites. They include a mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, blue-collar workers. The city also adopted Silicon Hills as a nickname in the 1990s due to an influx of technology. In the late 1800s, Austin was known as the City of the Violet Crown because of the glow of light across the hills just after sunset. Even today, many Austin businesses use the term Violet Crown in their name, Austin is known as a clean-air city for its stringent no-smoking ordinances that apply to all public places and buildings, including restaurants and bars. The FBI ranked Austin as the second-safest major city in the U. S. for the year 2012, U. S. News & World Report named Austin the best place to live in the U. S. in 2017. Austin, Travis County and Williamson County have been the site of habitation since at least 9200 BC. When settlers arrived from Europe, the Tonkawa tribe inhabited the area, the Comanches and Lipan Apaches were also known to travel through the area. Spanish colonists, including the Espinosa-Olivares-Aguirre expedition, traveled through the area for centuries, in 1730, three missions from East Texas were combined and reestablished as one mission on the south side of the Colorado River, in what is now Zilker Park, in Austin. The mission was in area for only about seven months
30.
Midwestern United States
–
It was officially named the North Central region by the Census Bureau until 1984. Illinois is the most populous of the states and North Dakota the least, a 2012 report from the United States Census put the population of the Midwest at 65,377,684. The Midwest is divided by the Census Bureau into two divisions, the East North Central Division includes Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio and Wisconsin, all of which are also part of the Great Lakes region. Major rivers in the include, from east to west, the Ohio River, the Upper Mississippi River. Chicago is the most populated city in the American Midwest and the third most populous in the entire country, other large Midwest cities include, Indianapolis, Columbus, Detroit, Milwaukee, Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, Cleveland, Wichita and St. Louis. Chicago and its suburbs form the largest metropolitan area with 9.8 million people, followed by Metro Detroit. Paul, Greater St. Louis, Greater Cleveland, Greater Cincinnati, Kansas City metro area, the term Midwestern has been in use since the 1880s to refer to portions of the central United States. A variant term, Middle West, has used since the 19th century. Another term sometimes applied to the general region is the heartland. Other designations for the region have fallen out of use, such as the Northwest or Old Northwest, the Northwest Territory was one of the earliest territories of the United States, stretching northwest from the Ohio River to northern Minnesota and upper-Mississippi. The upper-Mississippi watershed including the Missouri and Illinois Rivers was the setting for the earlier French settlements of the Illinois Country, economically the region is balanced between heavy industry and agriculture, with finance and services such as medicine and education becoming increasingly important. Its central location makes it a crossroads for river boats, railroads, autos, trucks. Politically the region swings back and forth between the parties, and thus is heavily contested and often decisive in elections, after the sociological study Middletown, which was based on Muncie, Indiana, commentators used Midwestern cities as typical of the nation. The region has a higher ratio than the Northeast, the West. Traditional definitions of the Midwest include the Northwest Ordinance Old Northwest states, the states of the Old Northwest are also known as Great Lakes states and are east-north central in the United States. The Ohio River runs along the section while the Mississippi River runs north to south near the center. Many of the Louisiana Purchase states in the west-north central United States, are known as Great Plains states. The Midwest lies north of the 36°30′ parallel that the 1820 Missouri Compromise established as the line between future slave and non-slave states
31.
Wisconsin
–
Wisconsin is a U. S. state located in the north-central United States, in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous. The state capital is Madison, and its largest city is Milwaukee, the state is divided into 72 counties. Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline, Wisconsin is known as Americas Dairyland because it is one of the nations leading dairy producers, particularly famous for its cheese. Manufacturing, especially paper products, information technology, and tourism are major contributors to the states economy. The word Wisconsin originates from the given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquian-speaking Native American groups living in the region at the time of European contact. French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River, arriving in 1673, subsequent French writers changed the spelling from Meskousing to Ouisconsin, and over time this became the name for both the Wisconsin River and the surrounding lands. English speakers anglicized the spelling from Ouisconsin to Wisconsin when they began to arrive in numbers during the early 19th century. The legislature of Wisconsin Territory made the current spelling official in 1845, the Algonquin word for Wisconsin and its original meaning have both grown obscure. Interpretations vary, but most implicate the river and the red sandstone that lines its banks, other theories include claims that the name originated from one of a variety of Ojibwa words meaning red stone place, where the waters gather, or great rock. Wisconsin has been home to a variety of cultures over the past 12,000 years. The first people arrived around 10,000 BCE during the Wisconsin Glaciation and these early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, hunted now-extinct ice age animals such as the Boaz mastodon, a prehistoric mastodon skeleton unearthed along with spear points in southwest Wisconsin. After the ice age ended around 8000 BCE, people in the subsequent Archaic period lived by hunting, fishing, agricultural societies emerged gradually over the Woodland period between 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. Toward the end of period, Wisconsin was the heartland of the Effigy Mound culture. Later, between 1000 and 1500 CE, the Mississippian and Oneota cultures built substantial settlements including the village at Aztalan in southeast Wisconsin. The Oneota may be the ancestors of the modern Ioway and Ho-Chunk tribes who shared the Wisconsin region with the Menominee at the time of European contact, the first European to visit what became Wisconsin was probably the French explorer Jean Nicolet. He canoed west from Georgian Bay through the Great Lakes in 1634, pierre Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers visited Green Bay again in 1654–1666 and Chequamegon Bay in 1659–1660, where they traded for fur with local Native Americans. In 1673, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet became the first to record a journey on the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway all the way to the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien
32.
Farm Labor Organizing Committee
–
The Farm Labor Organizing Committee, AFL-CIO, is a labor union representing migrant farm workers in the Midwestern United States and North Carolina. FLOC was founded in Toledo, Ohio, in 1967 by Baldemar Velasquez, a migrant worker who had worked in the fields since he was six years old, Velasquez led his first strike at the age of 12. By the time he was 20 years old and a student, Velasquez had already faced numerous beatings. But in 1967, with the help of his father and others, FLOCs initial organizing strategy was to focus on workers, as most unions did. FLOC organizers followed migrant workers year-round, moving south to Texas, by 1977, however, FLOC had only 700 members. In 1978, Velasquez decided to adopt a new organizing strategy, the union believed that Ohio tomato growers would be unable to recruit enough workers to see them through a long strike. So that year 2,000 FLOC members walked off their jobs in Ohio, while some growers were willing to negotiate, big canners such as the Campbell Soup Company were unwilling to pay the higher prices which would accompany a unionized workforce. FLOC initiated a boycott of Campbells, six years later, not much had changed even though FLOC had conducted a well-publicized 560-mile march from Toledo to Campbell Soup headquarters in Camden, New Jersey, in 1983. Even the support of the National Council of Churches and a group of Catholic bishops in Ohio failed to sway the company, in 1984, FLOC asked labor organizer and consultant Ray Rogers for help. Rogers developed a campaign strategy which included a resolution and well-publicized demonstration at a Campbell Soup shareholder meeting. The companys public image began to suffer, FLOC then targeted three members of Campbells board of directors for economic pressure. FLOC also picketed Philadelphia National Bank, one of Campbells major creditors, shortly thereafter, depositors threatened to pull $500,000 out of the bank. In 1985, Campbells agreed to establish a commission to implement an anti-poverty program among its workers, chaired by Dunlop, the commission began acting as a labor relations board. In the fall of 1985, Campbells officials agreed to negotiate with FLOC, Campbells agreed to purchase a fixed portion of growers crops, a guarantee that allowed growers to increase wages without fear that Campbells would take its business elsewhere. Shortly thereafter, FLOC reached deals with Vlasic, Heinz, Green Bay Foods, Aunt Janes, within a year, FLOC had also signed pacts with 23 of the largest cucumber growers in Ohio and Michigan as well. FLOC continued to address related to its collective bargaining agreement in the late 1980s. Midwestern tomato farmers began complaining that the Campbells Soup pact was not adequate, Campbells purchased only a portion of their product, but the higher costs of wages and benefits affected their entire crop. Thus, Midwestern growers argued that they could no longer compete with cheap Mexican-grown products, Velasquez contacted Mexican farm worker unions, then in the midst of their own collective bargaining negotiations
33.
Ohio
–
Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
34.
Coretta King
–
Coretta Scott King was an American author, activist, civil rights leader, and the wife of Martin Luther King, Jr. from 1953 until his death in 1968. Coretta Scott King helped lead the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, King was an active advocate for African-American equality. King met her husband while in college, and their participation escalated until they became central to the movement, in her early life, Coretta was an accomplished singer, and she often incorporated music into her civil rights work. King played a prominent role in the years after her husbands 1968 assassination when she took on the leadership of the struggle for racial equality herself, King founded the King Center and sought to make his birthday a national holiday. King finally succeeded when Ronald Reagan signed legislation which established Martin Luther King and she later broadened her scope to include both opposition to apartheid and advocacy for LGBT rights. King became friends with many politicians before and after Martin Luther Kings death, most notably John F. Kennedy, John F. Kennedys phone call to her during the 1960 election was what she liked to believe was behind his victory. In August 2005, King suffered a stroke paralyzed her right side and left her unable to speak. Her funeral was attended by some 10,000 people, including four of five living US presidents and she was temporarily buried on the grounds of the King Center until being interred next to her husband. She was inducted into the Alabama Womens Hall of Fame and was the first African-American to lie in State in the Georgia State Capitol, King has been referred to as First Lady of the Civil Rights Movement. Coretta Scott was born in Marion, Alabama, the third of four children of Obadiah Scott and she was born in her parents home with her paternal great-grandmother Delia Scott, a former slave, presiding as midwife. Corettas mother became known for her talent and singing voice. As a child Bernice attended the local Crossroads School and only had a fourth grade education, bernices older siblings, however, attended boarding school at the Booker T. Washington founded Tuskegee Institute. The senior Mrs. Scott worked as a bus driver, a church pianist. She served as Worthy Matron for her Eastern Star chapter and was a member of the local Literacy Federated Club, Obie, Corettas father, was the first black person in their neighborhood to own a vehicle. Before starting his own businesses he worked as a policeman, along with his wife, he ran a clothes shop far from their home and later opened a general store. He also owned a mill, which was burned down by white neighbors after Scott refused to lend his mill to a white male logger. Her maternal grandparents were Mollie and Martin van Buren McMurry – both were of African-American and Irish descent, Mollie was born a slave to plantation owner Jim Blackburn and Adeline Smith. Corettas maternal grandfather, Martin, was born to a slave of Black Native American ancestry and he eventually owned a 280-acre farm
35.
Phoenix Historic Property Register
–
The Phoenix Historic Property Register is the official listing of the historic and prehistoric properties in the city of Phoenix, the capital and largest city, of the U. S. state of Arizona. The historic properties are divided into three categories and listed with a Historic Preservation zoning overlay, the categories are, Historic Residential Districts, Historic Non-Residential Districts and Individual Properties. The factors which are taken into consideration and which are included in the eligibility criteria for inclusion are,1. The historical significance of the property,2, the age of the property and 3. According to the Phoenix Historic Property Register, once listed, the properties are protected from demolition, however, according to Robert A. Melikian, author of the book Vanishing Phoenix, Phoenix’s preservation office does not have the ability to deny a demolition permit. Therefore, the owner of a property, listed either in the National Register of Historic Places or the Phoenix Historic Property Register, among the properties that have been demolished are the following, Arizona Citrus Growers Association Warehouse-601 E. Jackson St. Craftsman Bungalow-1241 E. Roosevelt St. These structures are prone to vandalism and the elements, the Charles Pugh House, built in 1897 and located at 356 N. The Louis Emerson House, built in 1902 and located at 623 N, the Concrete Block Bungalow, built in 1908 and located at 606 N. 9th St. The Leighton G. Knipe House, built in 1909 and located at 1025 N. 2nd Ave, the Sach’s-Webster Farmstead House, built in 1909 and located in the Northwest corner of 75th Ave. and Baseline. The Sarah Pemberton House, built in 1920 and located at 1121 N. 2nd St. Historic Residential Districts in the Phoenix Historic Property Register Alvarado - Listed September 1992, campus Vista - Listed April 2003. Cheery Lynn - Listed February 1994, country Club Park- Listed January 1993. Del Norte Place - Listed July 1993, earll Place - Listed April 2003. East Alvarado - Listed May 1992. Q, idylwilde Park - Listed June 1991. La Hacienda - Listed April 2003, los Olivos - Listed December 2003. Margarita Place - Listed October 1999, medlock Place - Listed April 2003. North Encanto - Listed December 2002, north Garfield - Listed December 2002, district consolidation, expansion and name change February 2005. Oakland - Listed September 1988, boundary expansion June 2006, pierson Place - Listed November 2005. Roosevelt- Listed September 1986, boundary adjustments October 1991, December 1997, Roosevelt Park - Listed March 2003. Villa Verde - Listed January 1999, windsor Square - Listed July 1996
36.
Fasting
–
Fasting is a willing abstinence or reduction from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. An absolute fast is normally defined as abstinence from all food and liquid for a period, usually a period of 24 hours. Water fasting allows drinking water but nothing else, other fasts may be partially restrictive, limiting only particular foods or substances. A fast may also be intermittent in nature, Fasting practices may preclude intercourse and other activities as well as food. In a physiological context, fasting may refer to the status of a person who has not eaten overnight. Several metabolic adjustments occur during fasting, and some tests are used to determine a fasting state. For example, a person is assumed to be fasting after 8–12 hours from their last meal, metabolic changes toward the fasting state begin after absorption of a meal, post-absorptive state is synonymous with this usage, in contrast to the postprandial state of ongoing digestion. A diagnostic fast refers to prolonged fasting conducted under observation for investigation of a problem, many people may also fast as part of a medical procedure or check-up such as a colonoscopy. Fasting is also a part of religious observances. Fasting is often practiced prior to surgery or other procedures that require general anesthetics because of the risk of aspiration of gastric contents after induction of anesthesia. Additionally, certain tests, such as cholesterol testing or certain blood glucose measurements require fasting for several hours so that a baseline can be established. In the case of a panel, failure to fast for a full 12 hours will guarantee an elevated triglyceride measurement. Fasting is of no help in preventing or treating cancer. Fasting can help alleviate symptoms of depression. However the psychological effects may include anxiety and depression. Fasting will lead to weight loss, using fasting for weight loss is considered dangerous. It has been argued that fasting makes one better appreciate food, Fasting is often used as a tool to make a political statement, to protest, or to bring awareness to a cause. A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke feelings of guilt, a spiritual fast incorporates personal spiritual beliefs with the desire to express personal principles, sometimes in the context of a social injustice
37.
Nonviolence
–
Nonviolence is the personal practice of being harmless to self and others under every condition. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth tirthankara of the Jain religion, was the torch-bearer of ahimsa and introduced the word to the world and he taught that to attain nirvana, one must abstain from violence. Nonviolence also has active or activist elements, in that believers accept the need for nonviolence as a means to political and social change. In modern times, nonviolent methods of action have been a tool for social protest. There are many examples of their use, fuller surveys may be found in the entries on civil resistance, nonviolent resistance and nonviolent revolution. The 1989 Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia that saw the overthrow of the Communist government is considered one of the most important of the largely nonviolent Revolutions of 1989. Most recently the nonviolent campaigns of Leymah Gbowee and the women of Liberia were able to achieve peace after a 14-year civil war and this story is captured in a 2008 documentary film Pray the Devil Back to Hell. In an essay, To Abolish War, evolutionary biologist Judith Hand advocated the use of nonviolent direct action to dismantle the global war machine. The term nonviolence is often linked with or used as a synonym for peace, and despite being frequently equated with passivity and pacifism, this is rejected by nonviolent advocates and activists. Nonviolence refers specifically to the absence of violence and is always the choice to do no harm or the least harm, sometimes nonviolence is passive, and other times it isnt. For example, if a house is burning down with mice or insects in it, there is at times confusion and contradiction written about nonviolence, harmlessness and passivity. A confused person may advocate nonviolence in a specific context while advocating violence in other contexts, for example, someone who passionately opposes abortion or meat eating may concurrently advocate violence to kill an abortionist or attack a slaughterhouse, which makes that person a violent person. On a national level, the strategy of nonviolent action seeks to undermine the power of rulers by encouraging people to withdraw their consent, the forms of nonviolence draw inspiration from both religious or ethical beliefs and political analysis. Commonly, both of these dimensions may be present within the thinking of particular movements or individuals, nicolas Walter noted the idea that nonviolence might work runs under the surface of Western political thought without ever quite disappearing. Walter noted Étienne de La Boéties Discourse on Voluntary Servitude and P. B, shelleys The Masque of Anarchy contain arguments for resisting tyranny without using violence. In 1838, William Lloyd Garrison helped found the New England Non-Resistance Society, in modern industrial democracies, nonviolent action has been used extensively by political sectors without mainstream political power such as labor, peace, environment and womens movements. Lesser known is the role that nonviolent action has played and continues to play in undermining the power of political regimes in the developing world. Also of primary significance is the notion that just means are the most likely to lead to just ends
38.
Penance
–
Penance is repentance of sins as well as the proper name of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Anglican Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation/Confession. It also plays a part in non-sacramental confession among Lutherans and other Protestants, the word penance derives from Old French and Latin paenitentia, both of which derive from the same root meaning repentance, the desire to be forgiven. Word derivations occur in many languages, rather, Gods kindness is meant to lead you to repentance. In his Of Justification By Faith, Calvin says, without forgiveness no man is pleasing to God, nonetheless, in traditions formed by a Calvinist or Zwinglian sensibility there has traditionally been a stress on reconciliation as a precondition to fellowship. The attitude of penance or repentance can be externalized in acts that a believer imposes on himself or herself, Penitential activity is particularly common during the season of Lent and Holy Week. In some cultural traditions, this week, which commemorates the Passion of Christ, Advent is another season during which, to a lesser extent, penances are performed. Acts of self-discipline are used as tokens of repentance, easier acts of self-discipline include devoting time to prayer or reading of the Bible or other spiritual books. Examples of harder acts of self-discipline are fasting, continence, abstaining from alcohol or tobacco, self-flagellation and the wearing of a cilice are more rarely used. Such acts are associated also with the sacrament, in early Christianity, public penance was imposed on penitents, the severity of which varied according to the seriousness of the offences forgiven. The act imposed is called a penance or epitemia. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, penance is usually called Sacred Mystery of Confession, in Orthodoxy, the intention of the sacramental mystery of Holy Confession is to provide reconciliation with God through means of healing. Similar to the Eastern Catholic Churches, in the Eastern Orthodox Church there are no confessionals, traditionally the penitent stands or kneels before either the Icon of Christ the Teacher or in front of an Icon of Christ, Not Made by Hands. This is because in Orthodox sacramental theology, confession is not made to the priest, but to Christ, on an analogion in front of the penitent has been placed a Gospel Book and a Crucifix. The penitent venerates the Gospel Book and the cross and kneels and this is to show humility before the whole church and before Christ. Once they are ready to start, the priest says, “Blessed is our God, always, now and ever, and unto the ages of ages, ” reads the Trisagion Prayers, the penitent then accuses himself of sins. The priest quietly and patiently listens, gently asking questions to encourage the penitent not to any sins out of fear or shame. After the confessant reveals all their sins, the priest offers advice, the priest may modify the prayer rule of the penitent, or even prescribe another rule, if needed to combat the sins the penitent struggles most with. Penances, known as epitemia, are given with a therapeutic intent, epitemia are neither a punishment nor merely a pious action, but are specifically aimed at healing the spiritual ailment that has been confessed
39.
Mohandas Gandhi
–
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled India. Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights, the honorific Mahatma —applied to him first in 1914 in South Africa—is now used worldwide. In India, he is also called Bapu and Gandhiji and he is unofficially called the Father of the Nation. After his return to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants, farmers, Gandhi famously led Indians in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in calling for the British to Quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned for years, upon many occasions, in both South Africa and India. Gandhi attempted to practise nonviolence and truth in all situations, and he lived modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn hand-spun on a charkha. He ate simple food, and also undertook long fasts as a means of both self-purification and social protest. Eventually, in August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the Punjab, eschewing the official celebration of independence in Delhi, Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to provide solace. In the months following, he undertook several fasts unto death to promote religious harmony, the last of these, undertaken on 12 January 1948 when he was 78, also had the indirect goal of pressuring India to pay out some cash assets owed to Pakistan. Some Indians thought Gandhi was too accommodating, among them was Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, who assassinated Gandhi on 30 January 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest. Mahatma Gandhis birthday,2 October, is commemorated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday and his father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi, served as the diwan of Porbandar state. The Gandhi family originated from the village of Kutiana in what was then Junagadh State, in the late 17th or early 18th century, one Lalji Gandhi moved to Porbandar and entered the service of its ruler, the Rana. In 1831, Rana Khimojiraji died suddenly and was succeeded by his 12-year-old only son, as a result, Rana Khimojirajjis widow, Rani Rupaliba, became regent for her son. She soon fell out with Uttamchand and forced him to return to his village in Junagadh. While in Junagadh, Uttamchand appeared before its Nawab and saluted him with his hand instead of his right. In 1841, Vikmatji assumed the throne and reinstated Uttamchand as his diwan, in 1847, Rana Vikmatji appointed Uttamchands son, Karamchand, as diwan after disagreeing with Uttamchand over the states maintenance of a British garrison. Although he only had an education and had previously been a clerk in the state administration
40.
Bracero program
–
The Bracero Program was a series of laws and diplomatic agreements, initiated on August 4,1942, when the United States signed the Mexican Farm Labor Agreement with Mexico. The Bracero Program was named for the Spanish term meaning manual laborer and it was a series of agreements established on August 4,1942, when the U. S. signed the Mexican Farm Labor Agreement with Mexico. It operated as a joint program under the State Department, the Department of Labor, and the Immigration and Naturalization Services in the Department of Justice. Under this pact, the laborers were promised decent living conditions in camps, such as adequate shelter, food and sanitation. The agreement also stated that braceros would not be subject to such as exclusion from white areas. This program was intended to fill the shortage in agriculture. The program lasted 22 years and offered employment contracts to 5 million braceros in 24 U. S. states—becoming the largest foreign worker program in U. S. history. From 1942 to 1947, only a small number of braceros were admitted. Yet both U. S and Mexican employers became heavily dependent on braceros for willing workers, bribery was a way to get a contract during this time. Consequently, several years of short-term agreement led to an increase in undocumented immigration, furthermore, it was seen as a way for Mexico to be involved in the Allied armed forces. The first braceros were admitted on September 27,1942, for the sugar-beet harvest season, from 1948 to 1964, the US imported on average 200,000 braceros per year. American growers longed for a system that would admit Mexican workers and guarantee them an opportunity to grow and harvest their crops, thus, during negotiations in 1951 over a new bracero program, Mexico sought to have the United States impose sanctions on American employers of undocumented workers. President Truman signed Public Law 78 in July 1951, soon after it was signed, U. S. negotiators met with Mexican officials to prepare a new bilateral agreement. This agreement made it so that the U. S. government were the guarantors of the contract, the braceros could not be used as replacement workers for U. S. workers on strike, however, the braceros were not allowed to go on strike or renegotiate wages. The agreement set forth that all negotiations would be between the two governments, a year later, Congress approved a bill that made the harboring of an illegal immigrant a felony. However the Texas Proviso stated that employing unauthorized workers would not constitute as “harboring or concealing” them and this also led to the establishment of the H2 program, which enabled laborers to enter the U. S for temporary work. There were a number of hearings about the U. S-Mexico migration, simultaneously, unions complained that the braceros’ presence was harmful to U. S workers. The outcome of this meeting, was that the U. S ultimately got to decide how the workers would enter the country, by way of reception centers set up in various Mexican states and at the U. S border
41.
Imperial Valley
–
The Imperial Valley lies in Californias Imperial County. It is located in southeastern Southern California, and is the site of an area largely centered on the city of El Centro. The Valley is bordered by the Colorado River to the east and, in part, farther west lies the San Diego and Imperial County border. S. State of California and Baja California, the culture of the area blends those of the United States and Mexico, due to its regional history and geographic location along the international border. The Imperial Valley economy is based on agriculture, Imperial Valley was so named by the Imperial Land Company, in hopes of attracting settlers. Having done that it is now the home of the El Centro metropolitan area, locally, the terms Imperial Valley and Imperial County are used synonymously. The Imperial Valley extends southward for 50 miles from the end of the Salton Sea into Mexico. Part of a trough stretching from the Coachella Valley to the Gulf of California and its hot desert climate is characterized by daily temperature extremes. It was once part of the Gulf of California, from which it was cut off by the deposits of the Colorado River Delta Fan as it carved out the Grand Canyon. Bordered by sand dunes and barren mountains, it was uninhabited until 1901, flood-waters in 1905–07 destroyed the irrigation channels and created the Salton Sea now filled by the New River and irrigation run-off. The rivers in the part of the Salton Sea river basin flow south to north. The valley is bordered by the Colorado River to the east and, in part, farther west lies the border with San Diego County and to the south the international boundary between the US state of California and Baja California, Mexico. To the north is the boundary with the Inland Empires Riverside County and its Coachella Valley, during winter months the Valley averages more than eight hours of sunshine a day, receiving the most sunlight of any place in the United States. Historically, the lowest minimum temperature recorded in the Imperial Valley was 16 °F on January 22,1937. The highest maximum temperature recorded was 121 °F on July 28,1995. The lowest maximum temperature was 42 °F, recorded on January 24,1949, the highest monthly mean temperature was 95.9 °F, recorded in August 1969 and the lowest mean temperature was 42.3 °F in February 1939. The 85-year average annual rainfall is 2.93 inches with June being the driest month, the only recorded snowfall in the Valley occurred on December 12,1932. Snow began falling at 8,45 p. m. in the southwest portion of Imperial Valley,4 inches of snow was reported that day
