1.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
2.
Institute of technology
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An institute of technology is a type of university which specializes in engineering, technology, Applied Science, and possibly natural sciences. How the terms are used varies from country to country, the English term polytechnic appeared in the early 19th century, from the French École Polytechnique, an engineering school founded in 1794 in Paris. The French term comes from the Greek πολύ meaning many and τεχνικός meaning arts, the oldest German Institute of Technology is the Braunschweig University of Technology. Another exception is the École Polytechnique, which has educated French élites since its foundation in 1794, in some cases, polytechnics or institutes of technology are engineering schools or technical colleges. Famous examples are the Istanbul Technical University, ETH Zurich, İYTE, Delft University of Technology and RWTH Aachen, in countries like Iran, Finland, Malaysia, Portugal, Singapore or the United Kingdom, there is often a significant and confused distinction between polytechnics and universities. In the UK a binary system of higher education emerged consisting of universities, Polytechnics offered university equivalent degrees from bachelors, masters and PhD that were validated and governed at the national level by the independent UK Council for National Academic Awards. In 1992 UK Polytechnics were designated as universities which meant they could award their own degrees, the UKs first polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution was founded in 1838 in Regent Street, London. A number of polytechnics providing higher education is simply a result of a formal upgrading from their original and historical role as technical education schools. This is mostly the case in countries, where the education system is not controlled by the state. Mentz, Kotze and Van der Merwe argue that all the tools are in place to promote the debate on the place of technology in education in general. The aspects of this debate can follow the lines, To what degree is technology defined as a concept. What is the scope of technology discourse, what is the place and relation of science with technology. How useful is the Mitcham framework in thinking about technology in South Africa, can a measure of cooperation as opposed to competition be achieved amongst higher education institutions. Who ultimately is responsible for training and What is the role of technology in this. The Buenos Aires Institute of Technology is other important recognized institute of technology with renowned, 1970s–1990s During the 1970s to early 1990s, the term was used to describe state owned and funded technical schools that offered both vocational and higher education. They were part of the College of Advanced Education system, in the 1990s most of these merged with existing universities, or formed new ones of their own. These new universities often took the title University of Technology, for marketing rather than legal purposes, AVCC report The most prominent such university in each state founded the Australian Technology Network a few years later. 1990s–today Since the mid-1990s, the term has been applied to some technically minded technical, a recent example is the Melbourne Polytechnic rebranding and repositioning in 2014 from Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE
3.
Doctorate
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There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its roots can be traced to the church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the Catholic church, the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access—at that time largely free of charge—of all able applicants. This right remained a bone of contention between the authorities and universities that were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. The right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach, according to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum of the Middle Ages included only theology, law, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century. The term philosophy does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning. In most of Europe, all fields were traditionally known as philosophy, the doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. D. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild, the traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Masters of Arts was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the masters degree, University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, for instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread, universities shift to research-oriented education increased the doctorates importance. Today, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward, the first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M. D. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine during the 19th century, the MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style Ph. D. was first awarded in the U. S. in 1861, in the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates, introduced from 1882 onwards. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, following the MD, the next professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor, was established by Chicago University in 1902
4.
Gothenburg
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Gothenburg is the second-largest city in Sweden and the fifth-largest in the Nordic countries. Situated by Kattegat, on the west coast of Sweden, the city has a population of approximately 550,000 in the urban area, Gothenburg was founded as a heavily fortified, primarily Dutch, trading colony, by royal charter in 1621 by King Gustavus Adolphus. At a key location at the mouth of the Göta älv, where Scandinavias largest drainage basin enters the sea. Gothenburg is home to students, as the city includes the University of Gothenburg. Volvo was founded in Gothenburg in 1927, the original, parent Volvo Group and the now separate Volvo Car Corporation are still headquartered on the island of Hisingen in the city. Other key companies are SKF and Astra Zeneca, Gothenburg is served by Göteborg Landvetter Airport 30 km southeast of the city center. The smaller Göteborg City Airport,15 km from the city center, was closed to airline traffic in 2015. The city hosts some of the largest annual events in Scandinavia, the Gothenburg Film Festival, held in January since 1979, is the leading Scandinavian film festival with over 155,000 visitors each year. In summer, a variety of music festivals are held in the city, such as Way Out West. The city was named after the Geats, the inhabitants of Gothia, the river on which the city sits is the Göta älv or Gothia River. Göta borg Gothia Fortress is the fort on the Göta Älv, in Dutch, Scots, and English, all languages with a long history in this trade and maritime-oriented city, the name Gothenburg is used for the city. The French form of the city name is Gothembourg, but in French texts, Gothenburg can also be seen in some older English texts. In Spanish the city is called Gotemburgo and these traditional forms are sometimes replaced with the use of the Swedish Göteborg, for example by The Göteborg Opera and the Göteborg Ballet. However, Göteborgs universitet, previously designated as the Göteborg University in English, the Gothenburg municipality has also reverted to the use of the English name in international contexts. Other old variations in Swedish are Götheborgh, and the more common Götheborg, one English text, written in the late 15th century, states the name as Guthaeborg. In 2009, the city launched a new logotype for Gothenburg. Since the name Göteborg contains the Swedish letter ö the idea was to make the more international. As of 2015, the name is spelled Go, teborg on a number of signs in the city
5.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
6.
Swedish language
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Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken natively by more than 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish, along with the other North Germanic languages, Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers, Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional varieties descended from the rural dialects still exist. The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, Swedish morphology is similar to English, that is, words have comparatively few inflections. There are two genders, no cases, and a distinction between plural and singular. Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well. Adjectives are compared as in English, and are inflected according to gender, number. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes, complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles, the prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, by many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, the dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, from 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. An early change that separated Runic Danish from the dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr dead
7.
Technology
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Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, and the like, the human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The steady progress of technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power. It has helped develop more advanced economies and has allowed the rise of a leisure class, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earths environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and raise new questions of the ethics of technology, examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics. Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the condition or worsens it. The use of the technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, the term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second Industrial Revolution, the terms meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into technology. In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between technik and technologie that is absent in English, which translates both terms as technology. By the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of the industrial arts, dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another definition of the concept, it is practice, the way we do things around here. The term is used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,1, defines technology in two ways, as the pursuit of life by other than life, and as organized inorganic matter. Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems and it is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material, virtual technology, such as software and business methods. W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a broad way as a means to fulfill a human purpose
8.
Natural science
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Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on observational and empirical evidence. Mechanisms such as review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two branches, life science and physical science. Physical science is subdivided into branches, including physics, space science, chemistry and these branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches. Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy, usually traced to ancient Greece, galileo, Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on. Today, natural history suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences, philosophers of science have suggested a number of criteria, including Karl Poppers controversial falsifiability criterion, to help them differentiate scientific endeavors from non-scientific ones. Validity, accuracy, and quality control, such as peer review and this field encompasses a set of disciplines that examines phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies, biology is concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and the environment. The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to periods of civilization. However, it was not until the 19th century that became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole, modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the chemistry of life, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell. At a higher level, anatomy and physiology looks at the internal structures, constituting the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. The composition, statistical properties, transformations and reactions of these materials are studied, chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms and molecules for use in larger-scale applications. Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of techniques for manipulating materials, chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences. Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of Alchemy, the science of chemistry began to develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the Conservation of mass. The success of science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays a significant role in the world economy
9.
Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
10.
Sea
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A sea is a large body of salt water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land. More broadly, the sea is the system of Earths salty. The sea moderates Earths climate and has important roles in the cycle, carbon cycle. Although the sea has been traveled and explored since prehistory, the scientific study of the sea—oceanography—dates broadly to the British Challenger expedition of the 1870s. Owing to the present state of continental drift, the Northern Hemisphere is now equally divided between land and sea but the South is overwhelmingly oceanic. Salinity in the ocean is generally in a narrow band around 3. 5% by mass, although this can vary in more landlocked waters, near the mouths of large rivers. About 85% of the solids in the sea are sodium chloride. Deep-sea currents are produced by differences in salinity and temperature, surface currents are formed by the friction of waves produced by the wind and by tides, the changes in local sea level produced by the gravity of the Moon and Sun. The direction of all of these is governed by surface and submarine land masses, former changes in sea levels have left continental shelves, shallow areas in the sea close to land. The most diverse areas surround great tropical coral reefs, whaling in the deep sea was once common but whales dwindling numbers prompted international conservation efforts and finally a moratorium on most commercial hunting. Life may have started there and aquatic microbial mats are generally credited with the oxygenation of Earths atmosphere, the sea is an essential aspect of human trade, travel, mineral extraction, and power generation. It is the scene of activities including swimming, diving, surfing. However, population growth, industrialization, and intensive farming have all contributed to marine pollution. Atmospheric carbon dioxide is being absorbed in increasing amounts, lowering its pH in a known as ocean acidification. The shared nature of the sea has made overfishing an increasing problem, both senses of sea date to Old English, the larger sense has required a definite article since Early Middle English. Seas are generally larger than lakes and contain salt water, while the defining elements of size and being bounded are generally used, there is no formally accepted technical definition of sea among oceanographers. In international law, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea states that all the ocean is the sea. Earth is the known planet with seas of liquid water on its surface, although Mars possesses ice caps
11.
Management
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Management is the administration of an organization, whether it be a business, a not-for-profit organization, or government body. The term management may also refer to the people who manage an organization, management is also an academic discipline, a social science whose objective is to study social organization and organizational leadership. Individuals who aim at becoming management researchers or professors may complete the Doctor of Business Administration or the PhD in business administration or management, in larger organizations, there are generally three levels of managers, which are typically organized in a hierarchical, pyramid structure. Senior managers provide direction to the managers who report to them. Middle managers, examples of which would include branch managers, regional managers and section managers, middle managers communicate the strategic goals of senior management to the front-line managers. Lower managers, such as supervisors and front-line team leaders, oversee the work of regular employees, in smaller organizations, the roles of managers have much wider scopes. A manager can perform several roles or even all of the commonly observed in a large organization. There are many smaller organizations than larger ones. Views on the definition and scope of management include, According to Henri Fayol, to manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate, fredmund Malik defines it as the transformation of resources into utility. Management included as one of the factors of production - along with machines, materials, peter Drucker saw the basic task of management as twofold, marketing and innovation. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing, peter Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood as two different branches of business administration knowledge. Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and this implies effective communication, an enterprise environment implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome. As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism, not the herding of animals, management does not need to be seen from enterprise point of view alone, because management is an essential function to improve ones life and relationships. Management is therefore everywhere and it has a range of application. Based on this, management must have humans, communication, plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans and this applies even in situations where planning does not take place. Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow, one habit of thought regards management as equivalent to business administration and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More broadly, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as business schools
12.
William Chalmers (merchant)
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William Chalmers was a Swedish merchant and freemason. He was born in Gothenburg in 1748 as the son of the Scottish merchant, William Chalmers, Sr. and his Swedish wife, William Chalmers Jr. was the oldest amongst his brothers James, George Andreas and Charles Chalmers. He became a director of the Swedish East India Company and in 1783 he was appointed as their resident representative in Canton and he would stay there and in Macau for ten years before returning home. He died in Gothenburg in 1811 leaving half his fortune to the Sahlgrenska hospital, after some other donations, the remainder was donated to create a crafting school for poor children, which in 1829 became a college, that today is named the Chalmers University of Technology. William Chalmers studied commercial & marketing in Gothenburg and United Kingdom, before continuing his studies in a manner to France. At the age of 35, he was nominated to become the purchaser of the Swedish East India Company in Canton, in 1793, when Chalmers was 45 years old, he had been living in Canton for ten years. Afterwards, he returned to Sweden as the manager of the Swedish East India Company as well as the manager of Trollhätte Kanalverk and he faithfully contributed to the finalization of the canal and was able to leave the company seven years later. Six years post the finalization of the canal, the last Swedish East India Company-ship arrived into Sweden, on it was merchandise from China and Spain
13.
Swedish East India Company
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The Swedish East India Company was founded in Gothenburg, Sweden, in 1731 for the purpose of conducting trade with the Far East. Sweden was the last of the more prominent seafaring European nations to engage in the East India Trade, the royal privileges for the Swedish East India Company were granted almost a century after the other European trading companies were established. With the advent of the East India trade in the 1600s, Chinese, drinking tea and having Chinese objects became the height of fashion in the Swedish socialite and the middle class. Chinese culture, philosophy, art, agriculture and architecture were studied and copied. The most prominent example of this is the Chinese Pavilion at Drottningholm, China was considered a model community, a template for how a country should be governed. The first attempt of organizing a Swedish East India trading company was made by a Flemish merchant, during the 1600s, the Dutch merchants dominated the newly founded Gothenburg on the west coast of Sweden. On 14 June 1626, Usselincx received royal privileges for a company for twelve years. The privileges included clauses about the ethics of trading with foreign, the first priority was to establish friendly, long-term relations that would be mutually beneficiary for both parties. The venture was supported by a number of prominent Swedes, including the King himself, political difficulties and Swedens participation in the Thirty Years War where King Gustav II was killed, put an end to the plans. The resources were used for a smaller company, trading within Europe. The aim was to bypass the Spanish and Portuguese blockades, the plan did not gain any support as the ice barriers proved even more difficult. Borg stated that if there was a war between Sweden and Denmark, he could deliver the Danish fort in Tharangambadi, India, to the Swedes, residual resources were used to send two ships, the Solen and the Trumslagaren, to Lisbon for salt. A later attempt to establish the Swedish trade on the East Indies, was made by pirates sailing out from Madagascar, after having attacked other trading ships, they had become wealthy and were looking for a place to settle down and invest their money in legitimate enterprise. The pirates numbered about 1,500 and commanded a considerable and they started by offering the Swedish King Charles XII half a million pounds sterling and 25 armed ships for his protection, but the matter was not resolved. In 1718, representatives for the pirates met again with the King at his camp during the campaign against Norway. The new offer was for 60 ships, armed and stocked with goods, if the pirates were allowed to settle down in Gothenburg, when the King was shot and died on 30 November 1718, the venture folded. Sweden was impoverished after the Great Northern War, and trade was seen as an option for rebuilding the country, opinions about whether trade with the East Indies would be profitable enough diverged. The greatest concern was that Sweden would not have resources to defend the companys ships
14.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
15.
Aktiebolag
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Aktiebolag is the Swedish term for limited company or corporation. When used in names, it is abbreviated AB, Ab, or A/B, roughly equivalent to the abbreviations Ltd. The State authority responsible for registration of aktiebolag in Sweden is called the Swedish Companies Registration Office, all aktiebolag are divided into two categories, private limited companies and public limited companies. The name of a limited company may not contain the word publikt. A public limited company is legally denoted as AB in Sweden or Abp in Finland, a Swedish public limited company must have a minimum share capital of 500,000 Swedish kronor and its shares can be offered to the general public on the stock market. For a private limited company in Sweden, the share capital is 50,000 Swedish kronor. The main Swedish statutes regulating limited companies are The Companies Act, the law provisions in ABL stipulate that parent companies and subsidiaries are separate legal persons and legal entities. The abbreviation AB is seen in names such as IFS AB, MySQL AB, Mojang AB, Spotify AB. The term aktiebolag is also used in Finland Swedish, alongside the Finnish osakeyhtiö, the choice and ordering of terms tends to indicate the companys primary working language
16.
Karolinska Institute
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The Karolinska Institute is a medical university in Solna within the Stockholm urban area, Sweden, and one of the largest and most prestigious medical universities in the world. The Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine and it consists of fifty professors from various medical disciplines at the university. In 2017 Ole Petter Ottersen was nominated to become rector of the university, the Karolinska Institute was founded in 1810 on Kungsholmen on the west side of Stockholm, the main campus was relocated decades later to Solna, just outside Stockholm. A second campus was established recently in Flemingsberg, Huddinge. The Karolinska Institute is Swedens third oldest medical school, after Uppsala University, Research at the Karolinska Institute accounts for more than 40% of all academic medical research in Sweden. The Karolinska University Hospital, located in Solna and Huddinge, is associated with the university as a research, together they form an academic health science centre. It is one of Swedens largest centres for training and research, while most of the medical programs are taught in Swedish, the bulk of the Ph. D. projects are conducted in English. The institutes name is a reference to the Caroleans, the medical skills of the army barber-surgeons are manifestly inadequate, so Sweden needs to train surgeons in order to better prepare the country for future wars. 1811 The Karolinska Institute is licensed to train not only surgeons,1813 As one of KIs first professors, Jöns Jacob Berzelius lays the foundations of KIs scientific orientation. 1816 The newly inaugurated institute is named Carolinska Institutet, a title that never makes an impact. Carolinska Medico Chirurgiska institutet, however, proves more popular, especially when preceded by the epithet Kongliga and it is in connection with the student revolt of 1968 that the name is shortened to Karolinska Institutet, or KI as it is now commonly known. Anders Johan Hagströmer is appointed the institutes first inspector, a post equivalent to todays president, Hagströmer is a professor of anatomy and surgery, with a background from the Collegium Medicum, the National Board of Health and Welfare of its day. This same year, the moves to the old Glasbruk quarter on Norr Mälarstrand. The move across the waters of Riddarfjärden is made on barges, one of which is said to have capsized and his library survives intact, however, and today forms part of the KI-Swedish Society of Medicine book museum at KIs Hagströmer Library. 1861 The institute is awarded the right to confer degrees and is granted an equal to that of a university. 1866 The old building on the Glasbruk plot is torn down and replaced by a new, the new institute is built in stages, mostly during the 1880s and into the first decade of the 20th century. The building stands to day, and has remained largely unchanged since its erection. 1874 KI is licensed to confer medical degrees, previously, even though the institute could run courses in medicine, the right to confer medical degrees was almost exclusively that of Uppsala University
17.
Linnaeus University
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Linnaeus University is a state university in the Småland region of Sweden. It has two campuses, one in Växjö and one in Kalmar, Linnaeus University was established in 2010 by a merger of former Växjö University and Kalmar University, and has been named in honour of botanist Carl Linnaeus. Växjö University began as a department of Lund University in 1967. The department became an independent university college in 1970, and was granted university status in 1999. Kalmar University was similarly a university college, founded in 1977, though not a university by the Swedish definition, it had been entitled to issue doctoral degrees in the natural sciences since 1999. The universitys logo is a stylized tree, the origin is a Linnaeus drawing taken from his 1725 publication Örtabok. Faculty of Health, Social Work and Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. Faculty of Business, Economics and Design, School of Health and Caring Sciences. School of Education, Psychology and Sport Science, School of Computer Science School of Physics School of Mathematics. Institute for Further Education of Journalists, office of Teacher Education and Educational Science. There are two campuses, one in Växjö and one in Kalmar, Kalmar is a medium-sized town, with ideal settings for student life. The town is attractive and conveniently laid out, with a colorful history, the School offers Master’s programmes which equip the graduate for work in industry or future studies towards a PhD. However, the student life in Kalmar has recent been partly worked against by the local authorities, for example, the only night club for students in Kalmar, Core House, was closed due to a rent chock from the owner, Kalmar Kommun. Växjö, is a community in southeastern Sweden, with a full range of cultural and musical life in its many museums, theaters, cathedrals. The House of Emigrants commemorates the great emigration epoch from 1850 to 1930, the region is also known for its high tech industry, pulp and paper manufacturing, and home of the furniture manufacturer, IKEA. The surrounding pristine lakes and forests are an attraction for those who love wildlife, Växjö is also one of the leading tennis cities in the world as Mats Wilander, Stefan Edberg, Magnus Larsson and Jonas Bjorkman have all trained and played here. Växjö is easily accessible from Copenhagen and Stockholm by plane and train, the campus is located just outside Växjö city center. It was modelled after the American Campus style, meaning that all teaching premises are within walking distance, the campus was built with the environment in mind, as it is bordering a nature conservation area
18.
Bologna Process
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The Bologna Process is a series of ministerial meetings and agreements between European countries to ensure comparability in the standards and quality of higher-education qualifications. The process has created the European Higher Education Area under the Lisbon Recognition Convention and it is named after the University of Bologna, where the Bologna declaration was signed by education ministers from 29 European countries in 1999. The process was opened to countries in the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe. Before the signing of the Bologna declaration, the Magna Charta Universitatum was issued at a meeting of university rectors celebrating the 900th anniversary of the University of Bologna in 1988, the Bologna Process has 50 participating countries. Monaco and San Marino are the members of the Council of Europe which did not adopt the process. The ESU, EUA, EURASHE, EI, ENQA, UNICE, other groups at this level are ENIC, NARIC and EURODOC. Four countries are not members of the process, Israel is not a party to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe, although it has observer status. Although Israel is not geographically part of Europe, it is part of the UNESCO European Region, Israel is also a signatory of the Lisbon Recognition Convention but, under the criteria of the Berlin Communiqué, ineligible for the Bologna Process. Kosovo is not a party to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe, although Serbia is a party, Kosovo declared independence from it and is theoretically a part of the Bologna Process since the 1999 war. It was suggested that Kosovo could be associated with the process in a category appropriate to its situation, Northern Cyprus satisfies the criteria for membership applications to the Bologna process established in the 2003 Berlin communique. The universities in Northern Cyprus can freely follow the Bologna priorities such as the degree system, quality assurance. This scheme enables undergraduate students and teachers to spend one year abroad at an EU university/higher education institution, the basic framework is three cycles of higher-education qualifications. In describing the cycles, the uses the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, First cycle, typically 180–240 ECTS credits. Second cycle, typically 90–120 ECTS credits, usually awarding a masters degree Third cycle, There is no concrete ECTS range, since the disciplines vary in length and comprehensiveness. In most cases, it would take three to four years to earn a degree and another one or two years for a masters degree. Doctoral degrees usually require two to four years of specialization, primarily individual research under a mentor. Degree names may vary by country, one academic year corresponds to 60 ECTS credits, equivalent to 1, 500–1,800 hours of study. In order to enhance its competitiveness by cutting down costs, therefore a Europe-wide standardization of the values produced in each of the national higher educational systems is called for
19.
IT University
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IT University is a joint department between Chalmers University of Technology and the University of Gothenburg in Sweden. This joint venture offers a great scope for cooperation between researchers with different areas of expertise and academic specialties within the field of information technology, the programmes offered are based on advanced research and are in a constant state of development. IT University was established in the autumn of 2001, today it offers programs at both Bachelors and Masters level, mostly with a focus on applied information technology. C, Art, Media Master Program Intelligent Systems Design Masters in Software Engineering and Management Software Engineering and Management International IT University website
20.
Swedish krona
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The krona has been the currency of Sweden since 1873. Both the ISO code SEK and currency sign kr are in use, the former precedes or follows the value. In English, the currency is referred to as the Swedish crown. The Swedish krona was the 11th most traded currency in the world by value in April 2013, one krona is subdivided into 100 öre. However, all öre coins have been discontinued as of 30 September 2010, goods can still be priced in öre, but all sums are rounded to the nearest krona when paying with cash. The introduction of the krona, which replaced at par the riksdaler, was a result of the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which came into effect in 1876 and lasted until the beginning of World War I. The parties to the union were the Scandinavian countries, where the name was krona in Sweden and krone in Denmark and Norway, the three currencies were on the gold standard, with the krona/krone defined as 1⁄2480 of a kilogram of pure gold. After dissolution of the union in August 1914, Sweden, Denmark. On 11 September 2012, the Riksbank announced a new series of coins with new sizes to replace the 1 and 5 kronor coins which arrived in October 2016. The design of the coins follows the theme of singer-songwriter Ted Gärdestads song, Sol, vind och vatten and this also included the reintroduction of the 2 kronor coin, while the current 10 kronor coin remained the same. The new coins also have a new portrait of the king in the design, one of the reasons for a new series of coins is to end the use of nickel. It is expected that vending machines and parking meters will to a high degree stop accepting coins. Cash is already used in Sweden, with many young people avoiding cash as much as possible. Between 1873 and 1876, coins in denominations of 1,2,5,10,25, and 50 öre and 1,2,10, and 20 kronor were introduced. The 1,2 and 5 öre were in bronze, the 10,25,50 öre and 1 krona and 2 kronor were in silver, gold 5 kronor coins were added in 1881. In 1873 the Scandinavian Monetary Union currency was fixed so that 248,000 öre purchased 1 kg of gold, in 2017 the price of gold is 365,289 kronor per kg. So one öre in 1873 bought as much gold as 1.47 krona in 2017, so if it is reasonable to have the smallest denomination coin 1 krona today, in 1873 a reasonable smallest denomination coin was 1 öre. A10 kr gold coin weighed 4.4803 grams with 900 finess so that the weight was 4.03327 grams or exactly 1/248th of a kilogram
21.
Students' union
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In higher education, the students union is often accorded its own building on the campus, dedicated to social, organizational activities, representation, and academic support of the membership. Outside the US, student union and students refer to a representative body. Depending on the country, the purpose, assembly, method, universally, the purpose of students union or student government is to represent fellow students in some fashion. In some cases, students unions are run by students, independent of the educational facility, the purpose of these organizations is to represent students both within the institution and externally, including on local and national issues. Students unions are responsible for providing a variety of services to students. Depending on the makeup, students can get involved in the union by becoming active in a committee, by attending councils and general meetings. Some students unions are politicized bodies, and often serve as a ground for aspiring politicians. Students unions generally have similar aims irrespective of the extent of politicization, usually focusing on providing students with facilities, support, some students unions often officially recognize and allocate an annual budget to other organizations on campus. In some institutions, postgraduate students are within the students unions. In some cases, graduate students lack formal representation in student government, as mentioned before universally the purpose of students union or student government is to represent fellow students. Many times students unions usually focusing on providing students with facilities, support, simple variations on just the name include the name differences between the United States and other countries. Depending on the country there are different methods of representation compulsory education to Higher education or tertiary, in Australia, all universities have one or more student organizations. Most also operate specialized support services for female, LGBT, international, many expressed concerns over the introduction of voluntary student unionism in 2006. The legislation passed after the Greens took the balance of power in the senate, Azerbaijan Students Union was established by students from Baku on 15 September 2008. ASU is an organization which was established on basis of experience and it was the first student organization which united students irrespective of gender, race, creed. ASU considered international relations very important, for the first time ASUs delegates were participants of the First Asia IAESTE Forum in Shanghai during 12–15 November 2009. After that forum ASU established close relations with IAESTE which is one of the biggest student exchange organizations, as a result of relations on 21 January 2010 ASU was accepted a member of IAESTE. Our union gained right to represent Azerbaijan students in IAESTE and that membership was the unions first success on international level
22.
Hisingen
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Hisingen is the fifth-largest island of Sweden, with an area of 199 km2. It forms part of Gothenburg and is bordered by the Göta älv to the south and east, the Nordre älv to the north, and the Kattegat to the west. The northern part of the city of Gothenburg, with its harbours, industries and suburbs, is located on the island, the population of the island is around 130,000, making it the most populated island in Sweden, ahead of Södermalm and Gotland. For a brief, post-war period Hisingen was home to the largest shipbuilding centre in the world, Hisingen is home to both the Volvo Group and the now separate Volvo Cars. Most of the Nordic countries largest port, the Port of Gothenburg is also located on Hisingen, the etymology of the name Hisingen is disputed. Hísing makes its first appearance in 13th century Icelandic sources, Hisingen is dated back to 1399, the basic meaning of the prefix His- is to split, cut off and can be found in the placenames Hisøy and Hisön. Hence, the name can be interpreted as the cut off from the mainland. A colloquial name for Hisingen is Elevator Nobody or Lift Nobody and this is a play on words, hiss is Swedish for elevator-lift, and ingen is Swedish for nobody. The rock wall paintings and remains of ancient settlements prove that Hisingen was inhabited by the year 9000 BC and it was on Hisingen that the first town with the name Gothenburg existed. It was founded by king Charles IX in 1603 on the bank of the Göta River. It was inhabited mostly by Dutch merchants, enticed to settle there by favorable economic conditions, however, the town was completely destroyed by the Danish in 1611 during the Kalmar War. Until 1658, when it was ceded to Sweden from Denmark-Norway by the Treaty of Roskilde, the island was divided into a Swedish, the island was mostly farmland until the 19th century, when industrialization began and companies like Arendalsvarvet, Eriksberg, Götaverken and Lindholmen started operating there. For most of the 20th century, until the crisis in the 1970s. The Volvo car manufacturer has its roots on Hisingen, it was there that their first factory was located and the first car, today, the company still has its main office and production facilities on the island. The Volvo Museum is also located nearby, over the last 20 years, the northern bank of Göta älv has undergone major expansion. Residential areas, university buildings and high tech industry have replaced the shipyards. See also, History of Gothenburg, History of Westrogothia, History of Bahusia The island has a landscape with coasts, farms. The biggest forest area is Hisingsparken, which is also the largest park in Gothenburg, rya skog, a smaller forest and a nature reserve, is located in the south of Hisingen
23.
European Space Agency
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The European Space Agency is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states, dedicated to the exploration of space. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris, France, ESA has a staff of about 2,000. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching, after World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work with the United States. The meeting was attended by representatives from eight countries, including Harrie Massey. The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a system, ELDO, and the precursor of the European Space Agency. The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962, from 1968 to 1972, ESRO launched seven research satellites. ESA in its current form was founded with the ESA Convention in 1975, ESA has 10 founding member states, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. These signed the ESA Convention in 1975 and deposited the instruments of ratification by 1980, during this interval the agency functioned in a de facto fashion. ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, ESA joined NASA in the IUE, the worlds first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses. Recent scientific missions in co-operation with NASA include the Cassini–Huygens space probe, as the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward, the successor launch vehicle of Ariane 5, the Ariane 6 is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s. The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, ISRO, CSA and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. Although ESA had relied on co-operation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances led to decisions to rely more on itself, a 2011 press issue thus stated, Russia is ESAs first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006 and this is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be more important in the future. ESA describes its work in two overlapping ways, For the general public the various fields of work are described as Activities, Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory and optional space programmes
24.
Thermal conductivity
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In physics, thermal conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat. It is evaluated primarily in terms of Fouriers Law for heat conduction, heat transfer occurs at a lower rate across materials of low thermal conductivity than across materials of high thermal conductivity. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are used in heat sink applications. The thermal conductivity of a material may depend on temperature, the reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity. Thermal conductivity is actually a tensor, which means it is possible to have different values in different directions, in SI units, thermal conductivity is measured in watts per meter-kelvin. The dimension of thermal conductivity is M1L1T−3Θ−1 and these variables are mass, length, time, and temperature. In Imperial units, thermal conductivity is measured in BTU/, other units which are closely related to the thermal conductivity are in common use in the construction and textile industries. The construction industry makes use of such as the R-value. Although related to the conductivity of a material used in an insulation product, R-. Likewise the textile industry has several units including the tog and the clo which express thermal resistance of a material in a way analogous to the R-values used in the construction industry, there are a number of ways to measure thermal conductivity. Each of these is suitable for a range of materials, depending on the thermal properties. There is a distinction between steady-state and transient techniques, in general, steady-state techniques are useful when the temperature of the material does not change with time. This makes the signal analysis straightforward, the disadvantage is that a well-engineered experimental setup is usually needed. The Divided Bar is the most common used for consolidated rock solids. Thermal conductivity is important in science, research, electronics, building insulation and related fields. Several materials are shown in the list of thermal conductivities and these should be considered approximate due to the uncertainties related to material definitions. High energy generation rates within electronics or turbines require the use of materials with high thermal conductivity such as copper, aluminium, the reciprocal of thermal conductivity is thermal resistivity, usually expressed in kelvin-meters per watt. For a given thickness of a material, that particular constructions thermal resistance, unfortunately, there are differing definitions for these terms
25.
Weightlessness
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Counterintuitively, a uniform gravitational field does not by itself cause stress or strain, and a body in free fall in such an environment experiences no g-force acceleration and feels weightless. This is also termed zero-g where the term is more understood as meaning zero g-force. In such cases, a sensation of weight, in the sense of a state of stress can occur, in such cases, g-forces are felt, and bodies are not weightless. When the gravitational field is non-uniform, a body in free fall suffers tidal effects and is not stress-free, near a black hole, such tidal effects can be very strong. In the case of the Earth, the effects are minor, especially on objects of relatively small dimension and this condition is known as microgravity and it prevails in orbiting spacecraft. In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards related to human spaceflight. In Newtonian mechanics the term weight is two distinct interpretations by engineers. Weight1, Under this interpretation, the weight of a body is the force exerted on the body. Near the surface of the earth, a body mass is 1 kg has a weight of approximately 9.81 N, independent of its state of motion, free fall. Weightlessness in this sense can be achieved by removing the body far away from the source of gravity and it can also be attained by placing the body at a neutral point between two gravitating masses. Weight2, Weight can also be interpreted as that quantity which is measured when one uses scales, what is being measured there is the force exerted by the body on the scales. In a standard weighing operation, the body being weighed is in a state of equilibrium as a result of a force exerted on it by the weighing machine cancelling the gravitational field. By Newtons 3rd law, there is an equal and opposite force exerted by the body on the machine, typically, it is a contact force and not uniform across the mass of the body. If the body is placed on the scales in a lift in free fall in pure uniform gravity, the scale would read zero, and this describes the condition in which the body is stress free and undeformed. This is the weightlessness in free fall in a gravitational field. To sum up, we have two notions of weight of which weight1 is dominant, yet weightlessness is typically exemplified not by absence of weight1 but by the absence of stress associated with weight2. This is the sense of weightlessness in what follows below. A body is free, exerts zero weight2, when the only force acting on it is weight1 as when in free fall in a uniform gravitational field
26.
Sounding rocket
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A sounding rocket, sometimes called a research rocket, is an instrument-carrying rocket designed to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during its sub-orbital flight. The rockets are used to carry instruments from 50 to 1,500 kilometres above the surface of the Earth, the altitude generally between weather balloons and satellites. Certain sounding rockets, such as the Black Brant X and XII, have an apogee between 1,000 and 1,500 kilometres, the apogee of their class. Sounding rockets often use military surplus rocket motors, NASA routinely flies the Terrier Mk 70 boosted Improved Orion lifting 270–450-kilogram payloads into the exoatmospheric region between 100 and 200 kilometres. The origin of the term comes from nautical vocabulary to sound, the term itself has its etymological roots in the Portuguese / Italian / Spanish and French words for probe, which are sonda and sonde, respectively. Sounding in the context is equivalent to taking a measurement. A common sounding rocket consists of a rocket motor and a science payload. Larger, higher altitude rockets have 2 to 3 stages to increase efficiency, the freefall part of the flight is an elliptic trajectory with vertical major axis allowing the payload to appear to hover near its apogee. The average flight time is less than 30 minutes, usually between five and 20 minutes. The rocket consumes its fuel on the first stage of the part of the flight, then separates and falls away, leaving the payload to complete the arc. Sounding rockets are advantageous for research because of their low cost, short lead time. They are also used as test beds for equipment that will be used in more expensive and risky orbital spaceflight missions. The smaller size of a sounding rocket also makes launching from temporary sites possible allowing for field studies at remote locations, even in the middle of the ocean, vyom Mk-II is in its conceptual design stage with an objective to reach 70 km altitude with 20 kg payload capacity. The Kartika I rocket was built and launched in Indonesia by LAPAN on 1964, the Soviet Union developed an extensive program using rockets such as the M-100, the most used ever, its successor by its successor state, Russia, is the MR-20. Brazil has been launching its own sounding rockets since 1965, the largest and most current family of rocket are the Sonda rockets, which are the R&D basis for Brazils soon-to-be-launch VLS satellite launcher
27.
Ericsson
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Ericsson is a multinational networking and telecommunications equipment and services company headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. Ericsson had 35% market share in the 2G/3G/4G mobile network infrastructure market in 2012, the company was founded in 1876 by Lars Magnus Ericsson, as of 2016 it is headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. The company employs around 113,000 people and operates in around 180 countries, Ericsson holds over 39,000 granted patents as of May 2015, including many in wireless communications. Lars Magnus Ericsson began his association with telephones in his youth as an instrument maker and he worked for a firm that made telegraph equipment for the Swedish government agency Telegrafverket. In 1876, at the age of 30, he started a repair shop with help from his friend Carl Johan Andersson in central Stockholm. In 1878 Ericsson began making and selling his own telephone equipment and his telephones were not technically innovative. In 1878 he made an agreement to supply telephones and switchboards to Swedens first telecommunications operating company, also in 1878, local telephone importer Numa Peterson hired Ericsson to adjust some telephones from the Bell Telephone Company. He bought a number of Siemens telephones and analyzed the technology and he was familiar with Bell and Siemens Halske telephones through his firms repair work for Telegrafverket and Swedish Railways. He improved these designs to produce a higher-quality instrument to be used by new companies such as Rikstelefon to provide cheaper service than the Bell Group. Ericsson had no patent or royalty problems because Bell had not patented their inventions in Scandinavia and his training as an instrument maker was reflected in the standard of finish and the ornate design of Ericsson telephones of this period. At the end of the year he started to manufacture telephones much like those of Siemens, Ericsson became a major supplier of telephone equipment to Scandinavia. Its factory could not keep up with demand, joinery and metal-plating were contracted out, much of its raw materials were imported, in the following decades Ericsson bought into a number of firms to ensure supplies of brass, wire, ebonite, and magnet steel. Much of the wood used for cabinets was imported from the United States. Stockholms telephone network expanded that year and the company reformed into a telephone manufacturer, when Bell bought the biggest telephone network in Stockholm, it only allowed its own telephones to be used with it. Ericssons equipment was mainly to free telephone associations in the Swedish countryside. The prices of Bell equipment and services led Henrik Tore Cedergren to form an independent telephone company called Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag in 1883, as Bell would not deliver equipment to competitors, he formed a pact with Ericsson to supply the equipment for his new telephone network. In 1918 the companies were merged into Allmänna Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson, in 1884, a multiple-switchboard manual telephone exchange was mostly copied from a design by C. E. Scribner at Western Electric. This was legal because the device was not patented in Sweden, a single switchboard could handle up to 10,000 lines
28.
Volvo
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The Volvo Group is a Swedish multinational manufacturing company headquartered in Gothenburg. While its core activity is the production, distribution and sale of trucks, buses and construction equipment, Volvo also supplies marine and industrial drive systems, the companies still share the Volvo logo and co-operate in running the Volvo Museum. Volvo means I roll in Latin, conjugated from volvere, in reference to ball bearings, the brand name Volvo was originally registered as a trademark in May 1911 with the intention to be used for a new series of SKF ball bearings. This idea was used for a short period and SKF decided to simply use SKF as the trademark for all its bearing products. In 1924, Assar Gabrielsson, an SKF sales manager, and a KTH Royal Institute of Technology educated engineer Gustav Larson and their vision was to build cars that could withstand the rigors of the countrys rough roads and cold temperatures. AB Volvo began activities on 10 August 1926, after one year of preparations involving the production of ten prototypes the firm was ready to commence the car-manufacturing business within the SKF group. AB Volvo was introduced at the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1935, Volvo was delisted from NASDAQ in June 2007, but remains listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange. The Volvo Group has its origin in 1927, when the first Volvo car rolled off the line at the factory in Gothenburg. Only 280 cars were built that year, the first truck, the Series 1, debuted in January 1928, as an immediate success and attracted attention outside the country. In 1930, Volvo sold 639 cars, and the export of trucks to Europe started soon after, pentaverken, who had manufactured engines for Volvo, was acquired in 1935, providing a secure supply of engines and entry into the marine engine market. The first bus, named B1, was launched in 1934, in 1963, Volvo opened the Volvo Halifax Assembly plant, the first assembly plant in the companys history outside of Sweden in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. In 1991, Volvo Group participated in joint venture with Japanese automaker Mitsubishi Motors, the operation, branded NedCar, began producing the first generation Mitsubishi Carisma alongside the Volvo S40/V40 in 1996. In 1999, the European Union blocked a merger with Scania AB, in January of that same year, Volvo Group sold its car division Volvo Car Corporation to Ford Motor Company for $6.45 billion. The division was placed within Fords Premier Automotive Group alongside Jaguar, Land Rover, the Volvo T5 petrol engine was used in the Ford Focus ST and RS performance models, and Volvos satellite navigation system was used on certain Aston Martin Vanquish, DB9 and V8 Vantage models. In November 1999, Volvo Group purchased a 5% stake in Mitsubishi Motors, Ford sold the Volvo Car Corporation in 2010 to Geely Automobile of China for $1.8 billion. The move followed Fords 2007 sale of Aston Martin, and 2008 sale of Jaguar Land Rover, Volvo Group sold its stake in Mitsubishi Motors back to Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in 2001. Renault Véhicules Industriels was sold to Volvo during January 2001, Renault became AB Volvos biggest shareholder with a 19. 9% stake as part of the deal. Renault increased its shareholding to 21. 7% by 2010, AB Volvo acquired 13% of the shares in the Japanese truck manufacturer UD Trucks from Nissan Motor Co Ltd during 2006, becoming a major shareholder
29.
SKF
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SKF, Svenska Kullagerfabriken AB, later AB SKF, is a leading bearing and seal manufacturing company founded in Gothenburg, Sweden in 1907. Sven Wingqvist, at the time a plant engineer responsible for repairs. In spring 1907, Wingquist presented a breakthrough – a double row self-aligning ball bearing with a raceway in the outer ring. This allowed the inner ring to align freely in relation to the outer ring, the new bearing solved the problem associated with misalignment of the shafts and thus did away with the frequent production stops. On 16 February 1907 on Sven Wingqvists applied for Swedish patent No,25406, a multi-row self-aligning radial ball bearing. The Patent was granted on 6 June in Sweden coinciding with patents in 10 other countries, the new ball bearing was successful from the outset. Three years after SKF was founded, the company had 325 employees, manufacturing operations were later established in multiple countries. By 1912, SKF was represented in 32 countries and by 1930, SKF began its operations in India in 1923 by establishing a trading outpost in Calcutta. The early operations involved importing of automotive bearings, SKF India Ltd was incorporated in 1961 following a collaboration between AB SKF, Associated Bearing Co. Ltd and Investment Corp. of India Ltd, in 1963, SKF set up its first bearing factory in Pune, Maharashtra. Assar Gabrielsson, SKF sales manager and Björn Prytz, Managing Director of SKF were the founders of Volvo AB in 1926, in the beginning, the company functioned as a subsidiary automobile company within the SKF group. SKF funded the production run of the first thousand cars, built at Hisingen in Gothenburg, SKF used one of the companys trademarked names, AB Volvo, which derives from the Latin I roll, with its obvious connotations of bearings in motion. The ownership of Volvo lasted until 1935 when the last shares were divested, in the 1970s SKF embarked on a massive production rationalization program in Europe. A visionary project, Production Concept for the 80s was launched with the aim to run the night shifts practically unmanned, to increase productivity and safeguard the product quality, a continuous, automatic flow of bearing rings was needed, so SKF developed the Flexlink brand. FlexLink created the multiflex plastic chain conveyor system to solve the business requirements, SKF divested FlexLink as a separate company in 1997. The SKF Group currently consists of approximately 150 companies including the seal manufacturer Chicago Rawhide, since its founding, SKFs company headquarters have been located in Gothenburg. One recent acquisition was that of Economos, part of Salzer Holding, the companys clients include General Electric, Rolls-Royce plc and Pratt & Whitney. It also supplies bearings for Ferrari racing vehicles, used in Formula One races, another focus area is the energy sector, including wind turbines which generate electricity
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National Chiao Tung University
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National Chiao Tung University is one of Taiwans leading public research universities located in Hsinchu, Taiwan. NCTU was founded in Xujiahui, Shanghai as Nanyang Public School by Sheng Xuanhuai in 1896, after the Chinese Civil War, NCTU was re-established in Hsinchu by former Chiao Tung University faculty and alumni members in 1958. National Chiao Tung University is considered one of the most selective schools in Taiwan, for example, the Department of Applied Chemistry at NCTU employs ca.15 foreign professors. The areas of strength of the Department of Applied Chemistry at NCTU include, time-resolved spectroscopies, mass spectrometry, polymer science, bioanalytics, nanotechnology, in 2013, the International Master Program for Interdisciplinary Molecular Science of Materials and Chemical Biology was launched. Students of SPIMS are given a selection of topics in materials science, DAC at NCTU has strong links with the Academia Sinica with which it has opened a graduate program in Sustainable Chemical Science and Technology. Its MBA business program is AACSB accredited and is ranked in the top five programs throughout Asia by the business magazine Asia Inc and their business alumni do minate the financial sector in Taiwan, with NCTU having graduated more top executives than any other university in the country. Its Global MBA program is multi-national, with foreign students comprising fifty percent of the student base, the student body encompasses students from North America, Europe, South America and Asia each year. Top students receive personal mentoring by business executives through the universitys Alumni Mentoring Program, based on the Essential Science Indicators compiled by the Institute for Scientific Information, NCTU ranks 21st worldwide in the field of computer science. According to the 2013 Academic Ranking of World Universities conducted by Shanghai Jiaotong University, based on the Academic Ranking of World Universities conducted by Shanghai Jiaotong University, NCTU ranks #3 in Taiwan, and is in the top ten in the Asia/Pacific region in the field of engineering. As a leading university, NCTU has faculty with doctorates from the worlds top universities. They include but are not limited to Cambridge, Harvard, Stanford, Berkeley, MIT, Universities of London, Paris, NCTU has more IEEE Fellows on its faculty than any other university in Taiwan. A number of faculty members now serve in prominent positions in the Taiwanese government. In addition to involvement, NCTU alumni also dominate Taiwans electronics, computer and business sectors, with more than 500 Presidents. Many alumni return to their alma mater as visiting professors, every five years, alumni and representatives from the five schools gather for a celebration of academic achievement in an expression of solidarity. The NCTU alumni association organizes this event and provides support to new graduates, NCTU has nine colleges, ranging from Electrical Engineering to Computer Science to Management. With two floors dedicated to English texts, it is larger than that of many English libraries at colleges in the United States, the library area is 32,000 square meters and is set in scenic surroundings with a Taiwanese garden. It has over 1,000,000 volumes of printed texts, more than 3,000 periodicals, over 10,000 full text electronic journals, NCTU operates arts, cultural and scientific museums. On the seventh floor of the library is a traditional Taiwanese garden reminiscent of a tranquil courtyard, the grand lobby area has a rotating display of ancient artifacts
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College and university rankings
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College and university rankings are rankings of institutions in higher education ordered by various combinations of various factors. Rankings have most often conducted by magazines, newspapers, websites, governments. In addition to ranking entire institutions, organizations perform rankings of specific programs, departments, various rankings mostly evaluating on institutional output by research. Some rankings evaluate institutions within a country, while others assess institutions worldwide. The subject has produced much debate about rankings usefulness and accuracy, the expanding diversity in rating methodologies and accompanying criticisms of each indicate the lack of consensus in the field. The variety of academic rankings provide an overview and insightful overlook of different academic institutions on composite capabilities in academia. For rankings of United States universities in particular, see Rankings of universities in the United States, several organizations produce worldwide university rankings, including the following. The ranking is funded by the Chinese government and its purpose was to measure the gap between Chinese and world class universities. In the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities there are no Chinese universities in the first 100 of 500 places, ARWU rankings have been cited by The Economist magazine. It has been lauded for being consistent and transparent based on an article, the education ministers of France, Norway and Denmark traveled to China to discuss and find ways to improve their rankings. ARWU does not rely on surveys and school submissions, among other criteria, ARWU includes the number of articles published by Nature or Science and the number of Nobel Prize winners and Fields Medalists. Harvard has topped the ranking for years, one of the primary criticisms of ARWUs methodology is that it is biased towards the natural sciences and English language science journals over other subjects. This Saudi Arabia-based consulting organization has published rankings of world universities since 2012. This university ranking is owned by the French consulting company and rating agency SMBG and it ranks masters and MBA in its 9 geographical regions. G-factor ranks university and college web presence by counting the number of only from other university websites. G-factor is an indicator of the popularity or importance of each universitys website from the perspectives of other institutions. The annual U. S. News Best Global Universities rankings were produced to provide insight into how universities compare globally. The Best Global Universities rankings also provide insight into how U. S. universities – which U. S. News has been ranking separately for more than 30 years – stand globally
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Academic Ranking of World Universities
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Academic Ranking of World Universities, also known as Shanghai Ranking, is an annual publication of university rankings by Shanghai Ranking Consultancy. The publication currently includes worlds overall and subject league tables, alongside independent regional Greater China Ranking, ARWU is regarded as one of the three most influential and widely observed university measures, alongside QS World University Rankings and Times Higher Education World University Rankings. It is praised for its objective methodology but draws some condemnation for narrowly focusing on raw power, undermining humanities. ARWU is praised by media and institutions for its methodology. A survey on higher education published by The Economist in 2005 commented ARWU as the most widely used annual ranking of the research universities. In 2010, The Chronicle of Higher Education called ARWU the best-known, EU Research Headlines reported the ARWUs work on 31 December 2003, The universities were carefully evaluated using several indicators of research performance. Chancellor of University of Oxford, Chris Patten and former Vice-Chancellor of Australian National University, Ian Chubb, said and it looks like a pretty good stab at a fair comparison. And The SJTU rankings were reported quickly and widely around the offer an important comparative view of research performance. Philip G. Altbach named ARWUs consistency, clarity of purpose, whilst ARWU has originated in China, the ranking have been praised for being unbiased towards Asian institutions. Like all other rankings, ARWU has criticism and it is condemned for relying too much on award factors thus undermining the importance of quality of instruction and humanities. A2007 paper published in the journal Scientometrics found that the results from the Shanghai rankings could not be reproduced from raw data using the described by Liu. A2013 paper in the journal finally showed how the Shanghai ranking results could be reproduced. In a report from April 2009, J-C, billaut, D. Bouyssou and Ph. Vincke analyse how the ARWU works, using their insights as specialists of Multiple Criteria Decision Making. The ARWU researchers themselves, N. C Liu and Y Cheng, think that the quality of universities cannot be measured by mere numbers. They suggest that university and college rankings should be used with caution, ARWU has been criticised by the European Commission as well as some EU member states for favour Anglo-Saxon higher education institutions. It is also criticised in France for its use as a motivation for fusing universities into larger ones, indeed, number of publications or award winners will mechanically add as universities are grouped, independently of research quality. The weighting of all the other remains unchanged, thus the grand total of 70%. There are two categories in ARWUs disciplinary rankings, broad subject fields and specific subjects, the methodology is similar to that adopted in the overall table, including award factors, paper citation, and the number of highly cited scholars
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Times Higher Education World University Rankings
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Times Higher Education World University Rankings is an annual publication of university rankings by Times Higher Education magazine. The publisher had collaborated with Quacquarelli Symonds to publish the joint THE–QS World University Rankings from 2004 to 2009 before it turned to Thomson Reuters for a new ranking system. It is considered as one of the most widely observed university measures together with Academic Ranking of World Universities and it is praised for having a new improved methodology but undermining non-English-instructing institutions and being commercialized are the major criticisms. Times Higher Education chose to partner with educational and careers advice company QS to supply the data, the publication developed a new rankings methodology in consultation with its readers, its editorial board and Thomson Reuters. Thomson Reuters will collect and analyse the data used to produce the rankings on behalf of Times Higher Education, the first ranking was published in September 2010. In fact, the surveys of reputation, which made up 40 percent of scores, and its clear that our research measures favored the sciences over the humanities. He went on to describe previous attempts at peer review as embarrassing in The Australian, The sample was too small. THE published its first rankings using its new methodology on 16 September 2010, the Globe and Mail in 2010 described the Times Higher Education World University Rankings to be arguably the most influential. The inaugural 2010-2011 methodology contained 13 separate indicators grouped under five categories, Teaching, research, citations, international mix, the number of indicators is up from the Times-QS rankings published between 2004 and 2009, which used six indicators. A draft of the methodology was released on 3 June 2010. The names of the categories and the weighting of each was modified in the final methodology, the overall ranking score was calculated by making Z-scores all datasets to standardize different data types on a common scale to better make comparisons among data. The reputational component of the came from an Academic Reputation Survey conducted by Thomson Reuters in spring 2010. The survey gathered 13,388 responses among scholars statistically representative of global higher educations geographical, the magazines category for industry income – innovation came from a sole indicator, institutions research income from industry scaled against the number of academic staff. The magazine stated that it used this data as proxy for high-quality knowledge transfer, the Times stated that articles published in 2009–2010 have not yet completely accumulated in the database. The magazine announced on 5 September 2011 that its 2011–2012 World University Rankings would be published on 6 October 2011, at the same time, the magazine revealed changes to the ranking formula that will be introduced with the new rankings. The methodology will continue to use 13 indicators across five categories and will keep its fundamental foundations. Teaching and research will each remain 30 percent of the overall score, however, a new international outlook – staff, students and research will be introduced and will make up 7.5 percent of the final score. One 2011–2012 indicator, the public research income, will be dropped
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Times Higher Education
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Times Higher Education, formerly the Times Higher Education Supplement, is a weekly magazine based in London, reporting specifically on news and issues related to higher education. It is the United Kingdoms leading publication in its field, from its first issue, in 1971, until 2008 the Times Higher Education Supplement was published in newspaper format and was born out of, and affiliated with, The Times newspaper. On 10 January 2008, it was relaunched as a magazine and it is published by TES Global, which until October 2005 was a division of Rupert Murdochs News International. The magazine is edited by John Gill, phil Baty is the editor at large, and is responsible for international coverage. He is also the editor of the magazines World University Rankings, the magazine features a fictional satirical column written by Laurie Taylor, the Poppletonian, which reflects on life at the fictional Poppleton University. In 2011 Times Higher Education was awarded the titles of Weekly Business Magazine of the Year, Times Higher Education became known for publishing the annual Times Higher Education–QS World University Rankings, which first appeared in November 2004. On 30 October 2009 Times Higher Education broke with QS, then its partner in compiling the Rankings, the magazine developed a new methodology in consultation with its readers and its editorial board. Thomson Reuters collects and analyses the data used to produce the rankings on behalf of Times Higher Education, the results have been published annually since autumn 2010. QS, which collected and analysed the data from 2004-2009. The magazine runs two sets of awards annually, the first is the Times Higher Education Awards. The 2011 awards took place on 24 November at the Grosvenor House Hotel on Londons Park Lane, seventeen universities were given awards in different categories, with the University of Sheffield being University of the Year. Tessa Blackstone was given the Lord Dearing Lifetime Achievement Award, the University of Strathclyde was named as the University of the Year at the 2012 awards which took place on 29 November 2012 at the Grosvenor House Hotel on Londons Park Lane. University of Strathclyde Principal and Vice-Chancellor Professor Sir Jim McDonald received the award at the ceremony, the Times Higher Education Leadership and Management Awards were launched in 2009. The Thelmas were set up to recognise the impact that administrative staff have on the success of education institutions
