1.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
2.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
3.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
4.
Track gauge
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In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
5.
Standard gauge
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The standard gauge is a widely used railway track gauge. Approximately 55% of the lines in the world are this gauge, all high-speed rail lines, except those in Russia, Uzbekistan, and Finland, are standard gauge. The distance between the edges of the rails is defined to be 1435 mm except in the United States. It is also called the UIC gauge or UIC track gauge, as railways developed and expanded, one of the key issues was the track gauge to be used. The result was the adoption throughout a large part of the world of a gauge of 1435 mm. In North East England, some lines in colliery areas were 4 ft 8 in. All these lines had been widened to standard gauge by 1846, parts of the United States, mainly in the Northeast, adopted the same gauge, because some early trains were purchased from Britain. However, until well into the half of the 19th century, Britain. The American gauges converged as the advantages of equipment interchange became increasingly apparent, notably, all the 5 ft broad gauge track in the South was converted to standard gauge over the course of two days beginning on 31 May 1886. See Track gauge in the United States, snopes categorized this legend as false, but commented that. It is perhaps more fairly labelled as True, but for trivial, the historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn vehicles approximately 5 feet apart probably derives from the width needed to fit a carthorse in between the shafts. Others were 4 ft 4 in or 4 ft 7 1⁄2 in, the English railway pioneer George Stephenson spent much of his early engineering career working for the coal mines of County Durham. He favoured 4 ft 8 in for wagonways in Northumberland and Durham, the Hetton and Springwell wagonways also used this gauge. Stephensons Stockton and Darlington railway was primarily to transport coal from mines near Shildon to the port at Stockton-on-Tees. The initial gauge of 4 ft 8 in was set to accommodate the existing gauge of hundreds of horse-drawn chaldron wagons that were already in use on the wagonways in the mines. The railway used this gauge for 15 years before a change was made to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge, George Stephenson used the 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, authorised in 1826 and opened 30 September 1830. The success of this led to Stephenson and his son Robert being employed to engineer several other larger railway projects. Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, authorised 1824 and opened 1825, used 4 ft 6 in, Dundee and Newtyle Railway, authorised 1829 and opened 1831, used 4 ft 6 1⁄2 in
6.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
7.
Lower Canada
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The Province of Lower Canada was a British colony on the lower Saint Lawrence River and the shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It covered the portion of the modern-day Province of Quebec, Canada. Other parts of New France ceded to Britain became the Colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, the prefix lower in its name refers to its geographic position farther downriver from the headwaters of the St. Lawrence River than its contemporary Upper Canada, present-day southern Ontario. The colony/province was abolished in 1841, when it and the adjacent Upper Canada were united into the Province of Canada, like Upper Canada, there was significant political unrest. Twenty-two years after the invasion by the Americans in the War of 1812, an abortive attempt by revolutionary Robert Nelson to declare a Republic of Lower Canada was quickly thwarted. The provinces of Lower Canada and Upper Canada were combined as the United Province of Canada in 1841 and their separate legislatures were combined into a single parliament with equal representation for both constituent parts, even though Lower Canada had a greater population. Traveling around Lower Canada was made mainly by water along the St. Lawrence River, on land the only main route was the Chemin du Roy or Kings Highway, built in the 1730s by New France. The Kings Highway remained as a means of travel until the challenge of steamboats. A History of the Late Province of Lower Canada, Quebec City, T. Cary/R
8.
Oldest railroads in North America
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Several railroads have been called the oldest in North America, and their claims often depend upon narrow distinctions. Before we can list railroads, we needs must understand what consisted a railway as an emerging technology, a skewed perspective can only be achieved were a party to only consider railroads famous for passenger traffic as of importance. By and large, for management, carriage of passengers was by far, most often. Nearly every business depended on large multiples that return a modest regular return rather than a competitive edge such a monopoly situation, early passenger accommodations were spartan, and then only slowly improved as most lines were de facto monopolies locally and could do whatever riders would put up with. Such catering to luxury travelers would occur, but only in response to feeling a competitive pinch and they did not rule on most trunk, much less branch lines, nor for normal inter-city travelers, but were marketed and aimed at the well to do. Many a Branch line and ‹See Tfd›shortline stayed in business because of a mail contract, gamst writes in 2014 in The Transfer of Pioneering British Railroad Technology to North America, What Is a Railroad. Sometimes an old line of rails is dismissed in a manner as not being a railroad. Accordingly, any discussion of railroad genesis must first reflect on the underlying question, the guide way, or fixed path, consists of paired rails. These are elevated out of much of any debris strewn upon the way, self-guidance is accomplished by a flange, either on the vehicular wheels or supporting rails, usually the former. A hard wheel tread on a hard rail surface offers less friction, from their modern English beginnings about 1600, all railroads are on one evolutionary continuum. Neither technological nor operational discontinuities exist regarding the devices and structures found on the steadily developing railroads and this definition is minimal and purely functional. Prestige concerns do not make up any of its criteria, the list of railways here meet that test and more. They are largely and mostly chartered as common carrier enterprises, if chartered by a legislature after the early days, no large business skates past some oversight in todays regulated business climate. Or are just bulky and unwieldy such as steel girders, trusses. Ironically, these are the products which the brief American Canal Age carried enabling the existence of the industries of necessary scale to be able to build a railroads many components. Without such service, much of the interior would be unproductively stranded without means of getting products in or out to markets. With the advent of the adolescence of the Iron Horses technologies in the 1850s, the first railroads were all private, even the accidentally chartered Leiper Railroad built when the family business wanted a canal. 1720, A railroad is used in the construction of the French fortress at Louisburg
9.
British North America
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British North America refers to the former territories of the British Empire in mainland North America. The term was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America and these territories today form modern-day Canada and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. British colonization of North America, began in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1775, on the eve of the American Revolution, the British Empire included 20 territories in the Western Hemisphere northeast of New Spain. Nova Scotia was split into modern-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in 1784, the part of Quebec retained after 1783 was split into the primarily French-speaking Lower Canada and the primarily English-speaking Upper Canada in 1791. After the War of 1812, the Treaty of 1818 established the 49th parallel as the United States–British North America border from Ruperts Land west to the Rocky Mountains. Britain gave up Oregon south of the 49th parallel, which was part of the Hudsons Bay Companys Columbia District, the boundary of British North America with Maine was clarified by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. The Canadas were united into the Province of Canada in 1841, the former Province of Canada was split back into its pre-1841 parts, with Canada East renamed Quebec, and Canada West renamed Ontario. These were the four provinces of Canada. In 1870, Ruperts Land was annexed to Canada as the Northwest Territories, British Columbia, the British colony on the west coast north of the 49th parallel, joined as Canadas sixth province in 1871, and Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. The boundary of British Columbia with Washington Territory was settled by arbitration in 1872, the Arctic Archipelago was ceded by Britain to Canada in 1880 and added to the Northwest Territories. Subsequently, large sections of the NWT were split off as new territories or provinces, in 1949 the island of Newfoundland, and its associated mainland territory of Labrador, joined Canada as the tenth province. This agreement was implemented when the British Parliament passed the Constitution Act of 1982 at the request of Parliament of Canada. From 1783 to 1801 it was administered by the Home Office and by the Home Secretary, then from 1801 to 1854 under the War Office and Secretary of State for War, when the Colonial Office was re-established it was under the responsibility of the Colonial Secretary. Prince Edward Island Terms of Union, the Peopling of British North America, An Introduction excerpt and text search Cooke, Jacob E. Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies Foster, Stephen, ed. British North America in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries excerpt and text search,11 essays by scholars Garner, the franchise and politics in British North America, 1755–1867 Gipson, Lawrence Henry. The British Empire Before the American Revolution, extremely comprehensive study, Pulitzer Prize Morton, the Kingdom of Canada, A General History from Earliest Times Savelle, Max. Empires To Nations, Expansion In America 1713-1824 online
10.
La Prairie, Quebec
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The population as of the Canada 2011 Census was 23,357. French Jesuits were the first Europeans to occupy the area, which was named La Prairie de la Magdelaine but was also called François-Xavier-des-Prés, the land was given to the Jesuits by Jacques de La Ferté and the Company of One Hundred Associates in 1647. It is in La Prairie that the story Kateri Tekakwitha took place, in 1668, the site was named Kentaké, the Iroquois name for at the prairie. In 1845, the village of La Prairie was established, One year later, La Prairie-de-la-Magdelaine was established. In 1909, La Prairie obtained official city status, historically, the city has been an important transportation hub. The first railway line in British North America, the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad, connected it with Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu on July 21,1836, the construction of a rail line between La Prairie and Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu would greatly accelerate the commercial development of the village. Sea transport equally played an important role in La Prairies history, like the rest of southwestern Quebec, La Prairie has hot summers and cold winters, for a generally temperate climate. Winters are cold and sometimes long, with temperatures dipping below -30 °C. During snowstorms, snowfall frequently surpasses 40 centimeters, in the summer, temperatures sometimes exceed 30 °C. The CIT Le Richelain provides commuter and local bus services, in 2013, Grand Boisé conservation park is planned to be created and orchestrated by Nature-Action. The park would include Smithers swamp, as well as, Hydro-Quebecs servitude area in which the chorus frog. There is a controversy involving the city housing development in area which was supposed to be conserved integrally with high priority according to RCM of Roussillon 1990s maps. Local environmental organisms, such as Vigile verte and Projet Rescousse, are denouncing the choice of land for housing development. The South Shore Protestant Regional School Board previously served the municipality
11.
John Molson
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John Molson was an English-born brewer and entrepreneur in colonial Quebec and Lower Canada. He was the founder of Molson Brewery, in 1763, John Molson was born in the village of Moulton near Spalding, Lincolnshire UK. His father John Molson senior had, in 1760, married Mary Elsdale and her brother, Robinson Elsdale, was a celebrated privateer, whose unpublished exploits formed the basis of the novel by Frederick Marryat, The Privateersman. Before the marriage, John Molson senior inherited a property known as Snake Hall, in Moulton Eaugate which consisted of a home, John Molson senior died on June 4,1770. His will bequeathed properties to his wife and five surviving children, under their marriage settlement, Snake Hall went to Mary, and was to then pass on to his eldest son, John, upon her death. She died on September 21,1772, under Samuel Elsdales oversight, Snake Hall was rented out to the benefit of their trusts. John went to live with a man named William Robinson, and at age 12 in 1776 was consigned to the care of a Mr Whitehead, who was paid for his board and education until 1780, when he turned 16. Writers have criticized Samuel Elsdale for his oversight but he seems to have performed his duties prudently, in 1782, at the age of 18, Molson immigrated to Quebec, in a ship that was leaking so badly he switched ships mid-ocean. In 1786 he returned briefly to England, and it was during that year that Molson picked up the book Theoretic Hints on an Improved Practice in Brewing by John Richardson, Molson returned to Quebec with more money and a new mindset. Many British Loyalists were immigrating to Quebec from the United States and this new influx increased the demand for beer. Molson worked hard, staying up long into the night and he hired an apprentice, Christopher Cook, and a loyalist housemaid, Sarah Insley Vaughan. He married her on 7 April 1801 at Christ Church in Montreal after she had bore him three children, Sarah was the daughter of Thomas Vaughan of Harnham Hall, Morpeth, Northumberland. She was the niece of Wilmot Vaughan, 1st Earl of Lisburne and through her mothers family, the Aynsleys, soon Molson’s beer was in such demand that according to one of his diary entries Cannot serve half my customers and they are increasing every day. One of the reasons for this was the wide appeal of his beer to different classes of Montreal society. High British officers had been drinking imported London porters and the city merchants preferred Bristol, yet Molson’s beer was special as it was ‘universally liked’. It was here that he met many influential and wealthy businessmen like fur trader James McGill, Joseph Frobisher, founder of the North West Company, between 1788 and 1800, Molson’s business grew quickly into one of the larger ones in Lower Canada. During these years Molson and his wife had four children, John junior, Thomas, another Thomas, by the start of the 19th Century, Molson’s small brewery had grown tenfold. Molson now had the money to improve his business by buying new technology and he toyed with the idea of buying a steamship after seeing Robert Fulton’s Vermont go down the Hudson
12.
Saint Lawrence River
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The Saint Lawrence River is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. The Saint Lawrence River flows in a roughly north-easterly direction, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean and forming the primary drainage outflow of the Great Lakes Basin. It traverses the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and is part of the boundary between Ontario, Canada, and the U. S. state of New York. This river also provides the basis of the commercial Saint Lawrence Seaway, the estuary begins at the eastern tip of Île dOrléans, just downstream from Quebec City. The river becomes tidal around Quebec City, the St. Lawrence River runs 3,058 kilometres from the farthest headwater to the mouth and 1,197 km from the outflow of Lake Ontario. The farthest headwater is the North River in the Mesabi Range at Hibbing, the average discharge below the Saguenay River is 16,800 cubic metres per second. At Quebec City, it is 12,101 m3/s, the average discharge at the rivers source, the outflow of Lake Ontario, is 7,410 m3/s. The St. Lawrence River includes Lake Saint-Louis south of Montreal, Lake Saint Francis at Salaberry-de-Valleyfield, pierre Archipelago and the smaller Mingan Archipelago. Other islands include Île dOrléans near Quebec City and Anticosti Island north of the Gaspé and it is the second longest river in Canada. Lake Champlain and the Ottawa, Richelieu, Saguenay, and Saint-François rivers drain into the St. Lawrence. The St. Lawrence River is in an active zone where fault reactivation is believed to occur along late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic normal faults related to the opening of Iapetus Ocean. The faults in the area are related and are called the Saint Lawrence rift system. According to the United States Geological Survey, the St. Lawrence Valley is a province of the larger Appalachian division, containing the Champlain. However, in Canada, where most of the valley is, it is considered part of a distinct Saint Lawrence Lowlands physiographic division. Lawrence River itself was Jacques Cartier, at that time, the land along the river was inhabited by the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, at the time of Cartiers second voyage in 1535. Because Cartier arrived in the estuary on St. Lawrences feast day, the St. Lawrence River is partly within the U. S. and as such is that countrys sixth oldest surviving European place-name. The earliest regular Europeans in the area were the Basques, who came to the St Lawrence Gulf, the Basque whalers and fishermen traded with indigenous Americans and set up settlements, leaving vestiges all over the coast of eastern Canada and deep into the Saint Lawrence River. Basque commercial and fishing activity reached its peak before the Armada Invencibles disaster, initially, the whaling galleons from Labourd were not affected by the Spanish defeat
13.
Lake Champlain
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Lake Champlain /ʃæmˈpleɪn/ is a natural freshwater lake in North America mainly within the borders of the United States but partially situated across the Canada–U. S. Border, in the Canadian province of Quebec, the New York portion of the Champlain Valley includes the eastern portions of Clinton County and Essex County. Most of this area is part of the Adirondack Park, there are recreational opportunities in the park and along the relatively undeveloped coastline of Lake Champlain. The cities of Plattsburgh, New York and Burlington, Vermont are on the western and eastern shores, respectively. The Quebec portion is in the county municipalities of Le Haut-Richelieu. There are a number of islands in the lake, the largest include Grand Isle, Isle La Motte, and North Hero, all part of Grand Isle County, Vermont. The Champlain Valley is the northernmost unit of a system known as the Great Appalachian Valley. The Champlain Valley is a section of the larger Saint Lawrence Valley. Lake Champlain is one of large lakes scattered in an arc through Labrador, in Canada, the northern United States. Although it is smaller than each of the Great Lakes, Lake Champlain is a body of fresh water. Approximately 1,269 km2 in area, the lake is roughly 201 km long and 23 km across at its widest point, the lake varies seasonally from about 95 to 100 ft above mean sea level. Lake Champlain drains nearly half of Vermont, and approximately 250,000 people get their water from the lake. The lake is fed in Vermont by the LaPlatte, Lamoille, Missisquoi, Poultney, and Winooski rivers, along with Lewis Creek, Little Otter Creek, and Otter Creek. In New York, it is fed by the Ausable, Boquet, Great Chazy, La Chute, Little Ausable, Little Chazy, Salmon, in Quebec, it is fed by the Pike River. It is connected to the Hudson River by the Champlain Canal, parts of the lake freeze each winter, and in some winters the entire lake surface freezes, referred to as closing. In July and August, the temperature reaches an average of 70 °F. The Chazy Reef is an extensive Ordovician carbonate rock formation extends from Tennessee to Quebec. It occurs in prominent outcropping at Goodsell Ridge, Isle La Motte, the oldest reefs are around The Head of the south end of the island, slightly younger reefs are found at the Fisk Quarry, and the youngest are in fields to the north
14.
Montreal
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Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century
15.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
16.
Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu
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Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, commonly abbreviated as SJSR, is a city in eastern Montérégie in the Canadian province of Quebec, about 40 kilometres southeast of Montreal. It is situated on the west bank of the Richelieu River at the northernmost navigable point of Lake Champlain, the results of the 2011 Census stated that the citys population was 92,394, the number of residents was estimated at 94,636 in 2014. Historically, the city has been an important transportation hub, the first railway line in British North America connected it with La Prairie in 1836. The Chambly Canal extends 20 kilometres north along the west bank of the river and provides modern freight passage to Chambly, the canal has one lock near the downtown core of St-Jean-sur-Richelieu. In the winter, the city builds a skating rink on the canal near the lock, in the summer, the embankment on the east side of the canal has a 20-kilometre cycling path. The French built Fort Saint-Jean in the seventeenth century, known to early English settlers as St. Johns, it provided an important communication link during the French and Indian Wars. During the American Revolutionary War control of the town changed several times as British. Today St-Jean is a centre for textiles, food and wood products. It hosts an Area Support Unit of the Canadian Forces, which functions as a primary recruit, until 1995 ASU St-Jean was also home to Le Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean, a bilingual military academy. From 1995 to 2007, however, the remaining military university in Canada was the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston. The college continued to provide programs for French-speaking entries to the Canadian forces. The federal government reopened the college at St. In 2001 the city and several adjoining communities were merged into the new regional county municipality with a population to 79,600 and this merger was requested by the five municipalities involved and was not part of the municipal fusions imposed by the Quebec government the following year. Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu is located on the banks of the Richelieu River, the city is the seat of Le Haut-Richelieu RCM and of the judicial district of Iberville. The amalgamated municipalities were, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu Saint-Luc Iberville Saint-Athanase LAcadie French English The city is divided in 5 sectors which refer to the former municipalities, each sectors contains different neighbourhoods, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu is home to the Carrefour Richelieu regional shopping mall which has 115 stores. The Ville de Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu public transit system provides commuter and local bus services, according to the 2006 Census, about 23,855 residents work full-time in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, while 5,750 commute to work in Montreal on a daily basis. A further 1,810 residents work in Longueuil every day,855 work in Brossard,795 in Chambly, the highway continues south for some 24 km before ending at Saint-Sébastien. Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu has its own airport, Saint-Jean Airport, and is also close to Montreal Pierre-Elliot Trudeau International Airport
17.
Richelieu River
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The Richelieu River takes its source in Lake Champlain, from which it flows to the north in the province of Quebec, Canada and empties into the St. Lawrence river. It was formerly known as the Iroquois River and the Chambly River and this river was a key route of water transport for cross-border trade between Canada and the United States, until the arrival of the railway in the mid-19th century. Because of its position between New France and New England, several military fortifications were erected on the course of the river. The Richelieu River has a basin of 23,720 square kilometres 2 - including those of Lake Champlain 19,925 km2. Of this,19,600 km2 are in the United States, originating in the slopes of the Green Mountains. The Champlain Valley makes up most of the drainage basin, with a length of 124 km, the Richelieu River takes its source at the north end of Lake Champlain on the border between Canada and the United States. The Richelieu River is the largest tributary of the shore of Saint Lawrence River. The Quebec portion of the watershed includes 18 lakes and ponds, as well as forty rivers, the main Richelieu tributaries are rivers, Acadia, South Huron and Lacolle. The rivers mean discharge is 330 cubic metres per second, nearly 340,000 people across eight Regional county municipalities and 65 municipalities, live in the Quebec portion of the watershed of the river. The population density is high compared to that of most other regions of the province of Quebec. Just over 70% of this area is used for agricultural purposes, with the opening of the Chambly Canal in 1843, navigation became possible on the Richelieu between the St. Lawrence River and Lake Champlain. At the southern end of the lake, the Champlain Canal allows for navigation to the Hudson River and, downstream, the city of New York, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Chambly, Beloeil, Mont-Saint-Hilaire, and Sorel-Tracy are important communities on its route. The average slope of the Richelieu River is 0.19 m/km, by convention, the Richelieu is generally divided into three main sections, The Haut-Richelieu. It is characterized by a low drop. With a width of about 1.5 km at its southern end and it passes through the city of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, which now includes Iberville and Saint-Luc. Due to its significant drop in this area -25 m over 12 km - the river has many rapids, the channel consists of nine locks and a length of nearly 19 km, allowing boats to navigate past the rapids. In Chambly, the river widens and forms the Chambly Basin, in this section, the river passes the cities of Otterburn Park of Beloeil, the Mont-Saint-Hilaire and municipalities McMasterville of Saint-Charles-sur-Richelieu and Saint-Denis-sur-Richelieu. In Saint-Ours, the river is characterized by a sudden drop before emptying into the St. Lawrence River at Sorel-Tracy
18.
Locomotive
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A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles and these are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units, motor coaches or railcars. The use of these vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains. Traditionally, locomotives pulled trains from the front, however, push-pull operation has become common, where the train may have a locomotive at the front, at the rear, or at each end. Prior to locomotives, the force for railroads had been generated by various lower-technology methods such as human power, horse power. The first successful locomotives were built by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick, in 1804 his unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales. Although the locomotive hauled a train of 10 long tons of iron and 70 passengers in five wagons over nine miles, the locomotive only ran three trips before it was abandoned. Trevithick built a series of locomotives after the Penydarren experiment, including one which ran at a colliery in Tyneside in northern England, the first commercially successful steam locomotive was Matthew Murrays rack locomotive, Salamanca, built for the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in 1812. This was followed in 1813 by the Puffing Billy built by Christopher Blackett and William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery Railway, Puffing Billy is now on display in the Science Museum in London, the oldest locomotive in existence. In 1814 George Stephenson, inspired by the locomotives of Trevithick. He built the Blücher, one of the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotives, Stephenson played a pivotal role in the development and widespread adoption of steam locomotives. His designs improved on the work of the pioneers, in 1825 he built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which became the first public steam railway. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials and this success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe. The first inter city passenger railway, Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830, there are a few basic reasons to isolate locomotive train power, as compared to self-propelled vehicles. Maximum utilization of power cars Separate locomotives facilitate movement of costly motive power assets as needed, flexibility Large locomotives can substitute for small locomotives when more power is required, for example, where grades are steeper. As needed, a locomotive can be used for freight duties. Obsolescence cycles Separating motive power from payload-hauling cars enables replacement without affecting the other, to illustrate, locomotives might become obsolete when their associated cars did not, and vice versa
19.
Newcastle upon Tyne
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Newcastle is the most populous city in the North East and forms the core of the Tyneside conurbation, the eighth most populous urban area in the United Kingdom. Newcastle is a member of the English Core Cities Group and is a member of the Eurocities network of European cities. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it became a county of itself, the regional nickname and dialect for people from Newcastle and the surrounding area is Geordie. Newcastle also houses Newcastle University, a member of the Russell Group, the city developed around the Roman settlement Pons Aelius and was named after the castle built in 1080 by Robert Curthose, William the Conquerors eldest son. The city grew as an important centre for the trade in the 14th century. The port developed in the 16th century and, along with the lower down the River Tyne, was amongst the worlds largest shipbuilding and ship-repairing centres. Newcastles economy includes corporate headquarters, learning, digital technology, retail, tourism and cultural centres, among its icons are Newcastle United football club and the Tyne Bridge. Since 1981 the city has hosted the Great North Run, a marathon which attracts over 57,000 runners each year. The first recorded settlement in what is now Newcastle was Pons Aelius and it was given the family name of the Roman Emperor Hadrian, who founded it in the 2nd century AD. This rare honour suggests Hadrian may have visited the site and instituted the bridge on his tour of Britain, Pons Aelius population at this period was estimated at 2,000. Fragments of Hadrians Wall are visible in parts of Newcastle, particularly along the West Road, the course of the Roman Wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort in Wallsend—the walls end—and to the supply fort Arbeia in South Shields. After the Roman departure from Britain, completed in 410, Newcastle became part of the powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, conflicts with the Danes in 876 left the river Tyne and its settlements in ruin. After the conflicts with the Danes, and following the 1088 rebellion against the Normans, Monkchester was all, because of its strategic position, Robert Curthose, son of William the Conqueror, erected a wooden castle there in the year 1080. The town was known as Novum Castellum or New Castle. The wooden structure was replaced by a castle in 1087. The castle was again in 1172 during the reign of Henry II. Much of the keep which can be seen in the city dates from this period. Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was Englands northern fortress, incorporated first by Henry II, the city had a new charter granted by Elizabeth in 1589
20.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
21.
Rail profile
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The rail profile is the cross sectional shape of a railway rail, perpendicular to its length. Early rails were made of wood, cast iron or wrought iron, all modern rails are hot rolled steel with a cross section approximate to an I-beam, but asymmetric about a horizontal axis. The head is profiled to resist wear and to give a ride. Unlike some other uses of iron and steel, railway rails are subject to high stresses and are made of very high quality steel. It took many decades to improve the quality of the materials, minor flaws in the steel that may pose no problems in other applications can lead to broken rails and dangerous derailments when used on railway tracks. By and large, the heavier the rails and the rest of the trackwork, the rails represent a substantial fraction of the cost of a railway line. Only a small number of sizes are made by steelworks at one time. Worn, heavy rail from a mainline is often reclaimed and downgraded for re-use on a branchline, the weight of a rail per length is an important factor in determining rails strength and hence axleloads and speeds. Weights are measured in pounds per yard or kilograms per metre, rails in Canada, the United Kingdom and United States are described using imperial units. In Australia, metric units are used as in mainland Europe, commonly, in rail terminology Pound is a contraction of the expression pounds per yard and hence a 132–pound rail means a rail of 132 pounds per yard. Rails are made in a number of different sizes. Some common European rail sizes include, In the countries of former USSR65 kg/m rails and 75 kg/m rails are common, the American Society of Civil Engineers specified rail profiles in 1893 for 5-pound-per-yard increments from 40 to 100 lb/yd. Height of rail equaled width of foot for each ASCE tee-rail weight, ASCE90 lb/yd profile was adequate, but heavier weights were less satisfactory. In 1909, the American Railway Association specified standard profiles for 10 lb/yd increments from 60 to 100 lb/yd, the trend was to increase rail height/foot-width ratio and strengthen the web. Disadvantages of the foot were overcome through use of tie-plates. AREA recommendations reduced the weight of rail head down to 36%. Attention was also focused on improved fillet radii to reduce stress concentration at the web junction with the head, AREA recommended the ARA90 lb/yd profile. Old ASCE rails of lighter weight remained in use, and satisfied the demand for light rail for a few decades
22.
George Stephenson
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His rail gauge of 4 feet 8 1⁄2 inches, sometimes called Stephenson gauge, is the standard gauge by name and by convention for most of the worlds railways. George Stephenson was born on 9 June 1781 in Wylam, Northumberland,9 miles west of Newcastle upon Tyne and he was the second child of Robert and Mabel Stephenson, neither of whom could read or write. Robert was the fireman for Wylam Colliery pumping engine, earning a low wage. At 17, Stephenson became an engineman at Water Row Pit in Newburn, George realised the value of education and paid to study at night school to learn reading, writing and arithmetic – he was illiterate until the age of 18. In 1801 he began work at Black Callerton Colliery as a brakesman, in 1802 he married Frances Henderson and moved to Willington Quay, east of Newcastle. There he worked as a brakesman while they lived in one room of a cottage, George made shoes and mended clocks to supplement his income. Their first child Robert was born in 1803, and in 1804 they moved to West Moor and their second child, a daughter was born in July 1805. She was named Frances after her mother, the child died after just 3 weeks and was buried in St Bartholomews Parish Church near Newcastle. In 1806 Georges wife Frances died of consumption and she was buried in the same churchyard as their daughter on the 16th May 1806. George decided to work in Scotland and left Robert with a local woman while he went to work in Montrose. After a few months he returned, probably because his father was blinded in a mining accident and he moved back into a cottage at West Moor and his unmarried sister Eleanor moved in to look after Robert. In 1811 the pumping engine at High Pit, Killingworth was not working properly and he did so with such success that he was promoted to enginewright for the collieries at Killingworth, responsible for maintaining and repairing all the colliery engines. He became an expert in steam-driven machinery, in 1815, aware of the explosions often caused in mines by naked flames, Stephenson began to experiment with a safety lamp that would burn in a gaseous atmosphere without causing an explosion. At the same time, the eminent scientist and Cornishman Humphry Davy was also looking at the problem. Despite his lack of knowledge, Stephenson, by trial and error, devised a lamp in which the air entered via tiny holes. The two designs differed, Davys lamp was surrounded by a screen of gauze, whereas Stephensons prototype lamp had a perforated plate contained in a glass cylinder. Stephenson, having come from the North, spoke with a broad Northumberland accent and not the Language of Parliament, which made him seem lowly. Realizing this, he made a point of educating his son Robert in a school, where he was taught the sciences his father lacked
23.
Stephenson's Rocket
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Stephensons Rocket was the early steam locomotive of 0-2-2 wheel arrangement. It was built for, and won, the Rainhill Trials held by the Liverpool & Manchester Railway in 1829 to choose the best design to power the railway. Rocket was designed by Robert Stephenson in 1829, and built at the Forth Street Works of his company in Newcastle upon Tyne. Though the Rocket was not the first steam locomotive, it was the first to bring together several innovations to produce the most advanced locomotive of its day. It is the most famous example of a design of locomotives by Stephenson that became the template for most steam engines in the following 150 years. The locomotive was preserved and is now on display in the Science Museum in London, the locomotive had a tall smokestack chimney at the front, a cylindrical boiler in the middle, and a separate firebox at the rear. The large front pair of wheels was driven by two external cylinders set at an angle. The smaller rear wheels were not coupled to the driving wheels, Stephenson designed Rocket for the Rainhill trials, and the specific rules of that contest. As the first railway intended for more than freight, the rules emphasised speed and would require reliability. Six-wheeled locomotives were limited to six tons, four-wheeled locomotives to four, in particular, the weight of the train expected to be hauled was to be no more than three times the actual weight of the locomotive. Stephenson realised that whatever the size of successful locomotives, this new contest would favourites a fast. Stephensons most visible decision was to use a pair of driving wheels. This was the first 0-2-2 and first single driver locomotive, the use of single drivers gave several advantages. The weight of coupling rods was avoided and the second axle could be smaller and lightweight, Rocket uses a multi-tubular boiler design. Previous locomotive boilers consisted of a pipe surrounded by water. Rocket has 25 copper fire-tubes that carry the hot exhaust gas from the firebox, through the wet boiler to the blast pipe and this arrangement resulted in a greatly increased surface contact area of hot pipe with boiler water when compared to a single large flue. Additionally, radiant heating from the enlarged separate firebox helped deliver an increase in steaming. The original innovator of multiple fire-tubes is unclear, between Stephenson and Marc Seguin and it is known that Seguin visited Stephenson to observe Locomotion and that he also built two multi-tubular locomotives of his own design for the Saint-Étienne–Lyon railway before Rocket
24.
Archibald Acheson, 2nd Earl of Gosford
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Born at Markethill, County Armagh, Ireland, Gosford was the son of Arthur Acheson, 1st Earl of Gosford, and his wife Millicent. Acheson sat in the Irish House of Commons for Armagh County from 1798 until the Act of Union in 1801, subsequently, he was a Member of the British House of Commons representing Armagh to 1807, when he succeeded to his fathers Irish titles as Earl of Gosford. He entered the British House of Lords in 1811 upon being elected an Irish Representative Peer, in 1831 he was appointed the first Lord Lieutenant of Armagh for life which incorporated the post of Custos Rotulorum of County Armagh. In 1835, he became Governor General of British North America and he was instructed to appease the reformists, led by Louis-Joseph Papineau, without giving them any real power. Gosford attempted to distance himself from his predecessor, Lord Aylmer, Gosford officially established the Diocese of Montreal in 1836, though it had been unofficially created a few years before. In August of that year Gosford dissolved the Legislative Assembly when they refused to pass his budget, in November, Lord Gosford learned of the planned Lower Canada Rebellion and had many of Papineaus followers arrested, although Papineau himself escaped to the United States. The next month, he issued a reward for the capture of Papineau, Lord Gosford resigned in November 1837 and returned to Britain the next year. His eventual successor, Lord Durham, implemented the Union Act in 1840 and he married Mary, the daughter and heiress of Robert Sparrow of Worlingham Hall, Suffolk, with whom he had a son and four daughters. He was created Baron Worlingham in 1835 and thus became a member of the House of Lords in his own right and he died in 1849 and was succeeded by his son Archibald Acheson, 3rd Earl of Gosford. It is believed the city of Gosford in New South Wales, Australia was named after him, list of Canadian Governors General ACHESON, ARCHIBALD, 2nd Earl of GOSFORD. Dictionary of National Biography,1901 supplement, london, Smith, Elder & Co. T. B. Acheson, Archibald, second earl of Gosford, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Archibald Acheson, 2nd Earl of Gosford
25.
Louis-Joseph Papineau
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Louis-Joseph Papineau, born in Montreal, Quebec, was a politician, lawyer, and the landlord of the seigneurie de la Petite-Nation. He was the leader of the reformist Patriote movement before the Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837–1838 and his father was Joseph Papineau, also a politician in Quebec. Papineau was the eldest of eight children and was the grandfather of the journalist Henri Bourassa, Papineau was elected Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada on January 21,1815. The same year, he replaced Pierre-Stanislas Bédard as leader of the Parti Canadien, under his leadership, the party worked for the reform of Lower Canadas political institutions and strongly opposed the abuses of the appointed Legislative Council. In 1820, he refused a position on the Legislative Council offered by governor Dalhousie, Papineau was described as an energetic child. His arrival at the Seminary of Quebec in 1802 was highly anticipated, viger was for a time the assemblys agent in London and became one of Papineaus prominent supporters and close friends, but after the rebellion he was to follow Lafontaine. Papineaus later childhood was spent on the seigniory of la Petite Nation, located on the Ottawa river. During his time spent at the seigniory of La Petite Nation and he was then sent to study at the Seminary of Quebec, where he completed his secondary studies. In 1808 Papineau was elected member of parliament for Kent before being admitted to the Bar of Lower Canada in 1810, later, he served as a militia officer in the War of 1812. In 1822, he was sent to London with John Neilson to present a petition of 60,000 signatures against the Union project, while in the United Kingdom, he was replaced by Joseph-Rémi Vallières as Speaker. In 1826, he was leader of the Patriotes, a reformed. In 1831, he sponsored a law which granted full equivalent political rights to Jews,27 years before anywhere else in the British Empire, Louis-Joseph was part of the committee that wrote the Ninety-Two Resolutions passed by the Legislative Assembly on February 21,1834. The resolutions called for an elected Legislative Council and an Executive Council responsible before the house of the peoples representatives, after the arrival of the 92 Resolutions in Lower Canada on March 6,1837, he led the movement of protest and participated in numerous popular assemblies. He led the committee organized the boycott of essentially all British imports to Lower Canada. On November 15, he created the Conseil des patriotes with Edmund Bailey OCallaghan and he and OCallaghan fled Montreal for Saint-Denis-sur-Richelieu on November 16, after governor Lord Gosford ordered their arrest and that of 25 other Patriot leaders. Papineau and OCallaghan went to the home of Wolfred Nelson and he crossed the United States border on November 25. On February 8,1839, he parted to leave New York City for Paris where he hoped to get France involved, in May, he published the Histoire de linsurrection du Canada in the magazine Progrès. Despite meeting with politicians such as Lamartine and Lamennais, the France of Louis-Philippe also remained neutral
26.
North America Railway Hall of Fame
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North America Railway Hall of Fame is a not-for-profit organization housed in the recently restored Canada Southern Railway Station in St. Thomas, Ontario, Canada. After the acquisition in 2005 of NARHF’s permanent home further goals were added to mission statement, the North American Railway Hall of Fame was incorporated in 1996. There were ceremonies in 1999 and 2001 before the Hall of Fame bought their current home, since the acquisition of the Station as a home for NARFH, there have been induction ceremonies in 2006,2008,2010 and 2012 with additional inductions every two years. Originally, the first induction ceremonies of 1999 and 2001 took place at the St. Thomas Public Library, after the purchase of the Canada Southern Station, the destinies of the Hall of Fame and the former railway station became intertwined. In 2004, the North America Railway Hall of Fame purchased its permanent home, in 2005, ownership of the building was turned over to NARFH. The CASO Station, once near ruin, is almost completely restored, while the station was finished in 1873, the historical restoration point is approximately from 1914 to the early 1920s. Tours are self-guided or provided depending on availability of staff, visitors explore the history and unique design of the CASO Station as well as an array of station related period objects on display. The second floor houses the displays and exhibits for the North America Railway Hall of Fame, revenue is provided to The Hall of Fame through the renting of 2nd floor offices as well as Anderson Hall and the Ladies Waiting Room for meetings, weddings, receptions and more. The CASO Station also enjoys the status as an Ontario Heritage Trust Building, the induction process begins with a nomination. Anybody can make a nomination to the Hall of Fame by either contacting the Hall of Fame at the Canada Southern Railway Station or using the online nomination form at Hall of Fame website. Of course, all nominees need to have made a significant and appropriate contribution to the world of the trains. There were ceremonies in 1999 and 2001 before the Hall of Fame bought their current home, originally, the first induction ceremonies of 1999 and 2001 took place at the St. Thomas Public Library. Since the acquisition of the Station as a home for NARFH, inductees into the North America Hall of Fame can take the form of people, events, art forms equipment or a facility or structure. It could be the first or the last, of something or a defining work of art that contributes to the world of the railway. 2—the first engine built in Canada, American railroad tycoon Cornelius Vanderbilt, Grand Central Terminal, canadian singer-songwriter Gordon Lightfoot shares a place of prominence in the Hall of Fame with the Brotherhood of Porters and Redcaps and Sir John A. Macdonald. All inductees are displayed virtually on the NARHF website, NARHF also has an interactive virtual device to learn more about those inducted into the Hall of Fame. A complete list of inductees is available at the List of North America Railway Hall of Fame inductees, official North America Railway Hall of Fame website Ontrackstthomas. ca, On Track — St. Thomas, Ontario, Canada. London Heritage, Beyond the Blackboard — educational website, article & photos, Ontario Heritage Trust, Plaque Dedication & article
27.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
28.
Saint-Lambert, Quebec
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Saint-Lambert is an off-island suburb of Montreal, Quebec, located on the south shore of the St. Lawrence River. It was home to 21,555 people according to the Canada 2011 Census, Saint-Lambert is divided into two main sections, the original city of Saint-Lambert and the Préville neighbourhood. The original city of Saint-Lambert is located from the Country Club of Montreal golf course to the border of Le Vieux-Longueuil borough and it includes the citys downtown, known as The Village. On the other side of the Country Club of Montreal is the former city Préville and it extends to the borders of the city of Brossard and the Longueuil borough of Greenfield Park. Saint-Lambert was named for the early French Canadian hunter Lambert Closse, in 1636, Louis XIII of France was dividing up seigneuries in the new colony of New France. One of these was known as La Prairie, comprising La Prairie de la Magdeleine, the lower part of the latter, was known as Mouillepied, due to the swampy conditions of the area. Saint-Lamberts first two permanent residents were André Marsil and André Achim in the 18th century, in 1722, Mouillepied was transferred from La Prairie seigneurie to Saint-Antoine-de-Longueuil parish. Following the establishment of the railway in 1852 and the completion of the Victoria Bridge in 1859, the Victoria Bridge, is the oldest bridge linking Montreal to the South Shore, and is the only rail line linking Quebecs largest city to New York City. Because of this, Saint-Lambert became an important passenger and freight stop for a period of time. This is evident in the architecture, in which many old industrial buildings are found near the railway tracks. Many of these have since converted into lofts such as the former Waterman pens factory. With the bridge and railway came a growth in Saint-Lamberts population. Saint-Lambert detached itself from Saint-Antoine-de-Longueuil and achieved municipality status in 1857, under its first mayor, at the time, Saint-Lambert did not include Mouillepied, which instead had remained in Saint-Antoine-de-Longueuil. In 1892, Saint-Lambert reached village status, attained town status in 1898, during World War I and World War II, Saint-Lambert had one of the highest military enlistment rates in Canada. The small city lost a total of 132 soldiers in both wars and this number was a significant portion of the young people at the time. Suburban growth from Montreal in this also affected Saint-Lambert, as well as many of the older communities on the South Shore. Since its establishment, the limits have barely changed. In 1948, the old Mouillepied area of the town of Jacques-Cartier was split off and it merged with Saint-Lambert in 1969
29.
Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad
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The Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad was a historic railway in Lower Canada, the first Canadian public railway and one of the first railways built in British North America. The C&SL was financed by Montreal entrepreneur and brewery owner, John Molson and it was intended as a portage road to connect the St. Lawrence River valley with Lake Champlain, cutting time from the trip between Montreal and New York. Throughout 1835 the grading, fencing, masonry and bridge work were completed, as well as stations and wharves at Laprairie and St. John. Orders were also placed for a locomotive, which was to be built in Newcastle upon Tyne, as well as four passenger cars, several freight cars were also built in Montreal. The 16-mile line was built as a 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in railway, with rails consisting of 6-inch pine logs which were joined by splice plates. The pine rails were protected by iron straps spiked to the upper surface and these rails remained the same until being replaced by completely iron rails in the 1850s. British North Americas first locomotive arrived at Molsons wharf in Montreal in June 1836 and it was named Dorchester and had been constructed by Robert Stephenson, son of George Stephenson who was the manufacturer of The Rocket. A wood burning 0-4-0 design, it was the 127th locomotive built by Stephenson and was nicknamed Kitten by those who observed its uneven skittish ride – a result of the short wheelbase. Trial runs took place at night to avoid frightening the public, over 300 guests crowded the passenger cars in Laprairie station for the first run. Two hours later, everyone was at the station in St. John where the ceremonies continued, in 1999, the Dorchester was inducted into the North America Railway Hall of Fame. Due to its status as the first locomotive used in Canada. Charles Dickens even rode the line and this latter line effectively reduced the line into Laprairie to branch line status and it would be later abandoned. The C&SL merged with the Montreal and New York Railroad in 1857, formerly known as the Montreal and Lachine Railroad, with the new company being named the Montreal, the Grand Trunk Railway leased the M&C in 1864 and purchased it outright in 1872. In 1923 the GTR was nationalized and the ex-M&C, née-C&SL trackage was incorporated into the Canadian National Railways, the line from Rouses Point to Brossard is now CNs Rouses Point Subdivision. Plateway Rail tracks Wagonway Rail transport in Canada The North America Railway Hall of Fame
30.
Grand Trunk Railway
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The railway was operated from headquarters in Montreal, Quebec, with corporate headquarters in London, England. The Grand Trunk, its subsidiaries, and the Canadian Government Railways were precursors of todays Canadian National Railways, gTRs main line ran from Portland, Maine to Montreal, and then from Montreal to Sarnia, Ontario, where it joined its western subsidiary. The GTR had three important subsidiaries during its lifetime, Central Vermont Railway which operated in Quebec, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Grand Trunk Pacific Railway which operated in Northwestern Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia. Grand Trunk Western Railroad which operated in Michigan, Indiana, a new line to Providence would have allowed for more extensive port facilities than were possible for the Central Vermont at New London, Connecticut. Construction began in 1910 and continued in fits and starts for more than 20 years until finally abandoned in the early 1930s because of the Great Depression. Another important factor was the opposition of the New Haven Railroad. The company was incorporated on November 10,1852, as the Grand Trunk Railway Company of Canada to build a line between Montreal and Toronto. The charter was extended east to Portland, Maine and west to Sarnia. A line was built to Lévis, via Richmond from Montreal in 1855. In the same year it purchased the Toronto and Guelph Railroad, but the Grand Trunk Railway Company changed the original route of the T&G and extended the line to Sarnia, a hub for Chicago-bound traffic. By July,1856, the section from Sarnia to Toronto opened, by 1859 a ferry service was established across the St. Clair River to Fort Gratiot. The Grand Trunk was one of the factors that pushed British North America towards Confederation. The original colonial economy structured along the route from the Maritimes up the St. Lawrence River. The explosive growth in trade during the 1850s within the United Province of Canada, during this time the GTR extended its line to Lévis further east to Rivière-du-Loup. By 1860, the Grand Trunk was on the verge of bankruptcy, on the eve of the American Civil War, it stretched from Sarnia in the west to Rivière-du-Loup in the east and Portland in the southeast. Thus the British North America Act,1867 included the provision for an Intercolonial Railway to link with the Grand Trunk at Rivière-du-Loup, by 1880, the Grand Trunk Railway system stretched all the way from Portland in the east to Chicago, Illinois, in the west. Several impressive construction feats were associated with the GTR, the first successful bridging of the St. Clair River, connecting Sarnia, Ontario, the latter work opened in August 1890 and replaced the railcar ferry at the same location. S. To overcome the difference, the GTR experimented with a form of Variable gauge axles called adjustable gauge trucks
31.
Canadian National Railway
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The Canadian National Railway Company is a Canadian Class I railway headquartered in Montreal, Quebec that serves Canada and the Midwestern and Southern United States. CNs slogan is North Americas Railroad, CN is a public company with 24,000 employees. It had a capitalization of 32 billion CAD in 2011. CN was government-owned, having been a Canadian Crown corporation from its founding to its privatization in 1995, bill Gates was, in 2011, the largest single shareholder of CN stock. Its range once reached across the island of Newfoundland until 1988, the railway was referred to as the Canadian National Railways between 1918 and 1960, and as Canadian National/Canadien National from 1960 to the present. On November 17,1995, the government privatized CN. Over the next decade, the company expanded significantly into the United States, purchasing Illinois Central Railroad and Wisconsin Central Transportation, now primarily a freight railway, CN also operated passenger services until 1978, when they were assumed by Via Rail. The Newfoundland mixed trains lasted until 1988, while the Montreal commuter trains are now operated by Montreals AMT, the absorption of the Intercolonial Railway would see CNR adopt that systems slogan The Peoples Railway. The federal governments Department of Railways and Canals took over operation of the GTPR until July 12,1920, the Canadian National Railway was organized on October 10,1922. After several years of arbitration, the GTR was absorbed into CNR on January 30,1923, Canadian National Railways was born out of both wartime and domestic urgency. Railways, until the rise of the automobile and creation of taxpayer-funded all-weather highways, were the only viable long-distance land transportation available in Canada for many years. As such, their operation consumed a great deal of public, in the early 20th century, many governments were taking a more interventionist role in the economy, foreshadowing the influence of economists like John Maynard Keynes. This political trend, combined with broader geo-political events, made nationalization an appealing choice for Canada, the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919 and allied involvement in the Russian Revolution seemed to validate the continuing process. The need for a rail system was paramount in a time of civil unrest. CN Telegraph originated as the Great North West Telegraph Company in 1880 to connect Ontario and Manitoba, in 1915, facing bankruptcy, GNWTC was acquired by the Canadian Northern Railways telegraph company. When Canadian Northern was nationalized in 1918 and amalgamated into Canadian National Railways in 1921, CN Telegraphs began co-operating with its Canadian Pacific owned rival CPR Telegraphs in the 1930s, sharing telegraph networks and co-founding a teleprinter system in 1957. In 1967 the two services were amalgamated into a joint venture CNCP Telecommunications which evolved into a telecoms company, CN sold its stake of the company to CP in 1984. This led to the creation of a network of CNR radio stations across the country, as anyone in the vicinity of a station could hear its broadcasts the networks audience extended far beyond train passengers to the public at large
32.
Delaware and Hudson Railway
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The Delaware and Hudson Railway is a railroad that operates in the northeastern United States. In 1991, after more than 150 years as an independent railroad, CP operates D&H under its subsidiary Soo Line Corporation which also operates Soo Line Railroad. Nicknamed The Bridge Line to New England and Canada, D&H connected New York with Montreal, Quebec, D&H has also been known as North Americas oldest continually operated transportation company. On September 19,2015, Norfolk Southern Railway commenced acquisition of the D&H South Line from CP, the D&H South Line is 282 miles long and connects Schenectady, New York to Sunbury, Pennsylvania. The D&H South Line consists of two lines, the Sunbury Line and the Freight Line. The Nicholson Cutoff is located on the Sunbury Line, by the 1790s, industrializing eastern population centers were having increasing troubles getting charcoal to fuel their growing kilns, smithies, and foundries. As local timber was denuded efforts to find an energy source began. The Delaware and Hudson Gravity Railroad to bring coal to the Delaware and this cable railroad would grow in importance and become the far flung class I railroad, the Delaware and Hudson Railway. Finding coal outcrops, he realized the value of the extensive anthracite deposits. The canal he proposed would also tie the developing industries along the Delaware to the Hudson, in January 1825, following a demonstration of anthracite heating in a Wall Street coffeehouse, its public stock offering raised a million dollars. At the time, the Lehigh Canal had well established a reliable flow of increasing annual tonnages, ground was broken on July 13,1825, and the canal was opened to navigation in October 1828. It began at Rondout Creek at the known as Creeklocks. To get the anthracite from the Wurts mine in the Moosic Mountains near Carbondale to the canal at Honesdale, the state of Pennsylvania authorized its construction on April 8,1826. On August 8,1829, the D&Hs first locomotive, the Stourbridge Lion, westward extensions of the railroad opened to new mines at Archbald in 1843, Valley Junction in 1858, Providence in 1860 and Scranton in 1863. Passenger service began west of Carbondale in 1860, the canal was a successful enterprise for many of its early years, but the companys management realized that railroads were the future of transportation, and began investing in stock and trackage. In 1898 the canal carried its last loads of coal and was drained, the next year the company dropped the Canal from its name. The remaining fragments of the canal were designated a National Historic Landmark in 1968, as railroads grew in popularity, the canal company recognized the importance of replacing the canal with a railroad. The first step of this was the Jefferson Railroad, a line from Carbondale north towards New York, chartered in 1864, built by the Erie Railroad in 1869 and this was a branch of the Erie, running south from the main line at Lanesboro to Carbondale
33.
Canadian Pacific Railway
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The Canadian Pacific Railway, also known formerly as CP Rail between 1968 and 1996, is a historic Canadian Class I railroad incorporated in 1881. The railroad is owned by Canadian Pacific Railway Limited, which began operations as legal owner in a restructuring in 2001. Headquartered in Calgary, Alberta, it owns approximately 20,000 kilometres of track all across Canada and into the United States, stretching from Montreal to Vancouver, and as far north as Edmonton. Its rail network also serves Minneapolis-St. Paul, Milwaukee, Detroit, Chicago, the railway was originally built between Eastern Canada and British Columbia between 1881 and 1885, fulfilling a promise extended to British Columbia when it entered Confederation in 1871. It was Canadas first transcontinental railway, but no longer reaches the Atlantic coast, the CPR became one of the largest and most powerful companies in Canada, a position it held as late as 1975. Its primary passenger services were eliminated in 1986, after being assumed by Via Rail Canada in 1978, a beaver was chosen as the railways logo because it is the national symbol of Canada and was seen as representing the hardworking character of the company. The company acquired two American lines in 2009, the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad and the Iowa, Chicago, the trackage of the ICE was at one time part of CP subsidiary Soo Line and predecessor line The Milwaukee Road. It is publicly traded on both the Toronto Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker CP and its U. S. headquarters are in Minneapolis. The creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a task undertaken for a combination of reasons by the Conservative government of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald. He was helped by Sir Alexander Tilloch Galt, who was the owner of the North Western Coal and his company went through several name changes during the process of the construction of the railway. British Columbia, a sea voyage away from the East Coast, had insisted upon a land transport link to the East as a condition for joining Confederation. The government however proposed to build a railway linking the Pacific province to the Eastern provinces within 10 years of 20 July 1871, Macdonald saw it as essential to the creation of a unified Canadian nation that would stretch across the continent. Moreover, manufacturing interests in Quebec and Ontario wanted access to raw materials, the first obstacle to its construction was political. The logical route went through the American Midwest and the city of Chicago, to ensure this routing, the government offered huge incentives including vast grants of land in the West. Because of this scandal, the Conservative Party was removed from office in 1873, surveying was carried out during the first years of a number of alternative routes in this virgin territory followed by construction of a telegraph along the lines that had been agreed upon. The Thunder Bay section linking Lake Superior to Winnipeg was commenced in 1875, by 1880, around 1,000 kilometres was nearly complete, mainly across the troublesome Canadian Shield terrain, with trains running on only 500 kilometres of track. With Macdonalds return to power on 16 October 1878, an aggressive construction policy was adopted. Macdonald confirmed that Port Moody would be the terminus of the transcontinental railway, in 1879, the federal government floated bonds in London and called for tenders to construct the 206 km section of the railway from Yale, British Columbia, to Savonas Ferry, on Kamloops Lake
34.
Brossard
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Brossard is a municipality in the Montérégie region of Quebec, Canada and is part of the Greater Montreal area. According to the 2011 census, Brossards population was 79,273, prior to 2006, Brossard was formerly a borough of the municipality of Longueuil. The city of Brossard was founded on February 14,1958 and was known then as Brosseau Station. Its first mayor was Georges-Henri Brossard, at the very beginning, there were 3,400 inhabitants. The city has some homes dating from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, on August 8,1964 a portion of land from Greenfield Park was added and became the P section of Brossard. Furthermore, Notre-Dame-du-Sacré-Cœur was annexed to Brossard on March 25,1978 becoming the A section to form the current city, in the 1970s, an attempt was made by René Désourdy to construct a cemetery in Brossard. The attempt failed due to the table being too high in most of the city. Brossard was forcibly merged into the city of Longueuil on January 1,2002 as a result of reorganization in Quebec. And a demerger movement was started by Pierre Senécal, Jacques St-Amant and Gilles Larin which resulted in a referendum, the largest demerger vote. 38. 70% of the 50,539 qualified voters voted YES for demerger, as a result, Brossard would continue to be a borough of the city of Longueuil only until the end of 2005. On January 1,2006, Brossard was reconstituted as a city, however, Brossard still remains part of the urban agglomeration of Longueuil and thus, Brossard sits on the agglomeration council which determines certain powers of reconstituted cities. Brossard is surrounded by four municipalities on the South Shore of Montreal, Saint-Lambert, Longueuil, Carignan, Brossard is situated on the Saint Lawrence River to the west and by the Saint-Jacques River to the south. Many parks are scattered throughout the city of Brossard, including Parc écologique des Sansonnets, the parks are connected to the other areas of the city by about 37 km of biking paths. The city also has a library building connected to its city hall building via an indoor passageway. Brossard is subdivided into smaller sections. These sections are characterized by having street names all begin with the same letter of the alphabet. The only notable exceptions are few major arteries that span two or more sections. The M and V sections are the first neighborhoods built after the inauguration of Brossard in 1958, language Aside from French, a variety of other languages are spoken in Brossard on a daily basis, as according to the 2011 census
35.
Canadian
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Canadians are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical, or cultural, for most Canadians, several of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Canadian. Elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent immigrant customs, languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada, Canada has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States. Canadian independence from the United Kingdom grew gradually over the course of years since the formation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867. World War I and World War II in particular gave rise to a desire among Canadians to have their country recognized as a sovereign state with a distinct citizenship. Canadas nationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom, legislation since the mid 20th century represents Canadians commitment to multilateralism and socioeconomic development. As of 2010, Canadians make up 0. 5% of the total population, having relied upon immigration for population growth. Approximately 41% of current Canadians are first- or second-generation immigrants, and 20 percent of Canadian residents in the 2000s were not born in the country. Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, nearly one-half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign-born or have one foreign-born parent. Aboriginal peoples, according to the 2011 Canadian Census, numbered at 1,400,685 or 4. 3% of the countrys 33,476,688 population. The French originally settled New France, in present-day Quebec and Ontario, approximately 100 Irish-born families would settle the Saint Lawrence Valley by 1700, assimilating into the Canadien population and culture. This arrival of newcomers led to the creation of the Métis, after the War of 1812, British, Scottish and Irish immigration was encouraged throughout Ruperts Land, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Between 1815 and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America and these new arrivals included some Gaelic-speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia. Descendants of Francophone and Anglophone northern Europeans who arrived in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries are often referred to as old stock Canadians. Beginning in the late 1850s, the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants, in hopes of discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The population of Canada has consistently risen, doubling approximately every 40 years, from the mid- to late 19th century, Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe, including an estimated 100,000 unwanted Home Children from Britain. Block settlement communities were established throughout western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, some were planned and others were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves. Canada was now receiving a number of European immigrants, predominantly Italians, Germans, Scandinavians, Dutch, Poles
36.
Plateway
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A plateway is an early kind of railway or tramway or wagonway, with a cast iron rail. They were mainly used for about 50 years up to 1830, plateways consisted of L shaped rails where a flange on the rail guided the wheels in contrast to edgeways, where flanges on the wheels guide it along the track. Plateways were originally horsedrawn, but cable haulage and locomotives were used later on. The plates of the plateway were made of cast iron, often cast by the ironworks that were their users, plateways were particularly favoured in South Wales and the Forest of Dean, in some cases replacing existing edge rails. The plates of a plateway generally rested on stone blocks or sleepers, which served to spread the load over the ground, the plates were usually made from cast iron and had differing cross sections depending on the manufacturer. They were often short, typically about 3 feet long. The L section tramroad plate was introduced for use by John Curr of Sheffield Park Colliery in about 1787. Joseph Butler of Wingerworth near Chesterfield, constructed a line using similarly flanged plates in 1788, a leading advocate of plate rails was Benjamin Outram whose first line was from quarries at Crich to Bullbridge Wharf on the Cromford Canal. The early plates were prone to break so different cross sections were employed, however, after he became a partner in Benjamin Outram and Company he designed the Surrey Iron Railway and the Kilmarnock and Troon Railways as plateways. Plateways tended to get obstructed by stones and grit leading to wear. Edgeways avoid the stone obstruction problem, stone blocks had an advantage over timber sleepers in that they left the middle of the track unhindered for the hooves of horses. Even older than plateways were wagonways which used wooden rails, despite its ancient appearance, the Haytor Granite Tramway, the track with ledges cut in stone blocks to produce a similar effect as tram plates, was contemporary with plateways, being built in 1820. The early plateways were usually operated on a basis, with any rolling stock owner able to operate their wagons on the tracks. Sometimes the plateway company was forbidden to operate its own wagons, some plateways such as the Gloucester and Cheltenham Railway were single track with passing loops at frequent intervals. The single track sections were arranged so that drivers could see from one loop to the next. However others such as the Surrey Iron Railway, the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway the Monmouthshire Canal Companys tramroads and the Severn and Wye Railway were wholly or partly double track
37.
Rail tracks
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The track on a railway or railroad, also known as the permanent way, is the structure consisting of the rails, fasteners, railroad ties and ballast, plus the underlying subgrade. It enables trains to move by providing a surface for their wheels to roll upon. For clarity it is referred to as railway track or railroad track. Tracks where electric trains or electric trams run are equipped with a system such as an overhead electrical power line or an additional electrified rail. The term permanent way also refers to the track in addition to structures such as fences etc. Most railroads with heavy traffic use continuously welded rails supported by sleepers attached via baseplates that spread the load, a plastic or rubber pad is usually placed between the rail and the tieplate where concrete sleepers are used. The rail is held down to the sleeper with resilient fastenings. For much of the 20th century, rail track used softwood timber sleepers and jointed rails, jointed rails were used at first because contemporary technology did not offer any alternative. The joints also needed to be lubricated, and wear at the mating surfaces needed to be rectified by shimming. For this reason jointed track is not financially appropriate for heavily operated railroads, timber sleepers are of many available timbers, and are often treated with creosote, copper-chrome-arsenic, or other wood preservative. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers are used where timber is scarce and where tonnage or speeds are high. Steel is used in some applications, the track ballast is customarily crushed stone, and the purpose of this is to support the sleepers and allow some adjustment of their position, while allowing free drainage. A disadvantage of traditional track structures is the demand for maintenance, particularly surfacing and lining to restore the desired track geometry. Weakness of the subgrade and drainage deficiencies also lead to maintenance costs. This can be overcome by using ballastless track, in its simplest form this consists of a continuous slab of concrete with the rails supported directly on its upper surface. There are a number of systems, and variations include a continuous reinforced concrete slab. Many permutations of design have been put forward, however, ballastless track has a high initial cost, and in the case of existing railroads the upgrade to such requires closure of the route for a long period. Its whole-life cost can be lower because of the reduction in maintenance, some rubber-tyred metros use ballastless tracks
38.
Wagonway
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Wagonways consisted of the horses, equipment and tracks used for hauling wagons, which preceded steam-powered railways. The terms plateway, tramway and in places, dramway are also found. The advantage of using wagonways was that far bigger loads could be transported with the same power, the wooden tubs, known as hunds ran on two wide boards or rails and were used to move ore within the mines. These hunds used a guide pin system, utilising the slot between the two rails to keep them on course. The first true railways, using a flange to keep the wheel on a rail, were developed in the early 17th century. In 1604, Huntingdon Beaumont completed the Wollaton Wagonway, built to transport coal from the mines at Strelley to Wollaton Lane End, just west of Nottingham, England. Wagonways have been proven to exist between Broseley and Jackfield in Shropshire from 1605, used by James Clifford to transport coal from his mines in Broseley to the River Severn and it has recently been suggested that these are somewhat older than that at Wollaton. Wagonways improved coal transport by allowing one horse to deliver between 10 to 13 long tons of coal per run— an approximate fourfold increase. Wagonways were usually designed to carry the fully loaded wagons downhill to a canal or boat dock, in time, it became a common practice to cover them with a thin flat sheathing or plating of iron, in order to add to their life and reduce friction. However, the iron sheathing was not strong enough to resist buckling under the passage of the loaded wagons, as a result, in 1767, they began to cast iron rails. These were probably 6 ft long, with four projecting ears or lugs 3 in by 3 3⁄4 in to them to be fixed to the sleepers. The rails were 3 3⁄4 in wide and 1 1⁄4 in thick, later, descriptions also refer to rails 3 ft long and only 2 in wide. Subsequently, to increase the strength, a similar flange might be added below the rail, the wheels of flangeway wagons were plain, but they could not operate on ordinary roads as the narrow rims would dig into the surface. Another form of rail, the rail, was first used by William Jessop on a line which was opened as part of the Charnwood Forest Canal between Loughborough and Nanpantan in Leicestershire in 1789. This line was designed as a plateway on the Outram system. This difficulty was overcome by paving or causewaying the road up to the level of the top of the flanges, in 1790, Jessop and his partner Outram began to manufacture edge-rails. Another example of the edge rail application was the Lake Lock Rail Road used primarily for coal transport and this was a public railway and opened for traffic in 1798. The route started at Lake Lock, Stanley, on the Aire & Calder Navigation, near Wakefield, and ran to Outwood, edge-rails were also used on the nearby Middleton-Leeds rack railway
39.
Rail transport in Canada
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Canada has a large and well-developed railway system that today transports primarily freight. There are two publicly traded transcontinental freight railway systems, the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific Railway. Nationwide passenger services are provided by the crown corporation Via Rail. Three Canadian cities have commuter train services, in the Montreal area by Agence métropolitaine de transport, in the Toronto area by GO Transit and these cities and several others are also served by light rail or metro systems. Only one has a streetcar system. Smaller railways such as Ontario Northland Railway and Algoma Central Railway also run trains to remote rural areas. The Rocky Mountaineer and Royal Canadian Pacific provide luxury rail tours for viewing scenery in the Canadian Rockies as well as mountainous areas of British Columbia. Canada has 49,422 kilometres total trackage, of which only 129 kilometres is electrified, Canada uses 1,435 mm track for the majority of its railway system. The first Canadian railway, the Champlain and Saint Lawrence Railroad, was opened in 1836 outside of Montreal, heavy expansion of the rail system did not get under way until the Guarantee Act of 1849 that guaranteed bond returns on all railways over 121 km. This led to expansion of railways in the Canadas, sometimes excessive growth as uneconomic lines were built since the government guaranteed profits. This proved disastrous for government finances, however, and the Canadas were all, the largest rail project of this period was also a disaster. The Grand Trunk Railway linking Montreal to Sarnia was finished in 1860, in exchange for bailing out the company the government escaped its guarantee on the railway bonds. Canadian confederation was made possible in part by the railways, the separate colonial governments had all but emptied their treasuries building railways, and a new and more stable method of financing them was required. It was also believed that union would allow for the construction of railways linking British North America. The Maritimes joined only because of promises to build the Intercolonial Railway, the government had learned its lesson, and these railways were not funded by guarantees. Rather, the construction of the Intercolonial was fully controlled by the government under the direction of Sir Sanford Fleming. The railway to the Pacific, the Canadian Pacific, was financed by funds and through massive land grants in the Canadian prairies, $25 million in cash. The railway, a marvel that was then the longest in the world, was completed in 1885 to great fanfare
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International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
