1.
Edo period
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The Edo period or Tokugawa period is the period between 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when Japanese society was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the countrys 300 regional daimyō. The period was characterized by growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies. The shogunate was established in Edo on March 24,1603. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3,1868, instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area, after Hideyoshis death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family. Ieyasus victory over the western daimyōs at the Battle of Sekigahara gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyō houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyōs, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada as shogun. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication, in 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka. The Tokugawa period brought 250 years of stability to Japan, the political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyōs had regional authority and this represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The feudal hierarchy was completed by the classes of daimyō. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or related houses and they were twenty-three daimyōs on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu, the second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or house daimyōs, rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century,145 fudai controlled such smaller han, members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the group, the tozama, former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago, because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyō, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions. The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyōs and the religious orders
2.
Nocturnal
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Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by activity during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is nocturnal, versus diurnal meaning the opposite, nocturnal creatures generally have highly developed senses of hearing, smell, and specially adapted eyesight. Such traits can help such as the Helicoverpa zea moths avoid predators. Some animals, such as cats and ferrets, have eyes that can adapt to both lowlevel and bright day levels of illumination, others, such as bushbabies and bats, can function only at night. Many nocturnal creatures including tarsiers and some owls have large eyes in comparison to their size to compensate for the lower light levels at night. More specifically, they have found to have a larger cornea relative to their eye size than diurnal creatures to increase their visual sensitivity in the low-light conditions. Nocturnality helps wasps, such as Apoica flavissima, avoid hunting in intense sunlight, diurnal animals, including squirrels and songbirds, are active during the daytime. Crepuscular species, such as rabbits, skunks, cats, tigers, cathemeral species, such as fossas and lions, are active both in the day and at night. While most humans are diurnal, for personal and social/cultural reasons some people are temporarily or habitually nocturnal. The most known creatures to be nocturnal include cats, rodents, and owls, while it is difficult to say which came first, nocturnality or diurnality, there is a leading hypothesis out in the evolutionary biology community. A recent study attempts to answer the question as to why so many modern day mammals retain these nocturnal characteristics even though they are not active at night, the anomaly to this theory were anthropoids, who appeared to have the most divergence from nocturnality than all organisms examined. While most mammals didnt exhibit the characteristics expected of a nocturnal creature, reptiles. A larger cornea and pupil correlated well with whether these two classes of organisms were nocturnal or not, being active at night is a form of niche differentiation, where a species niche is partitioned not by the amount of resources but by the amount of time. Hawks and owls can hunt the same field or meadow for the same rodents without conflict because hawks are diurnal and this means they are not in competition for each others prey. Nocturnality is a form of crypsis, an adaptation to avoid or enhance predation, one of the reasons that lions prefer to hunt at night is that many of their prey species have poor night vision. Many species of rodents, such as the Large Japanese Field Mouse, are active at night because most of the dozen or so birds of prey that hunt them are diurnal. There are many species that exhibit some nocturnal behaviors. For example, many seabirds and sea turtles only gather at breeding sites or colonies at night to reduce the risk of predation to themselves and/or their offspring, another reason for nocturnality is avoiding the heat of the day
3.
Tap water
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Tap water is water supplied to a tap. Its uses include drinking, washing, cooking, and the flushing of toilets, Tap water became common in many regions during the 20th century, and is now lacking mainly among people in poverty, especially in developing countries. Tap water is often assumed to be drinking water, especially in developed countries. Usually it is potable, although water quality problems are not rare, household water purification methods such as water filters, boiling, or distillation can be used when tap waters potability is doubted. The application of technologies involved in providing water to homes, businesses. Publicly available treated water has historically been associated with increases in life expectancy. Water-borne diseases are vastly reduced by proper sewage and fresh water availability, specific chemical compounds are often taken out of tap water during the treatment process to adjust the pH or remove contaminants, and chlorine may be added to kill biological toxins. Local geological conditions affecting groundwater are determining factors for the presence of metal ions. Tap water remains susceptible to biological or chemical contamination, in the event of contamination deemed dangerous to public health, government officials typically issue an advisory regarding water consumption. In the case of contamination, residents are usually advised to boil their water before consumption or to use bottled water as an alternative. In the case of contamination, residents may be advised to refrain from consuming tap water entirely until the matter is resolved. In many areas a compound of fluoride is added to tap water in an effort to improve health among the public. In some communities fluoridation remains a controversial issue and this supply may come from several possible sources. Municipal water supply Water wells Processed water from creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, rainwater, domestic water systems have been evolving since people first located their homes near a running water supply, such as a stream or river. The water flow also allowed sending waste water away from the residences, modern indoor plumbing delivers clean, safe, potable water to each service point in the distribution system. It is important that the water not be contaminated by the waste water side of the process system. Historically, this contamination of drinking water has been the largest killer of humans, Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy, often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure
4.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
5.
Ancient Greece
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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
6.
Flush toilet
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Flush toilets can be designed for sitting or for squatting, in the case of squat toilets. The opposite of a toilet is a dry toilet, which uses no water for flushing. Flush toilets usually incorporate an S, U, J, or P shaped bend that causes the water in the bowl to collect and act as a seal against sewer gases. Since flush toilets are not designed to handle waste on site, their drain pipes must be connected to waste conveyance. When a toilet is flushed, the flows into a septic tank or sewage system. A flush toilet may be called a lavatory, water closet, loo, comfort room. A flush toilet is different from a urinal, which is designed to handle only liquid waste, or from a bidet, a typical flush toilet is a vitreous, ceramic bowl containing water, plus plumbing to rapidly fill it with more water. The water in the bowl is connected to a hollow drain pipe shaped like an upside-down U connecting the drain. One side of the U channel is arranged as a siphon tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain, the top of the upside-down U-shaped drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. If water is poured slowly into the bowl it simply flows over the rim of the upside-down U, the standing water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas coming out of the sewer through the drain, and also as a receptacle for waste. Sewer gas is vented through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line. When a user flushes a toilet, a flapper valve opens. This rapid influx from the causes the swirling water in the bowl to rapidly rise. This full siphon tube starts the toilets siphonic action, the siphon action quickly “pulls” nearly all of the water and waste in the bowl and the on-rushing tank water down the drain — it flushes. When most of the water has drained out of the bowl, the toilet then gives its characteristic gurgle as the siphonic action ceases and no more water flows out of the toilet. After flushing, the valve in the water tank closes, water lines and valves connected to the water supply refill the toilet tank. Then the toilet is again ready for use, at the top of the toilet bowl is a rim with many angled drain holes that are fed from the tank, which fill, rinse, and induce swirling in the bowl when it is flushed
7.
Outhouse
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An outhouse, also known by many other names, is a small structure, separate from a main building, which covers one or more toilets. This is typically either a pit latrine or a bucket toilet, the term may also be used to denote the toilet itself, not just the superstructure. Outhouses were in use in cities of developed countries well into the half of the twentieth century. They are still common in areas and also in cities of developing countries. Outhouses that are covering pit latrines in densely populated areas can cause groundwater pollution. In some localities and varieties of English, particularly outside North America, the term refers not to a toilet. Outhouses vary in design and construction and they are by definition outside the dwelling, and are not connected to plumbing, sewer, or septic system. The World Health Organization recommends they be built a distance from the house balancing issues of easy access versus that of smell. The superstructure exists to shelter the user, and also to protect the toilet itself, the primary purpose of the building is for privacy and human comfort, so that the user is not exposed and does not get wet when it is raining or cold when it is windy. Walls and a roof for privacy and to shield the user from the elements—rain, wind, sleet and snow —and thus to a small degree, Outhouses are commonly humble and utilitarian, made of lumber or plywood. This is especially so they can easily be moved when the pit fills up. Depending on the size of the pit and the amount of use, as pundit Jackpine Bob Cary wrote, Anyone can build an outhouse, but not everyone can build a good outhouse. Floor plans typically are rectangular or square, but hexagonal outhouses have been built, the arrangements inside the outhouse vary by culture. In Western societies, many, though not all, have at least one seat with a hole in it, others, often in more rural, older areas in European countries, simply have a hole with two indents on either side for your feet. In Eastern societies, there is a hole in the floor, a roll of toilet paper is usually available. Old corn cobs, leaves, or other types of paper are also used, the decoration on the outhouse door has no standard. The well-known crescent moon on American outhouses was popularized by cartoonists and had a basis in fact. There are authors who claim the practice began during the period as an early mens/ladies designation for an illiterate populace
8.
Urinal
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A urinal is a sanitary plumbing fixture for urination only, predominantly used by males. It can take the form of a container or simply a wall, with drainage and automatic or manual flushing, the term may also apply to a small building or other structure containing such fixtures. While urinals are generally intended for use by males, it is possible for females to use them. While uncommon due to segregation, it is possible for females to use male urinals. Urinals may also come in different heights, to tall and short users. There are often privacy barriers between the urinals, Public urinals usually have a plastic mesh guard, which may optionally contain a deodorizing urinal deodorizer block or urinal cake. The mesh is intended to prevent solid objects from being flushed, in some restaurants, bars, and clubs, ice may be put in the urinals, serving some of the same purposes as the deodorizing block without dispensing odorous chemicals. The body posture for users of urinals is usually the position, except for urinals intended for females which may be used in more of a hovering position. Urinals for high throughput capacity are part of an efficiently designed washroom architecture, large numbers of them are usually installed along a common supply pipe and drain. There may or may not be installed for privacy. Urinals in high-capacity washrooms are usually arranged in one or more rows directly opposite the door, so that users have their backs to people entering or standing outside. Urinals in the street may be arranged in a circle, with all facing the center, with partitions high enough that they cannot wet each other. In a street urinal with a screen or wall, the users may stand back to back. Often, one or two of the urinals, typically at one end of a row, will be mounted lower than the others, they are meant for the disabled. In facilities where people of various heights are present, such as schools, urinals that extend down to floor level may be used to allow anyone of any height to use any urinal, instead of individual fixtures, trough urinals may be installed. These designs can be used by a number of people simultaneously and they are often installed where there is a high peak demand, such as in schools, music festivals, theatrical events, sports stadiums, discos, dance clubs, and convention halls. Urinals were once installed exclusively in commercial or institutional settings, but are now available for private homes. They offer the advantages of water savings in residences with many occupants
9.
Languages of the Philippines
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There are some 120 to 175 languages and dialects in the Philippines, depending on the method of classification. Four others are no longer spoken, almost all are Malayo-Polynesian languages, whereas one, Chavacano, is a creole derived from a Romance language. Two are official, while nineteen are official auxiliary languages, including second-language speakers, there are more speakers of Filipino than English in the Philippines. The Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino enumerated 135 Philippine languages present in the country through its Atlas Filipinas map published in 2014. The indigenous scripts of the Philippines are no longer used, instead, Filipino languages are written in the Latin script because of the Spanish. The Arabic script is used in Muslim areas in some areas in southern Philippines. The 1987 Constitution declares Filipino as the language of the country. Spanish and Arabic are to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis, in 1863 a Spanish decree introduced universal education, creating free public schooling in Spanish. It was also the language of the Philippine Revolution, and the 1899 Malolos Constitution effectively proclaimed it as the language of the First Philippine Republic. National hero José Rizal wrote most of his works in Spanish, luciano de la Rosa established that Spanish was spoken by a total of 60% of the population in the early 20th century as a first, second or third language. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the imposition of English, under the U. S. occupation and civil regime, English began to be taught in schools. By 1901, public education used English as the medium of instruction, around 600 educators who arrived in that year aboard the USAT Thomas replaced the soldiers who also functioned as teachers. The 1935 Constitution added English as an official language alongside Spanish, a provision in this constitution also called for Congress to take steps toward the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native languages. On November 12,1937, the First National Assembly created the National Language Institute, President Manuel L. Quezón appointed native Waray speaker Jaime C. De Veyra to chair a committee of speakers of other regional languages. Their aim was to select a language among the other regional languages. Ultimately, Tagalog was chosen as the base language December 30,1937, in 1939, President Manuel L. Quezón renamed the Tagalog language as Wikang Pambansa. The language was renamed in 1959 as Pilipino by Secretary of Education Jose Romero. The 1973 constitution declared the Pilipino language to be co-official, along with English, in addition, Spanish regained its official status when President Marcos signed Presidential Decree No
10.
Tagalog language
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Tagalog is an Austronesian language spoken as a first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and as a second language by the majority. Its standardized form, officially named Filipino, is officially the national language, the word Tagalog is derived from the endonym taga-log, composed of tagá- and ilog. Linguists such as Dr. David Zorc and Dr. Robert Blust speculate that the Tagalogs, the first written record of Tagalog is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which dates to 900 CE and exhibits fragments of the language along with Sanskrit, Old Malay, Javanese and Old Tagalog. The first known book to be written in Tagalog is the Doctrina Christiana. Tagalog differs from its Central Philippine counterparts with its treatment of the Proto-Philippine schwa vowel *ə, in Bikol and Visayan, this sound merged with /u/ and. In Tagalog, it has merged with /i/, for example, Proto-Philippine *dəkət is Tagalog dikít and Visayan & Bikol dukot. Proto-Philippine *r, *j, and *z merged with /d/ but is /l/ between vowels, Proto-Philippine *ŋajan and *hajək became Tagalog ngalan and halík. Proto-Philippine *R merged with /ɡ/. *tubiR and *zuRuʔ became Tagalog tubig, the first substantial dictionary of the Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. Clain spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books and he wrote the first dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. Tagalog was declared the language by the first constitution in the Philippines. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as wikang pambansâ, in 1959, the language was further renamed as Pilipino. The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine. The regional languages are the official languages in the regions. In secondary school, Filipino and English become the primary languages of instruction and it is the first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and a second language by the majority. Tagalog is a Central Philippine language within the Austronesian language family, being Malayo-Polynesian, it is related to other Austronesian languages, such as Malagasy, Javanese, Malay, Tetum, and Yami. It is closely related to the languages spoken in the Bicol Region and the Visayas islands, such as the Bikol group and the Visayan group, including Hiligaynon and Cebuano. At present, no comprehensive dialectology has been done in the Tagalog-speaking regions, though there have been descriptions in the form of dictionaries and grammars of various Tagalog dialects. Some example of differences are, Many Tagalog dialects, particularly those in the south, preserve the glottal stop found after consonants
11.
North Korea
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North Korea, officially the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, is a country in East Asia, constituting the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Pyongyang is both the capital as well as its largest city. To the north and northwest the country is bordered by China and by Russia along the Amnok, the country is bordered to the south by South Korea, with the heavily fortified Korean Demilitarized Zone separating the two. Negotiations on reunification failed, and in 1948 two separate governments were formed, the communist Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea in the north, an invasion initiated by North Korea led to the Korean War. The Korean Armistice Agreement brought about a ceasefire, and no peace treaty was ever signed. North Korea officially describes itself as a self-reliant socialist state and formally holds elections, critics regard it as a totalitarian dictatorship. Various outlets have called it Stalinist, particularly noting the elaborate cult of personality around Kim Il-sung, International organizations have assessed human rights violations in North Korea as belonging to a category of their own, with no parallel in the contemporary world. Over time, North Korea has gradually distanced itself from the world communist movement, Juche, an ideology of national self-reliance, was introduced into the constitution as a creative application of Marxism–Leninism in 1972. The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises, most services such as healthcare, education, housing and food production are subsidized or state-funded. From 1994 to 1998, North Korea suffered from a famine that resulted in the deaths of between 0.24 and 3.5 million people, and the continues to struggle with food production. North Korea follows Songun, or military-first policy and it is the country with the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel, with a total of 9,495,000 active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel. Its active duty army of 1.21 million is the fourth largest in the world, after China, North Korea is an atheist state with no official religion and where public religion is discouraged. The name Korea derives from the name Goryeo, the name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a shortened form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After the division of the country into North and South Korea, the two sides used different terms to refer to Korea, Chosun or Joseon in North Korea, in 1948, North Korea adopted Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea as its new legal name. After the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was occupied by Japan, Japan tried to suppress Korean traditions and culture and ran the economy primarily for its own benefit. Korean resistance groups known as Dongnipgun operated along the Sino-Korean border, some of them took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. One of the leaders was the communist Kim Il-sung, who later became the leader of North Korea
12.
Close stool
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A close stool was an early type of portable toilet, made in the shape of a cabinet or box at sitting height with an opening in the top. The external structure contained a pewter or earthenware chamberpot to receive the users excrement and urine when he or she sat on it, Stool has two relevant meanings, as a type of seat and as human feces. Close stools were used from the Middle Ages until the introduction of the flush toilet. The close stool was sometimes called a necessary stool or a night stool and this appears to be the link between commode as an elegant article of French furniture, and commode as a prosaic invalid toilet. Close stool, in turn, is itself a euphemism for toilet chair, one meaning of commode survived into the twentieth century to refer to the flush toilet, toilet itself originally euphemistic. A nineteenth century development is the thunderbox, the Groom of the Stool was a high-ranking courtier who assisted the monarch with the close stool
13.
Cabinetry
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A cabinet is a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors or drawers for storing miscellaneous items. Some cabinets stand alone while others are built into a wall or are attached to it like a medicine cabinet, cabinets are typically made of wood or, now increasingly, of synthetic materials. Commercial grade cabinets, which differ in the used, are called casework. Cabinets usually have one or more doors on the front, which are mounted with door hardware, many cabinets have doors and drawers or only drawers. Short cabinets often have a surface on top that can be used for display, or as a working surface. A cabinet intended for clothing storage is usually called a wardrobe or an armoire, before the advent of industrial design, cabinet makers were responsible for the conception and the production of any piece of furniture. In the last half of the 18th century, cabinet makers, such as Thomas Sheraton, Thomas Chippendale, Shaver, cabinet Constructors, and George Hepplewhite, also published books of furniture forms. These books were compendiums of their designs and those of other cabinet makers, in parallel to this evolution there came a growing demand by the rising middle class in most industrialised countries for finely made furniture. This eventually resulted in a growth in the number of traditional cabinet makers. Before 1650, fine furniture was a rarity in Western Europe, generally, people did not need it and for the most part could not afford it. They made do with simple but serviceable pieces, the arts and craft movement which started in the United Kingdom in the middle of the 19th century spurred a market for traditional cabinet making, and other craft goods. It rapidly spread to the United States and to all the countries in the British Empire and this movement exemplified the reaction to the eclectic historicism of the Victorian era and to the soulless machine-made production which was starting to become widespread. After World War II woodworking became a hobby among the middle classes. The more serious and skilled amateurs in this field now turn out pieces of furniture which rival the work of professional cabinet makers and this style of design is typified by clean horizontal and vertical lines. Compared to other designs there is an absence of ornamentation. While Scandinavian design is easy to identify, it is more about the materials than the design. This style of design is very ornate, French Provincial objects are often stained or painted, leaving the wood concealed. Corners and bevels are often decorated with gold leaf or given some kind of gilding
14.
Nightstand
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A nightstand, alternatively night table, bedside table or bedside cabinet, is a small table or cabinet designed to stand beside a bed or elsewhere in a bedroom. Modern nightstands are usually small bedside tables, often with a drawer. They are often used to support items that might be useful during the night, such as a lamp, alarm clock, reading matter, phone, eyeglasses, desktop intercom. Before indoor flushing toilets became commonplace, the function of a nightstand was to contain a chamber pot. As a result, early nightstands were often small cabinets, sometimes fitted with a drawer, another term sometimes given to such cabinets was commode. French, Italian and Spanish antique nightstands usually have one drawer and they can be embellished with gold leaf finish, bronze or parquetry inlaid
15.
Commode
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A commode is any of several pieces of furniture. The word commode comes from the French word for convenient or suitable, the term originates in the vocabulary of French furniture from about 1700. At that time, a commode meant a cabinet or chest of drawers and it was a piece of veneered case furniture much wider than it was high, raised on high or low legs and with or without enclosing drawers. Commodes were made by ébénistes, the French word for cabinet-maker is derived from ebony, the beautiful wood was complemented with ormolu. The piece of furniture would be provided with a marble slab top selected to match the marble of the chimneypiece, bombé commodes, with surfaces shaped in three dimensions, were a feature of the rococo style called Louis Quinze. Rectilinear neoclassical, or Louis Seize, commodes might have such deep drawers or doors that the feet were en toupie—in the tapering turned shape of a spinning top. If a commode had open shelves flanking the main section it was a commode à langlaise, john Gloag notes that Commode expanded to describe any piece of furniture with a serpentine front, such as a dressing table, or even a chair seat. The Oxford English Dictionary has multiple meanings of commode, the first relevant definition reads, A piece of furniture with drawers and shelves, in the bedroom, a sort of elaborate chest of drawers, in the drawingroom, a large kind of chiffonier. The drawing room is itself a term for a formal reception room, and a chiffonier is, in this sense. Another meaning attested is a washstand, a piece of furniture equipped with basin, jug, and towel rail, a washstand in the bedroom pre-dates indoor bathrooms and running water. In British English, commode is the term for a chair, often on wheels, enclosing a chamber pot—as used in hospitals. This piece of furniture is termed in French a chaise percée, in some parts of the United States, a commode is a colloquial synonym for a flush toilet. Encoignure, a piece of furniture designed to fit in a corner Nightstand, a small table or similar next to a bed Lowboy and highboy
16.
Bedpan
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A bedpan or bed pan is a receptacle used for the toileting of a bedridden patient in a health care facility, and is usually made of metal, glass, ceramic, or plastic. A bedpan can be used for urinary and fecal discharge. Many diseases can confine a patient to bed, necessitating the use of bedpans, including Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons disease, stroke, and dementia. Additionally, many patients may be confined to a bed temporarily as a result of an illness, injury, or surgery. Bedpans are usually constructed of steel, which is easy to clean and durable, but may be cold, hard. Also, the area of some products is very small. To solve these problems, new ergonomic bedpans have been developed, some designs completely cover the genitalia during use, offering protection and an extra measure of privacy. On the other hand, the material is difficult to sterilize. Fracture bedpans are smaller than standard size bedpans, and have one flat end and these bedpans are designed specifically for patients who have had a hip fracture or are recovering from hip replacement. This type of bedpan may be used for patients who cannot raise their hips high enough or roll over onto a regular size bedpan. In recent years, a liner made of recycled wood pulp is more popular in UK hospitals, it is for single use. An alternative to the recycled pulp liner is the plastic bedpan liner, some liners are made of biodegradable plastic and contain absorbent powder to eliminate splashing and spills. Liners are used in hospitals to decrease infection, and can also be purchased and used for health care
17.
Toilet
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A toilet is a sanitation fixture used for the storing or disposal of human urine and feces. In developed countries, different forms of flush toilets are common. These are connected to a system in most urban areas. In many developing countries, especially in areas, dry toilets such as pit latrines. Dry toilets are usually placed in outhouses, i. e. not inside the dwelling, in many countries, private homes are designed with the flush toilet and the bath or shower in the same room, the bathroom, to simplify plumbing and reduce cost. Other cultures find this insanitary, and have one room for body-washing, public toilets are installed where their use is expected on a permanent basis, while portable toilets may be brought in for large but temporary gatherings. Chemical toilets are used in various contexts, such as passenger trains. Serious waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhea occur when open defecation or poor sanitation permits human waste to pollute water supplies, historically, sanitation has been a concern from the earliest stages of human settlements. The Indus Valley Civilization is particularly notable for its extensive sanitation works, for the most part, early cities emptied their waste into rivers or seas manually or via open ditches. Sanitation in ancient Rome was notably advanced, as were some of the reredorters of medieval monasteries, a precursor to the modern flush toilet system was designed by John Harington in 1596 but did not become common until the late 19th century. Even London, at time the worlds largest city, did not require indoor toilets in its building codes until after the First World War. A typical flush toilet is a ceramic bowl connected on the up side to a cistern that enables rapid filling with water, when a toilet is flushed, the sewage should flow into a septic tank or into a system connected to a Sewage treatment plant. However, in countries, this treatment does not happen. The water in the bowl is connected to a pipe shaped like an upside-down U. One side of the U channel is arranged as a tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain, the bottom of the drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The water in the acts as a barrier to sewer gas entering the building. Sewer gas escapes through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line, the amount of water used by conventional flush toilets usually makes up a significant portion of personal daily water usage
18.
Toilet training
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Toilet training, or potty training, is the process of training a young child to use the toilet for urination and defecation, though training may start with a smaller toilet bowl-shaped device. The vast majority of studies concentrate on children 18 months old, in this age range, research suggests that children over 24 months train faster and girls train slightly faster than boys. Until the mid-1900s, the vast majority of babies finished toilet training by 2 years, since then, the age for toilet training has increased dramatically. The convenience of disposable diapers, pull-up diapers and more efficient laundry facilities may contribute to this trend. In 1957, the age of starting toilet training was still under the age of one year,11 months. In 2002, the age that parents recognized their child showing an interest in using the potty was 24–25 months. Now nighttime accidents are considered normal until 5 or 6 years of age, bedwetting Elimination communication Housebreaking Urinal Infant potty training method Baby-led potty training
19.
The Crabfish
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The Crabfish is a ribald humorous folk song of the English oral tradition. It dates back to the century, appearing in Bishop Percys Folio Manuscript as a song named The Sea Crabb based on an earlier tale. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 149, the moral of the story is that one should look in the chamber pot before using it. Owing to the nature of its theme this ballad was intentionally excluded from Francis James Childs renowned compilation of folk songs The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. A man brings a crabfish home as a gift for his wife, some time in the night his wife answers a call of nature and the crustacean grabs her private parts. In the ensuing scuffle the husband gets bitten too, johnny Daddlum is the Irish version of this song. There are variants in which the language is more clear-cut than in others. In some variants the wife is pregnant, having told her husband about her craving to eat crabfish meat. This song has also variants under other names such as Old She-Crab, The Crayfish, A Combat Between an Ale-Wife and a Sea Crab, The Fishy Crab, and The Lobster. The Crayfish A sanitized version of The Crabfish, expunging the straightforwardness of the original in order to make the song available for child audiences, was released in recent years, instead of private parts the crabfish grabs the wife by the nose and the husband by the ear
20.
President of the Philippines
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The President of the Philippines is the head of state and head of government of the Philippines. The President leads the executive branch of the Philippine government and is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, Filipinos refer to their President as Pangulo or Presidente. The President serves a single, fixed, six-year term without possibility of re-election, in Filipino, one of the two official languages of the Philippines, the President is referred to as Pangulo. In the other languages of the Philippines such as the Visayan languages. Depending on the chosen for these terms, a number of persons could alternatively be considered the inaugural holder of the office. Andrés Bonifacio could be considered the first President of a united Philippines since he was the third Supreme President of the Katipunan and its Supreme Council, led by the Supreme President, coordinated provincial and district councils. When the Katipunan started a revolt against the Spanish colonial government in August 1896. While the term Katipunan remained, Bonifacios government was known as the Tagalog Republic. Bonifacios revolutionary government never controlled territory for any significant period. Some historians contend that including Bonifacio as a past president would imply that Macario Sacay, in March 1897, during the Philippine Revolution against Spain Emilio Aguinaldo was elected president of the revolutionary government at the Tejeros Convention. The new government was meant to replace the Katipunan, though the latter was not formally abolished until 1899, Aguinaldo was again elected President at Biak-na-Bato in November, leading the Republic of Biak-na-Bato. Aguinaldo therefore signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and went into exile in Hong Kong at the end of 1897, in April 1898, the Spanish–American War broke out, and the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy sailed for the Philippines. At the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1,1898 the American Navy decisively defeated the Spanish Navy effectively ending Spanish rule in the Philippines, aquinaldo subsequently returned to the Philippines aboard a U. S. Navy vessel and renewed the revolution. He formed a government on May 24,1898 and issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June 12,1898. On June 23,1898, Aguinaldo transformed his government into a revolutionary government. On January 23,1899, he was then elected President of the First Philippine Republic, consequently, this government is also called the Malolos Republic. The First Philippine Republic was short-lived and never internationally recognized, the Philippines was transferred from Spanish to American control by the Treaty of Paris of 1898, signed in December of that year. The Philippine–American War broke out between the United States and Aguinaldos government and his government effectively ceased to exist on April 1,1901, after he pledged allegiance to the United States following his capture by U. S. forces in March
21.
Elpidio Quirino
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Elpidio Rivera Quirino was a Filipino politician of ethnic Ilocano descent who served as the sixth President of the Philippines from 1948 to 1953. A lawyer by profession, Quirino entered politics when he became a representative of Ilocos Sur from 1919 to 1925 and he was then elected as senator from 1925–1931. In 1934, he became a member of the Philippine independence commission that was sent to Washington, in 1935, he was also elected to the convention that drafted the 1935 constitution for the newly established Commonwealth. In the new government, he served as secretary of the interior, after World War II, Quirino was elected vice-president in the 1946 election, consequently the second and last for the Commonwealth and first for the third republic. After the death of the incumbent president Manuel Roxas in 1948, the Quirino administration was generally challenged by the Hukbalahaps, who ransacked towns and barrios. Quirino ran for president again in the 1953 presidential election, but was defeated by Nacionalista Ramon Magsaysay, after his term, he retired to his new country home in Novaliches, Quezon City, where he died of a heart attack on February 29,1956. Elpidio Quirino was a native of Caoayan, Ilocos Sur although born in Vigan, Ilocos Sur to Don Mariano Quebral Quirino of Caoayan, Ilocos Sur and Doña Gregoria Mendoza Rivera of Agoo and he was baptized on November 19,1890. Quirino spent his years in Aringay, La Union. He studied and graduated from his education to his native Caoayan. He received secondary education at Vigan High School, then went to Manila where he worked as computer technician at the Bureau of Lands. He graduated from Manila High School in 1911 and also passed the civil service examination, Quirino attended the University of the Philippines. In 1915, he earned his law degree from the universitys College of Law and he was engaged in the private practice of law. He was later inducted into the Pan Xenia Fraternity, a professional fraternity in the University of the Philippines. Quirino was married to Alicia Syquia on January 16,1921, the couple had five children, Tomas, Armando, Norma, Victoria, and Fe. Only Quirino, his son Tomas, and his daughter Victoria and his brother Antonio Quirino was the owner of Alto Broadcasting System, which later merged with Chronicle Broadcasting Network to form the ABS-CBN Broadcasting Corporation. His daughter Victoria Quirino y Syquía, first married the Philippine ambassador to Spain Luis M. González, when he passed, she married the very wealthy Don Francisco Delgado who has numerous business interests in the Marianas Islands and the Philippines. They married in the Ermita of the Rosario de Chinchón, May 1970, Quirino was engaged in the private practice of law until he was elected as member of the Philippine House of Representatives from 1919 to 1925, succeeding Alberto Reyes. In 1925 he was succeeded as Congressman by Vicente Singson Pablo, Quirino was elected as Senator from 1925 to 1931 representing the First Senatorial District
22.
Smear campaign
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A smear campaign, smear tactic or simply smear is an effort to damage or call into question someones reputation, by propounding negative propaganda. It can be applied to individuals or groups, common targets are public officials, politicians, political candidates, activists and ex-spouses. The term also applies in other such as the workplace. The phrase smear campaign became popular from around 1936, a smear campaign is an intentional, premeditated effort to undermine an individuals or groups reputation, credibility, and character. Like negative campaigning, most often smear campaigns target government officials, politicians, political candidates, however, private persons or groups may also become targets of smear campaigns perpetrated in companies, institutions, the legal system, and other formal groups. Smear tactics differ from normal discourse or debate in that they do not bear upon the issues or arguments in question, a smear is a simple attempt to malign a group or an individual with the aim of undermining their credibility. Smears often consist of ad hominem attacks in the form of unverifiable rumors and distortions, half-truths, or even outright lies, smear campaigns are often propagated by gossip magazines. Even when the facts behind a campaign are demonstrated to lack proper foundation. Smears are also effective in diverting attention away from the matter in question, the target of the smear typically must focus on correcting the false information rather than on the original issue. Deflection has been described as a smear, You make up something. Then you have the press write about it, and then you say, everybody is writing about this charge. Smear tactics are considered by many to be a low, disingenuous form of discourse, smear campaigns have been identified as a common weapon of psychopaths and narcissists. In many countries, the law recognizes the value of reputation, both libel and slander are often punishable by law and may result in imprisonment or compensation or fees for damages done. Smear tactics are used to undermine effective arguments or critiques. During the 1856 presidential election, John C, frémont was the target of a smear campaign alleging that he was a Catholic. The campaign was designed to support for Fremont from those who were suspicious of Catholics. Ralph Nader was the victim of a campaign during the 1960s. In order to smear Nader and deflect attention from his campaign
23.
Thomas More
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Sir Thomas More, venerated by Roman Catholics as Saint Thomas More, was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist. He was also a councillor to Henry VIII, and Lord High Chancellor of England from October 1529 to 16 May 1532 and he also wrote Utopia, published in 1516, about the political system of an imaginary ideal island nation. More opposed the Protestant Reformation, in particular the theology of Martin Luther, More also opposed the Kings separation from the Catholic Church, refusing to acknowledge Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England and the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. After refusing to take the Oath of Supremacy, he was convicted of treason, of his execution, he was reported to have said, I die the Kings good servant, but Gods first. Pope Pius XI canonised More in 1935 as a martyr, Pope John Paul II in 2000 declared him the heavenly Patron of Statesmen and Politicians. Since 1980, the Church of England has remembered More liturgically as a Reformation martyr, the Soviet Union honoured him for the Communist attitude toward property rights expressed in Utopia. From 1490 to 1492, More served John Morton, the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor of England, Morton enthusiastically supported the New Learning, and thought highly of the young More. Believing that More had great potential, Morton nominated him for a place at the University of Oxford, More began his studies at Oxford in 1492, and received a classical education. Studying under Thomas Linacre and William Grocyn, he became proficient in both Latin and Greek, More left Oxford after only two years—at his fathers insistence—to begin legal training in London at New Inn, one of the Inns of Chancery. In 1496, More became a student at Lincolns Inn, one of the Inns of Court, where he remained until 1502, according to his friend, theologian Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, More once seriously contemplated abandoning his legal career to become a monk. Between 1503 and 1504 More lived near the Carthusian monastery outside the walls of London, although he deeply admired their piety, More ultimately decided to remain a layman, standing for election to Parliament in 1504 and marrying the following year. In spite of his choice to pursue a career, More continued ascetic practices for the rest of his life, such as wearing a hair shirt next to his skin. A tradition of the Third Order of Saint Francis honours More as a member of that Order on their calendar of saints, More married Jane Colt in 1505. She was five years younger than her husband, quiet and good-natured, Erasmus reported that More wanted to give his young wife a better education than she had previously received at home, and tutored her in music and literature. The couple had four children before Jane died in 1511, Margaret, Elizabeth, Cicely, going against friends advice and common custom, within thirty days More had married one of the many eligible women among his wide circle of friends. He certainly expected a mother to care of his little children and, as the view of his time considered marriage as an economic union, he chose a rich widow. More was not viewed as being in haste to remarry for the gratification of sexual pleasure, as Alice was older than he, and their marriage was possibly not consummated. The speed of the marriage was so unusual that More had to get a dispensation of the banns, Alice More lacked Janes docility, Mores friend Andrew Ammonius derided Alice as a hook-nosed harpy
24.
Utopia (book)
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Utopia is a work of fiction and political philosophy by Thomas More published in 1516 in Latin. The book is a frame narrative primarily depicting an island society and its religious. Many aspects of Mores description of Utopia are reminiscent of life in monasteries, the title De optimo rei publicae deque nova insula Utopia literally translates, Of a republics best state and of the new island Utopia. It is variously rendered as any of the following, The original name was even longer, Libellus vere aureus, nec minus salutaris quam festivus, de optimo rei publicae statu deque nova insula Utopia. This translates, A truly golden little book, no less beneficial than entertaining, of a republics best state and of the new island Utopia. Utopia is derived from the Greek prefix ou-, meaning not, in early modern English, Utopia was spelled Utopie, which is today rendered Utopy in some editions. A common misunderstanding has that Utopia is derived from eu-, good, in English, Utopia is pronounced exactly as Eutopia. This is something that More himself addresses in an addendum to his book Wherfore not Utopie, but rather rightely my name is Eutopie, More chose these letters, which are communications between actual people, to further the plausibility of his fictional land. In the same spirit, these also include a specimen of the Utopian alphabet. The letters also explain the lack of travel to Utopia, during the first mention of the land. The first book tells of the traveller Raphael Hythlodaeus, to whom More is introduced in Antwerp, and it explores the subject of how best to counsel a prince. The first discussions with Raphael allow him to some of the modern ills affecting Europe such as the tendency of kings to start wars. He also criticises the use of execution to punish theft, saying thieves might as well murder whom they rob, to remove witnesses, if the punishment is going to be the same. More tries to convince Raphael that he could find a job in a royal court, advising monarchs. Raphael sees himself in the tradition of Plato, he knows that for good governance, Utopia is placed in the New World and More links Raphaels travels in with Amerigo Vespuccis real life voyages of discovery. He suggests that Raphael is one of the 24 men Vespucci, in his Four Voyages of 1507, says he left for six months at Cabo Frio, Raphael then travels further and finds the island of Utopia, where he spends five years observing the customs of the natives. According to More, the island of Utopia is The island was originally a peninsula, each city is divided into four equal parts. The capital city, Amaurot, is located directly in the middle of the crescent island, each city has 6000 households, consisting of between 10 and 16 adults
25.
History of water supply and sanitation
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Water supply and sanitation has been a primary logistical challenge since the dawn of civilization. Where water resources or infrastructure or sanitation systems are insufficient for the population, people fall prey to disease, dehydration, Major human settlements could initially develop only where fresh surface water was plentiful, such as near rivers or natural springs. Throughout history people have devised systems to make getting water into their communities and households, and disposing wastewater more convenient. The historical focus of treatment was on the conveyance of raw sewage to a natural body of water, e. g. a river or ocean. Early human habitations were built next to water sources. Rivers would often double as a form of natural sewage disposal. Most of these early sewers received significant amounts of animal dung in street runoff. During the Neolithic, humans dug the first permanent water wells, wells dug around 6500 BC have been found in the Jezreel Valley. The size of settlements was largely dependent on nearby available water. The Indus Valley Civilization in Asia shows early evidence of water supply. The system the Indus developed and managed included a number of advanced features, a typical example is the Indus city of Lothal. The urban areas of the Indus Valley civilization included public and private baths, sewage was disposed through underground drains built with precisely laid bricks, and a sophisticated water management system with numerous reservoirs was established. In the drainage systems, drains from houses were connected to wider public drains, devices such as shadoofs and sakias were used to lift water to ground level. Ruins from the Indus Valley Civilization like Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan and Dholavira in Gujarat in India had settlements with some of the ancient worlds most sophisticated sewage systems and they included drainage channels, rain water harvesting, and street ducts. Stepwells have mainly used in Indian subcontinent. The earliest covered sewers uncovered by archaeologists are in the planned cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Wastewater reuse is an ancient practice, which has applied since the dawn of human history. Reuse of untreated municipal wastewater has been practiced for centuries with the objective of diverting human waste outside of urban settlements
26.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
27.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
28.
Henry Liddell
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Lewis Carroll wrote Alices Adventures in Wonderland for Henry Liddells daughter Alice. Liddell received his education at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford and he gained a double first degree in 1833, then became a college tutor, and was ordained in 1838. Liddell was Headmaster of Westminster School from 1846 to 1855, meanwhile, his life work, the great lexicon, which he and Robert Scott began as early as 1834, had made good progress, and the first edition of Liddell and Scotts Lexicon appeared in 1843. It immediately became the standard Greek–English dictionary, with the 8th edition published in 1897, as Headmaster of Westminster Liddell enjoyed a period of great success, followed by trouble due to the outbreak of fever and cholera in the school. In 1855 he accepted the deanery of Christ Church, Oxford, in the same year he brought out his History of Ancient Rome and took a very active part in the first Oxford University Commission. His tall figure, fine presence and aristocratic mien were for years associated with all that was characteristic of Oxford life. In 1859 Liddell welcomed the then Prince of Wales when he matriculated at Christ Church, while he was Dean of Christ Church, he arranged for the building of a new choir school and classrooms for the staff and pupils of Christ Church Cathedral School on its present site. Before then the school was housed within Christ Church itself, in July 1846, Liddell married Miss Lorina Reeve, with whom he had several children, including Alice Liddell of Lewis Carroll fame. In conjunction with Sir Henry Acland, Liddell did much to encourage the study of art at Oxford, in 1891, owing to advancing years, he resigned the deanery. The last years of his life were spent at Ascot, where he died on 18 January 1898, Two roads in Ascot, Liddell Way and Carroll Crescent honour the relationship between Henry Liddell and Lewis Carroll. Liddell was an Oxford character in later years and he figures in contemporary undergraduate doggerel, I am the Dean, this Mrs Liddell. She plays first, I, second fiddle and she is the Broad, I am the High – We are the University. The Victorian journalist, George W. E and his father was Henry Liddell, Rector of Easington, the younger son of Sir Henry Liddell, 5th Baronet and the former Elizabeth Steele. His fathers elder brother, Sir Thomas Liddell, 6th Baronet, was raised to the Peerage as Baron Ravensworth in 1821 and his mother was the former Charlotte Lyon, a daughter of Thomas Lyon and the former Mary Wren. On 2 July 1846, Henry married Lorina Reeve and they were parents of ten children, Edward Harry Liddell. Alice Pleasance Liddell, for whom the story of the childrens classic Alices Adventures in Wonderland was originally told, rhoda Caroline Anne Liddell, she was invested as an Officer, Order of the British Empire in 1920. Albert Edward Arthur Liddell, he died in infancy, violet Constance Liddell, she was invested as a Member, Order of the British Empire in 1920. Sir Frederick Francis Liddell, First Parliamentary Counsel and Ecclesiastical Commissioner, lionel Charles Liddell, he was British Consul to Lyons and Copenhagen
29.
Ballcock
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A ballcock is a mechanism or machine for filling water tanks, such as those found in flush toilets, while avoiding overflow and backflow. The modern ballcock was invented by José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez, a Mexican priest and scientist and it consists of a valve connected to a hollow sealed float by means of a lever, mounted near the top of the tank. The float is often ball-shaped, hence the name ballcock, the valve is connected to the incoming water supply, and is opened and closed by the lever which has the float mounted on the end. When the water rises, the float rises with it, once it rises to a pre-set level. This is an example of feedback and of proportional control. When a toilets handle is turned, a mechanism is activated by means of a rod or chain. The mechanism may be a valve, which is designed to sink more slowly than the water. As the tank water level drops, the float descends and actuates the fill valve, water is fed to the tank to replenish its supply, and a smaller flow is directed into the overflow tube to refill the bowl. Once the flapper valve closes, the flow from the fill valve continues until the tank level again reaches the fill line. Another discharge mechanism, common in the United Kingdom, is a siphon, the rod or chain lifts a piston that pulls an initial charge of water up into the siphon. When the column of water passes over the bend and starts to fall down the exit pipe. Toward the end of the process, the ballcock responds to the drop in water level. Should the float or valve fail and allow the level to exceed the fill line. Although this does not stop the wastage of water, it avoids the flooding that would occur after a single-point valve failure. These devices are sold at most hardware, plumbing supply, introduction to ballcock valves US2837111, Mueller, Paul G. Ball cock valve mechanism, published 6 January 1955, issued 3 June 1958, hysterisis issue. Such flush tank valves as now used are closed against the pressure of water from a source of supply which pressure opposes the movement of the float under rising water level in the tank. US418162, Cahill, W. J. Ball cock, published 2 October 1889, issued 31 December 1889, hysterisis issue
30.
Bidet
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A bidet is a plumbing fixture or type of sink intended for washing the genitalia, perineum, inner buttocks, and anus of the human body, and is typically installed in a bathroom. Lower-cost add-ons combining a toilet seat and electronic bidet are becoming popular as well. Bidets are primarily used to wash and clean the genitalia, perineum, inner buttocks, traditional designs may also be used to clean any other part of the human body, such as the feet. Despite appearing similar to a toilet, a traditional bidet may be more compared to a sink. There are also bidets that are attachable to ordinary toilet bowls and they have the advantage of being inexpensive and saving space. They are usually not meant to replace the use of paper as they are used after some paper to achieve full cleanliness without immediately having to take a shower. Bidets with a vertical jet are intended to replace the use of toilet paper, historical antecedents and early functions of the bidet are believed to include devices used for contraception. Bidets are considered ineffective by todays standards of contraception, and their use for this function was quickly abandoned, in contrast to a bidet that is integrated with the toilet, a bidet shower has to be held by the hands, and cleaning does not take place automatically. Bidet showers are common in countries where water is considered essential for anal cleansing, drawbacks include the possibility of wetting a users clothing if used carelessly. In addition, a user must be mobile and flexible to use a hand-held bidet shower. A bidet is a fixture that is installed as a separate unit in the bathroom besides toilet, shower and sink. In the past, getting a bidet meant installing a new plumbing unit into the bathroom. Newer bidets are often no longer standalone units, A bidet may be a movable or fixed nozzle attached to a toilet on back or side toilet rim. In these cases, their use is restricted to cleaning the anus, some bidets of this type produce a vertical water jet and others a more or less oblique one. Such attachable bidets are controlled either mechanically or electronically, mechanically controlled bidets tend to be simple mechanisms manually controlled by a valve. From the last ones some have the apparatus fixed on bowl rim, the attachable bidets may be manufactured of plastic, chrome-plated metal, or stainless steel to accommodate many tastes and budgets. Electronic bidets are controlled with waterproof electrical switches rather than with a manual valve. Further refinements include adjustable water pressure, temperature compensation, and directional spray control, where bathroom appearance is of concern, under-the-seat mounting types have become more popular
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Bidet shower
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The health faucet is a source of water for people who prefer using water rather than other methods of cleansing after defecation or urination. The bidet shower is a modern replacement for the traditional sources of water for this action, such as the bidet, copper pot or bucket and mug, being more hygienic. There is no contact between the spray of water and the water drainage. The bidet shower is common in all predominantly Islamic countries and in most parts of Asia where water is considered essential for anal cleansing. This includes Nepal, Pakistan, China, India, Bangladesh, Turkey, Iran, United Arab Emirates, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Singapore, Vietnam, in those countries it is commonly installed in Western-style toilet installations. In Thailand, it is common in both Western-style toilets and squat toilet installations, the bidet shower is similar in intent to the Japanese washlet-style toilet seats, or so-called electronic bidets. In Europe, it is used for example in Finland, while bidets are more common bathroom fixtures in many southern European countries and it is very common in Brazil, where traditional bidets are being replaced by it. It is most common in Muslim countries and all parts of the Arab world
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Toilet brush
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A toilet brush is a tool for cleaning a toilet bowl. The modern plastic version was invented in 1932 by William C, schopp of Huntington Park, California, US and later patented in 1933 by The Addis Brush Company. Generally the toilet brush is used with toilet cleaner or bleach, the toilet brush can be used to clean the upper area of the toilet, around the bowl. However, it cannot be used to very far into the toilets U-bend. In many cultures it is considered impolite to clean away biological debris without the use of chemical toilet cleaning products, by contrast, others consider it impolite not to clean away biological debris immediately using the toilet brush. A typical toilet brush consists of a hard bristled end, usually with a rounded shape, today toilet brushes are commonly made of plastic, but were originally made of wood with pig bristles or from the hair of horses, oxen, squirrels and badgers. The brush is typically stored in a holder, but in some cases completely hidden in a tube, an electric toilet brush is a little different from a normal toilet brush. The bristles are fastened on the rotor of a motor which works similar to a tooth brush. The power supply is attached without any metal contact via electromagnetic induction, in recent years, there has been a general shift in design with a new emphasis on ergonomically designed brushes. Further design enhancements have included innovative holders that snap shut around the end, thereby preventing the release of smells, germs. Further development of the toilet brush focus on the risk of germ incubation within the brush holder. A toilet brush has been patented which introduces a reservoir of anti-bacterial fluid, in recent years many new products rivaling the traditional toilet brush have emerged to the market. The LooBlade is a brush with an 8-blade silicone head and hydrophobic properties that sheds water. It is claimed to be able to kill 99. 9% of germs during and it was invented by Garry Stewart. The Loogun is an alternative to the toilet brush and it sprays a powerful jet of clean water that washes away stubborn marks both above and below the water line. The device never touches the toilet, so the device stays hygienic, the Handi Sani is a self-cleaning toilet brush. The brush is placed inside the Handi Sani so that when the toilet is flushed, bidet Self-cleaning toilet bowl Self-cleaning toilet seat Toilet Washlet Xylospongium
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Cistern
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A cistern is a waterproof receptacle for holding liquids, usually water. Cisterns are often built to catch and store rainwater, cisterns are distinguished from wells by their waterproof linings. Modern cisterns range in capacity from a few litres to thousands of cubic metres, in the Middle Ages, cisterns were often constructed in hill castles in Europe, especially where wells could not be dug deeply enough. There were two types, the cistern and the filter cistern. Such a filter cistern was built at the Riegersburg in Austrian Styria, rain water passed through a sand filter and collected in the cistern. The filter cleaned the water and enriched it with minerals. Cisterns are commonly prevalent in areas where water is scarce, either because it is rare or has been depleted due to heavy use, early on, the water was used for many purposes including cooking, irrigation, and washing. Present day cisterns are often used only for irrigation due to concerns over water quality, cisterns today can also be outfitted with filters or other water purification methods when the water is intended for consumption. It is not uncommon for a cistern to be open in some manner in order to rain or to include more elaborate rainwater harvesting systems. It is important in cases to have a system that does not leave the water open to algae or to mosquitoes. Some cisterns sit on the top of houses or on the higher than the house. They are often supplied not by rainwater harvesting, but by wells with electric pumps, modern cisterns are manufactured of plastic. To keep a clean water supply, the cistern must be kept clean and it is important to inspect them regularly, keep them well enclosed, and to occasionally empty and clean them with a proper dilution of chlorine and to rinse them well. Well water must be inspected for contaminants coming from the ground source, city water has up to 1ppm chlorine added to the water to keep it clean, and in many areas can be ordered to be delivered directly to the cistern by truck. If there is any question about the supply at any point. Water of non-acceptable quality for the aforementioned uses may still be used for irrigation, if it is free of particulates but not low enough in bacteria, then boiling may also be an effective method to prepare the water for drinking. Many greenhouses rely on a cistern to help meet their water needs, other countries, such as Japan, Germany, and Spain, also offer financial incentives or tax credit for installing cisterns. Cisterns may also be used to water for firefighting in areas where there is an inadequate water supply
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Toilet roll holder
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A toilet roll holder, also known as a toilet paper dispenser, is an item that holds a roll of toilet paper. Common models include a length of wire mounted horizontally on a wall. In recent years, automatic toilet paper dispensers which automatically fold, in the first case, the idea is that the toilet roll maintains contact with the door or wall as the rolls radius decreases. This provides enough friction to allow the user to tear off a piece of tissue, more sophisticated designs include a curved horizontal plate that covers the roll, thus removing the necessity of touching the roll. These roll holders can be used in both orientations, but may be difficult to use in the under orientation, the horizontal axle design is found in most homes, and also in many schools. It is easy to use due to its low friction and ease of refilling and this is the type of holder most commonly assumed about when toilet paper orientation is mentioned. This type of holder is not common, probably because it can get in the way of getting on. Originally intended to hold a stock of replacement rolls, the pole has become the only paper holder in some households. It is particularly useful in homes where the family has mixed handedness and its drawbacks include that there is a lot more friction than in other types of toilet roll holders, and thus not as easy to use. The holders in many public toilets are designed to make it difficult for patrons to steal the toilet rolls, various contraptions have been devised to lock the spare rolls away, and release them only when the active roll is used up. An increasing number of toilets are furnished with holders that hold very large rolls of toilet paper. These are designed to save money by reducing the frequency of services to restock the paper. In many toilets, especially in schools, a dispenser releases only a small square of toilet paper to prevent a user from intentionally clogging the toilet with large amounts of paper. Toilet paper orientation Media related to Toilet paper holder at Wikimedia Commons The Toilet Paper Roll Poll and pictures of case 2
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Toilet seat
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A toilet seat is a hinged unit consisting of a round or oval open seat, and usually a lid, which is bolted onto the bowl of a toilet used in a sitting position. The seat can be either for a toilet or a dry toilet. When the lid is down, it can be used as a seat, the seat is generally lifted when a man stands to urinate, or while cleaning the toilet. If present the lid is left open, but it can be closed to prevent small items from falling in, or to reduce the spread of germs. The lid is closed for aesthetic purposes or to provide a chair in the bathroom. Toilet seats are manufactured in a range of different styles and colors and they are usually built to fit the shape of the toilet bowl, two examples of this being the elongated bowl and the regular bowl. Some toilet seats are fitted with slow-closing hinges to reduce noise by preventing them from slamming against the bowl, some seats are made of various types of wooden materials, like oak or walnut, and others are made soft for added comfort. Seats with printed multi-colored designs, such as floral or newsprint, have been fashionable at times, other designs are made of transparent plastic, encapsulating small decorative items such as seashells or coins. The price of toilet seats varies quite considerably, decorative textile covers for the toilet seat lid have gone in and out of fashion. Some metal toilets, such as those in jails and prisons, have built-in toilet seats that cannot be removed, so that an inmate cannot fashion it into a weapon. There is an exception for toilets with an automatic toilet-seat cover dispenser, the code has no legal force, but because it is followed by many public authorities, many public toilets feature open front toilet seats. The purpose for this design is to allow women to wipe the perineal area after using the toilet without contacting the seat. It also omits an area of the seat that could be contaminated with urine, high-tech toilet seats may include many features, including a heated seat, a bidet, and a blow drier. High-tech seats are most common in Japan, where a seat with integrated bidets is colloquially called a Washlet, electrically heated toilet seats have been popular in Japan since the 1970s. Since Japanese toilet rooms are often unheated, the toilet seat sometimes doubles as a space heater, integrated bidets date from around 1980, and have since become very popular in Japan, and are becoming more common in most other developed countries. Water-heated seats were in use in homes in Britain in the twentieth century. The first electrically-heated toilet seat was manufactured by Cyril Reginald Clayton at St Leonards on Sea in Sussex, a UK patent was applied for on 5 January 1959, filing on 4 January 1960 and granted in August 1963. The first model, the Deluxete, was made of fiberglass with an element in the lid triggered by a mercury switch that warmed the seat when the lid was down
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Toilet seat cover
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A toilet seat cover or toilet sheet is a disposable piece of paper shaped like the toilet seat itself that can be placed on the seat by its user. Its purpose is to protect the user from germs that may be resting on the seat by creating a protective barrier. Confusingly, the term is sometimes used for decorative covers for the toilet seat, or even the toilet seat lid. These covers generally do not serve a purpose, and may even pose difficulties with cleaning. The descriptive qualifier disposable is added to clarify the use of some toilet seat covers. Toilet seat covers are held in a dispenser, allowing the users to access one cover at a time. While toilet seat covers give public toilet users a sense of security, for example, if a toilet user is negligent enough to place a toilet-seat cover while the seat is still wet with liquid waste the fluids can soak through the cover and make contact with the user. There has been debate among those who use toilet covers. The proper way to place a cover on a seat is to place the side with the flap toward the front of the toilet. Most public toilet seats are U shaped with an exposed rim in the front, in 2009, legislators in Maine rejected legislation that would have required toilet-seat covers be placed in all restrooms. The bill was referred to the Committee on Health and Human Services, in 2007, businesswoman Jacquie Edwards of Newtonmore developed a biodegradeable toilet seat cover. Media related to Disposable toilet seat covers at Wikimedia Commons
