1.
Cooking
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Cooking or cookery is the art, technology and craft of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill, cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago. The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients, New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served, phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave, there is evidence that Homo erectus was cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Evidence for the use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. Archeological evidence, from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe, anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago, when hearths started appearing. More recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the nineteenth-century Age of Nationalism cuisine became a symbol of national identity. Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Colombian exchange influenced the history of cooking, the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, in the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias and fast-food establishments emerged. Along with changes in food, starting early in the 20th century, governments have issued nutrition guidelines, the 1916 Food For Young Children became the first USDA guide to give specific dietary guidelines. Updated in the 1920s, these guides gave shopping suggestions for different-sized families along with a Depression Era revision which included four cost levels, in 1943, the USDA created the Basic Seven chart to make sure that people got the recommended nutrients. It included the first-ever Recommended Daily Allowances from the National Academy of Sciences, in 1956, the Essentials of an Adequate Diet brought recommendations which cut the number of groups that American school children would learn about down to four. In 1979, a guide called Food addressed the link between too much of certain foods and chronic diseases, but added fats, oils, most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi
2.
Bacon
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Bacon is a meat product usually prepared from pork and cured. It is first cured using large quantities of salt, either a brine or a dry packing, fresh bacon may then be dried for weeks or months in cold air, or it may be boiled or smoked. Fresh and dried bacon are typically cooked before eating, often by frying, boiled bacon is ready to eat, as is some smoked bacon, but they may be cooked further before eating. Bacon is prepared from different cuts of meat. It can be made from side and back cuts of pork, a side cut has less fat than the belly. In the United States, the term implies belly bacon, with leaner cuts known as Canadian bacon, in the United Kingdom, loin bacon with some belly attached is known as back bacon, or rashers, and belly bacon is called streaky bacon. Bacon may be prepared from one of two distinct back cuts, fatback, which is almost pure fat, or pork loin, Bacon may be eaten smoked, boiled, fried, baked, or grilled. It is eaten on its own, as a side dish, Bacon is also used for barding and larding roasts, especially game, including venison and pheasant. The word is derived from the Old High German bacho, meaning buttock, ham or side of bacon, in Italy, this product is called pancetta and is usually cooked in small cubes or thinly sliced as part of an antipasto. Meat from other animals, such as beef, lamb, chicken, goat, or turkey, may also be cut, cured, or otherwise prepared to resemble bacon, and may even be referred to as bacon. Such use is common in areas with significant Jewish and Muslim populations, the USDA defines bacon in the American way as the cured belly of a swine carcass, and other cuts and characteristics must be separately qualified. For safety, bacon may be treated to prevent trichinosis, caused by Trichinella, Bacon is distinguished from salt pork and ham by differences in the brine or dry packing. Bacon brine has added curing ingredients, most notably sodium nitrite, and occasionally potassium nitrate, flavourings such as brown sugar or maple syrup are used for some bacon products. Sodium polyphosphates, such as sodium triphosphate, may be added to make the easier to slice. Today, a specifically for ham includes a large amount of sugar. Historically, the ham and bacon referred to different cuts of meat that were brined or packed identically. Bacon is cured through either a process of injecting with or soaking in brine or using plain salt. In America, bacon is cured and smoked, and different flavours can be achieved by using various types of wood, or rarely corn cobs
3.
Ham
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Ham is pork that has been preserved through salting, smoking, or wet curing. It was traditionally made only from the leg of swine. Ham is made around the world, including a number of highly coveted regional specialties, such as Westphalian ham, technically a processed meat, ham may refer to a product which has been through mechanical re-forming. The precise nature of meat termed ham is controlled in a number of areas, often by statute, including the United States and European Union. In addition, numerous ham products have specific geographical naming protection, such as Prosciutto di Parma and Prosciutto Toscano PDO in Europe, and Smithfield ham in the US. The preserving of pork leg as ham has a long history, there are claims that the Chinese were the first people to mention the production of cured ham. Larousse Gastronomique claims an origin from Gaul and it was certainly well established by the Roman period, as evidenced by an import trade from Gaul mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his writings. The modern word ham is derived from the Old English ham or hom meaning the hollow or bend of the knee and it began to refer to the cut of pork derived from the hind leg of a swine around the 15th century. Preservation methods include curing, smoking, and salting, in many countries the term is now protected by statute, with a specific definition. In addition to the categories, some processing choices can affect legal labeling. However, injecting smoke flavor is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was smoked, hams can only be labeled honey-cured if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used, is at least 3% of the formula, and has a discernible effect on flavor. So-called lean and extra lean hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat, Ham re-formed from smaller pieces into a larger block also has to be labeled in many jurisdictions. Ham is produced by preserving and flavoring raw pork by salting, smoking, besides salt, several ingredients may be used to obtain flavoring and preservation, from black pepper to the precious saffron. Traditional dry cure hams may use only salt as the agent, such as with San Daniele or Parma hams. This process involves cleaning the raw meat, covering it in salt while it is gradually pressed – draining all the blood, in Tuscan Ham different spices and herbs are added to salt during this step. Specific ingredients may be used to flavour and taste during this step. The hams are then washed and hung in a dark, temperature-regulated place until dry and it is then hung to air for another period of time. Some dry cured hams, such as the Jinhua ham, take approximately 8 to 10 months to complete, most modern dry cure hams also use nitrites, which are added along with the salt, although following a similar methodology
4.
Sausage
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A sausage is a cylindrical meat product usually made from ground meat, often pork, beef, or veal, along with salt, spices and other flavourings, and breadcrumbs, with a skin around it. Typically, a sausage is formed in a traditionally made from intestine. Sausages that are sold uncooked are usually cooked in many ways, some sausages are cooked during processing and the casing may then be removed. Sausage making is a food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying, smoking, or freezing, some cured or smoked sausages can be stored without refrigeration. Most fresh sausages must be refrigerated or frozen until they are cooked, there is a huge range of national and regional varieties of sausages, which differ by their flavouring or spicing ingredients, the meat used in them and their manner of preparation. The word sausage was first used in English in the mid-15th century and this word came. from Old North French saussiche. The French word saussiche came. from Vulgar Latin *salsica sausage, from salsicus seasoned with salt, Sausage making is an outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers would salt various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood and they would then stuff them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked, early humans made the first sausages by stuffing roasted intestines into stomachs. The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of sausage in the Odyssey, Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled The Sausage. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and most likely with the tribes occupying the larger part of Europe. The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania and was called lucanica, during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning, traditionally, sausage casings were made of the cleaned intestines, or stomachs in the case of haggis and other traditional puddings. Today, however, natural casings are often replaced by collagen, cellulose, or even plastic casings, some forms of sausage, such as sliced sausage, are prepared without a casing. Additionally, luncheon meat and sausage meat are now available without casings in tin cans, a sausage consists of meat, cut into pieces or ground, and filled into a casing, with other ingredients. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, the meat may be from any animal, but is often pork, beef, or veal. The lean meat-to-fat ratio is dependent upon the style and producer, speciality sausages with other ingredients such as apple and leek are also made
5.
Galantine
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A galantine is a French dish of de-boned stuffed meat, most commonly poultry or fish, that is poached and served cold, coated with aspic. Galantines are often stuffed with forcemeat, and pressed into a cylindrical shape, in the later nineteenth century the techniques origin was already attributed to the chef of the marquis de Brancas. The dish was sometimes boiled or simmered before or after straining, the sauce was used with fish and eels, and also with geese and venison. The extravagant hyperbole of declarations of love were burlesqued by Geoffrey Chaucer, Was nevere pik walwed in galauntine As I in love am walwed. Ballotine Head cheese List of stuffed dishes Terrine Turducken Peter Hertzmann on galantine
6.
Confit
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Confit comes from the French word confire which means literally to preserve, a confit being any type of food that is cooked slowly over a long period of time as a method of preservation. Confit as a cooking term describes when food is cooked in grease, oil or sugar water, at a lower temperature, as opposed to deep frying. While deep frying typically takes place at temperatures of 325–450 °F, confit preparations are done at a lower temperature, such as an oil temperature of around 200 °F. The term is used in modern cuisine to mean long slow cooking in oil or fat at low temperatures. In meat cooking, this requires the meat to be salted as part of the preservation process, after salting and cooking in the fat, sealed and stored in a cool, dark place, confit can last for several months or years. Confit is one of the oldest ways to food, and is a specialty of southwestern France. The word comes from the French verb confire, which in turn comes from the Latin word, meaning to do, to produce, to make, the French verb was first applied in medieval times to fruits cooked and preserved in sugar. Fruit confit are candied fruit preserved in sugar, the fruit must be fully infused with sugar, to its core, larger fruit take considerably longer than smaller ones to candy. Thus, while small fruit such as cherries are confits whole, it is rare to see whole large fruit, such as melon confits. Confit of goose and duck are usually prepared from the legs of the bird, the meat is salted and seasoned with herbs, and slowly cooked submerged in its own rendered fat, in which it is then preserved by allowing it to cool and storing it in the fat. Turkey and pork may be treated in the same manner, meat confit is a specialty of the southwest of France and is used in dishes such as cassoulet. Confit preparations originated as a means of preserving meat without refrigeration, in a restaurant context, confit is usually served after further preparation. Whole confit leg is baked to crisp the skin or added to a casserole type dish, Confit duck leg is used to make rillette. Traditional meat for confit include both waterfowl such as goose and duck, and pork, duck gizzards are also commonly cooked in the confit method. Varying forms of this delicacy thrive throughout southern France, Confit country is the area of Occitan France where goose fat is used to cook, as opposed to olive oil which is used in Provence where olives were plentiful and thus cheap. Confit country is divided roughly into regions where one type of meat predominates the confit preparations, goose confit is associated with the Béarn and Basque regions with their classic specialties of cassoulet and garbure, hearty and earthy dishes of confit and beans. Saintonge and Brantôme feature duck confit, often with potatoes and truffles, non-waterfowl meats are frequently treated to the confit process, but they are not classically considered true confits. The French refer only to duck and goose confits as true confits, for example, chicken cooked in goose fat is called poulet en confit
7.
Pork
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Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC, Pork is eaten both freshly cooked and preserved. Curing extends the life of the pork products. Ham, smoked pork, gammon, bacon and sausage are examples of preserved pork, charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products, many from pork. Pork is the most popular meat in East and Southeast Asia and it is highly prized in Asian cuisines for its fat content and pleasant texture. Consumption of pork is forbidden by Jewish and Muslim dietary law, the sale of pork is illegal or severely restricted in Israel and in certain Muslim countries, particularly those where sharia law is part of their constitution. The pig is one of the oldest forms of livestock, having been domesticated as early as 5000 BC and it is believed to have been domesticated either in the Near East or in China from the wild boar. The adaptable nature and omnivorous diet of this creature allowed early humans to domesticate it much earlier than other forms of livestock. Pigs were mostly used for food, but people also used their hides for shields and shoes, their bones for tools and weapons, and their bristles for brushes. Charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products such as bacon, ham, sausage, terrines, galantines, pâtés, and confit, primarily from pork. Originally intended as a way to preserve meats before the advent of refrigeration, in 15th century France, local guilds regulated tradesmen in the food production industry in each city. The guilds that produced charcuterie were those of the charcutiers, the members of this guild produced a traditional range of cooked or salted and dried meats, which varied, sometimes distinctively, from region to region. The only raw meat the charcutiers were allowed to sell was unrendered lard, the charcutier prepared numerous items, including pâtés, rillettes, sausages, bacon, trotters, and head cheese. Due to the nature of the meat in Western culinary history. The year-round availability of meat and fruits has not diminished the popularity of this combination on Western plates, Pork is the most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 38% of meat production worldwide. Consumption varies widely from place to place, the meat is taboo to eat in the Middle East and most of the Muslim world because of Jewish kosher and Islamic Halal dietary restrictions. But pork is widely consumed in East and Southeast Asia, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, as the result, large numbers of pork recipes are developed throughout the world. Feijoada for example, the dish of Brazil, is traditionally prepared with pork trimmings, ears, tail
8.
Garde manger
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A garde manger is a cool, well-ventilated area where cold dishes are prepared and other foods are stored under refrigeration. The person in charge of this area is known as the garde manger or pantry chef. The term garde manger originated in pre-Revolutionary France, at that time, maintaining a large supply of food and beverage was an outward symbol of power, wealth and status. It is because of duty of supervising the preserving of food. The term garde manger is also related to the rooms inside castles. These food storage areas were located in the lower levels. These cold storage areas developed over time into the modern cold kitchen, most merchants who worked outside noble manors at this time were associated with a guild, an association of persons of the same trade formed for their mutual aid and protection. Guilds would develop training programs for their members, thereby preserving their knowledge, charcuterie was the name of a guild that prepared and sold cooked items made from pigs. Through this organization, the preparation of hams, bacon, sausages, pates and terrines were preserved, the position of butcher first developed as a specialty within the garde manger kitchen. As both the cost of and demand for animal meats increased, more space was required for the task of fabricating and portioning the raw meats, modern garde manger can refer to different things in the professional kitchen. In other high-profile classically influenced restaurants and hotels, the position pertains to the classical preparations, brigade de cuisine Garnish Food presentation List of restaurant terminology Pantry Food production operation and management, Aman Publisher India Culinary Institute of America. Garde Manger, The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen ISBN 0-7645-7663-1 Gardemanger. com
9.
Chef
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A chef is a highly trained and skilled professional cook who is proficient in all aspects of food preparation of a particular cuisine. The word chef is derived from the chef de cuisine. Chefs can receive both formal training from an institution, as well as through apprenticeship with an experienced chef, the Brigade system is a system of hierarchy found in restaurants and hotels employing extensive staff, many of which use the word chef in their titles. Underneath the chefs are the kitchen assistants, a chefs standard uniform includes a hat called a toque, necktie, double-breasted jacket, apron and shoes with steel or plastic toe-caps. The word chef is derived from the chef de cuisine. In English, the chef in the culinary profession originated in the haute cuisine of the 19th century. The culinary arts, among other aspects of the French language introduced French loan-words into the English language, various titles, detailed below, are given to those working in a professional kitchen and each can be considered a title for a type of chef. Many of the titles are based on the brigade de cuisine documented by Auguste Escoffier, other names include executive chef, chef manager, head chef, and master chef. Chef de cuisine is the traditional French term from which the English word chef is derived and this is often the case for executive chefs with multiple restaurants. Involved in checking the sensory evaluation of dishes after preparation and they are aware of each sensory property of those specific dishes. The Sous-Chef de Cuisine is the second-in-command and direct assistant of the Chef de Cuisine and this person may be responsible for scheduling the kitchen staff, or substituting when the head chef is off-duty. Also, he or she will fill in for or assist the Chef de Partie when needed and this person is accountable for the kitchens inventory, cleanliness, organization, and the continuing training of its entire staff. A sous-chefs duties can also include carrying out the head chefs directives, conducting line checks, smaller operations may not have a sous-chef, while larger operations may have more than one. The sous chef is also responsible when the Executive Chef is absent, a chef de partie, also known as a station chef or line cook, is in charge of a particular area of production. In large kitchens, each chef de partie might have several cooks or assistants, in most kitchens, however, the chef de partie is the only worker in that department. Line cooks are often divided into a hierarchy of their own, starting with first cook, then second cook, kitchen-hands assist with basic food preparation tasks under the chefs direction. They carry out relatively unskilled tasks such as peeling potatoes and washing salad, stewards/ kitchen porters are involved in the scullery, washing up and general cleaning duties. In a smaller kitchen, these duties may be incorporated, a communard is in charge of preparing the meal for the staff during a shift
10.
Food Lover's Companion
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The New Food Lover’s Companion—currently in its Fifth Edition—is a seminal work in the culinary field. The book defines over 7,000 culinary terms in its 800+ pages, each edition is a significant expansion on the previous edition in number of entries and the coverage of the various appendices. The main section of the work is an A-to-Z list of defined culinary terminology, the Second Edition is a searchable source text at Epicurious, and the Third Edition is a searchable source text at Answers. com. Sharon Tyler Herbst—the primary author—wrote 16 food and beverage related books before her death on January 26,2007 and her husband Ron—who writes about wine and cheese—finished editing the Fourth Edition after her death and is credited as the coauthor. Famous chef Emeril Lagasse called it his book, and it is required reading at the New England Culinary Institute. This edition was published in hardcover as The Deluxe Food Lovers Companion, the 2013 fifth edition received a similar treatment in April 2015. In the deluxe editions, some of these have been folded into the glossary sections. S, measurement Equivalents Wine and Spirit Bottle Sizes Approximate Metric Equivalents Metric Conversion Formulas Food Guide Pyramid Whats a Serving. at Answers. com
11.
Rillettes
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Rillettes are a preparation of meat similar to pâté. Commonly made from pork, the meat is cubed or chopped, salted heavily and cooked slowly in fat until it is enough to be easily shredded. They are normally used as spread on bread or toast and served at room temperature, rillettes are also made with other meats, goose, duck, chicken, game birds, rabbit and sometimes with fish such as anchovies, tuna or salmon. Sarthe, Tours, and Anjou, all in central France, are sources of rillettes. The term rillette perhaps refers to the product and its appearance when spread on sliced bread. Rillettes were traditionally made with fatty pork belly or pork shoulder, the meat was cubed, salted and cured, cooked slowly over low heat until very tender, then raked into small shreds and blended with the warm cooking fat to form a rustic paste. Rillettes could be stored in crocks for several months, in Anjou, rillaud was a speciality, plated in the shape of a pyramid and topped with the pigs tail, the rillettes were proudly displayed to the guest of honor. In time the rillette cooking style was applied to game birds, wild rabbit, eventually several preparations for seafood rillettes were developed including an anchovy, tuna, and salmon version. Though the fish is not actually cooked in the fat, it is blended with fat to form the characteristic paste-spread, the soft, smooth texture is a deciding factor in determining a good rillette dish. Like cassoulet or fondue, this French dish has its many regional definitions, in general most rillettes are served at room temperature, as a spread with toast points, much like a pâté. Pork rillettes from the regions of Tours and Anjou are famous for the rich texture. Rabelais called rillettes the brown jam from the pig, rillettes from the adjacent département of Sarthe are distinguished by a more rustic texture, complete with larger pieces of pork and less color. In Quebec, cretons are similar to rillettes, the French word rillettes is first evidenced in 1845. It derives from the Old French rille, meaning a slice of pork and this is a dialect variation of the Old French reille, meaning a lath or strip of wood, from the Latin regula. The word rillettes is thus cognate or linked with the English words rail, referring to railways, and ruler, meaning a straight strip of wood for measuring
12.
Delicatessen
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A delicatessen or deli is a retail establishment that sells a selection of unusual or foreign prepared foods. Delicatessens originated in Germany during the 1700s and spread to the United States in the mid-1800s, European immigrants to the United States, especially Ashkenazi Jews, popularized the delicatessen in American culture beginning in the late 1800s. Delicatessen is a German loanword which first appeared in English in 1889 and is the plural of Delikatesse, in German it was originally a French loanword, délicatesse, meaning delicious things. Its root word is the Latin adjective delicatus, meaning giving pleasure, delightful, the first Americanized short version of this word, deli, came into existence c. 1954. The German food company Dallmayr is credited with being the first delicatessen created, in 1700, it became the first store to import bananas, mangoes, and plums to the German population from faraway places such as the Canary Islands and China. Over 300 years later, it remains the largest business of its kind in Europe, the first delicatessens to appear in the United States were in New York City in the mid-1800s, with the first known use of this word occurring in 1885. These catered to the German immigrant population living there, as the German-Jewish population increased in New York City during the mid- to late 1800s, kosher delicatessens began to open, the first was founded in 1889. In the United States, by the late 20th to early 21st centuries, supermarkets, local economy stores, and fast food outlets began using the word to describe sections of their stores. The decline of the deli as an independent retail establishment was most noted in New York City, from a high in the 1930s of about 1,500 Jewish delicatessens, in most of Australia, the term delicatessen retains its European meaning. Large supermarket chains often have a department, and independent delicatessens exist throughout the country. Both types of deli offer a variety of cured meats, sausages, pickled vegetables, dips, breads, Deli also denotes a small convenience store or milk bar in Western and South Australia, and some businesses use deli as part of their business name. Traditional delicatessens also exist in these states, with continental delicatessen sometimes used to indicate the European version, in Canada, both meanings of delicatessen are used. In Europe delicatessen means high-quality, expensive foods and stores, in German-speaking countries a common synonym is Feinkost, and shops which sell it are called Feinkostläden. Department stores often have a Delikatessenabteilung, European delicatessens include Fauchon in Paris, Dallmayr in Munich, Harrods and Fortnum & Mason in London, and Peck in Milan. Although U. S. -style delicatessens are also found in Europe, in Russia, shops and supermarket sections approximating US-style delis are called kulinariya and offer salads and main courses. Delicate meats and cheeses, cold-cut and sliced hot, are sold in a separate section, the Eliseevsky food store in central Moscow, with its fin de siècle decor, is similar to a European delicatessen. From the Tsarist era, it was preserved by the Soviets as an outlet for difficult-to-obtain Russian delicacies, delicatessens may also provide foods from other countries and cultures which is not readily available in local food stores. In Italy, the deli can be called gastronomia, negozio di specialità gastronomiche, in France it is nowadays known as a traiteur or épicerie fine
13.
Larousse Gastronomique
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Larousse Gastronomique is an encyclopedia of gastronomy. The majority of the book is about French cuisine, and contains recipes for French dishes, the first edition included few non-French dishes and ingredients, later editions include many more. The book was published by Éditions Larousse, founded by Pierre Larousse. The first edition was edited by Prosper Montagné, with prefaces by Georges Auguste Escoffier, Gilbert was a collaborator in the creation of this book as well as Le Guide Culinaire with Escoffier, leading to some cross-over with the two books. The third English edition, which runs to approximately 1350 pages has been modernized and it is also available in a concise edition. A new, updated and revised edition was released on 13 October 2009 published by Hamlyn in the UK, hambledon and London, Cambridge University Press,2002. Larousse Gastronomique, Prosper Montagné, maître cuisinier, avec la collaboration du docteur Gottschalk, Paris,2001 2nd edition, ISBN 2-03-560227-0, with assistance from a gastronomic committee chaired by Joël Robuchon Montagné, Prosper. Larousse gastronomique, the encyclopedia of food, wine & cookery, the English translation of the 1938 edition. Larousse Gastronomique, The New American Edition of the Worlds Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia, second English edition. ISBN 0-609-60971-8 Montagné, Prosper. Larousse Gastronomique, The New American Edition of the Worlds Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia, Larousse Gastronomique, The Worlds Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia
14.
Strabo
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Strabo was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus, Strabos life was characterized by extensive travels. He journeyed to Egypt and Kush, as far west as coastal Tuscany and as far south as Ethiopia in addition to his travels in Asia Minor and the time he spent in Rome. Travel throughout the Mediterranean and Near East, especially for scholarly purposes, was popular during this era and was facilitated by the relative peace enjoyed throughout the reign of Augustus. He moved to Rome in 44 BC, and stayed there, studying and writing, in 29 BC, on his way to Corinth, he visited the island of Gyaros in the Aegean Sea. Around 25 BC, he sailed up the Nile until reaching Philae and it is not known precisely when Strabos Geography was written, though comments within the work itself place the finished version within the reign of Emperor Tiberius. Some place its first drafts around 7 BC, others around 17 or 18 AD, the latest passage to which a date can be assigned is his reference to the death in AD23 of Juba II, king of Maurousia, who is said to have died just recently. He probably worked on the Geography for many years and revised it steadily, on the presumption that recently means within a year, Strabo stopped writing that year or the next, when he died. The first of Strabos major works, Historical Sketches, written while he was in Rome, is completely lost. Strabo studied under several prominent teachers of various specialties throughout his life at different stops along his Mediterranean travels. His first chapter of education took place in Nysa under the master of rhetoric Aristodemus, Strabo was an admirer of Homers poetry, perhaps a consequence of his time spent in Nysa with Aristodemus. At around the age of 21, Strabo moved to Rome, where he studied philosophy with the Peripatetic Xenarchus, despite Xenarchuss Aristotelian leanings, Strabo later gives evidence to have formed his own Stoic inclinations. In Rome, he learned grammar under the rich and famous scholar Tyrannion of Amisus. Although Tyrannion was also a Peripatetic, he was more relevantly a respected authority on geography, the final noteworthy mentor to Strabo was Athenodorus Cananites, a philosopher who had spent his life since 44 BC in Rome forging relationships with the Roman elite. Athenodorus endowed to Strabo three important items, his philosophy, his knowledge, and his contacts, moreover, from his own first-hand experience, Athenodorus provided Strabo with information about regions of the empire which he would not otherwise have known. Strabo is most notable for his work Geographica, which presented a history of people. Although the Geographica was rarely utilized in its antiquity, a multitude of copies survived throughout the Byzantine Empire. It first appeared in Western Europe in Rome as a Latin translation issued around 1469, the first Greek edition was published in 1516 in Venice
15.
Gaul
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It covered an area of 190,800 sq mi. According to the testimony of Julius Caesar, Gaul was divided into three parts, Gallia Celtica, Belgica and Aquitania, during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Gaul fell under Roman rule, Gallia Cisalpina was conquered in 203 BC and Gallia Narbonensis in 123 BC. Gaul was invaded after 120 BC by the Cimbri and the Teutons, Gallia remains a name of France in modern Greek and modern Latin. The Greek and Latin names Galatia, and Gallia are ultimately derived from a Celtic ethnic term or clan Gal-to-. Galli of Gallia Celtica were reported to refer to themselves as Celtae by Caesar. Hellenistic folk etymology connected the name of the Galatians to the supposedly milk-white skin of the Gauls, modern researchers say it is related to Welsh gallu, Cornish galloes, capacity, power, thus meaning powerful people. The English Gaul is from French Gaule and is unrelated to Latin Gallia, as adjectives, English has the two variants, Gaulish and Gallic. The two adjectives are used synonymously, as pertaining to Gaul or the Gauls, although the Celtic language or languages spoken in Gaul is predominantly known as Gaulish. The Germanic w- is regularly rendered as gu- / g- in French, also unrelated in spite of superficial similarity is the name Gael. The Irish word gall did originally mean a Gaul, i. e. an inhabitant of Gaul, but its meaning was later widened to foreigner, to describe the Vikings, and later still the Normans. The dichotomic words gael and gall are sometimes used together for contrast, by 500 BC, there is strong Hallstatt influence throughout most of France. By the late 5th century BC, La Tène influence spreads rapidly across the territory of Gaul. The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age in France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, southwest Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, farther north extended the contemporary pre-Roman Iron Age culture of northern Germany and Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the Romans described Gallia Transalpina as distinct from Gallia Cisalpina, while some scholars believe the Belgae south of the Somme were a mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements, their ethnic affiliations have not been definitively resolved. One of the reasons is political interference upon the French historical interpretation during the 19th century, in addition to the Gauls, there were other peoples living in Gaul, such as the Greeks and Phoenicians who had established outposts such as Massilia along the Mediterranean coast. Also, along the southeastern Mediterranean coast, the Ligures had merged with the Celts to form a Celto-Ligurian culture, the prosperity of Mediterranean Gaul encouraged Rome to respond to pleas for assistance from the inhabitants of Massilia, who were under attack by a coalition of Ligures and Gauls. The Romans intervened in Gaul in 154 BC and again in 125 BC, whereas on the first occasion they came and went, on the second they stayed. Massilia was allowed to keep its lands, but Rome added to its territories the lands of the conquered tribes. The direct result of conquests was that by now, Rome controlled an area extending from the Pyrenees to the lower Rhône river
16.
French people
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The French are an ethnic group and nation who are identified with the country of France. This connection may be legal, historical, or cultural, modern French society can be considered a melting pot. To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of origin, race. The debate concerning the integration of this view with the underlying the European Community remains open. A large number of foreigners have traditionally been permitted to live in France, indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries, the European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector. Seeing itself as a nation with universal values, France has always valued. However, the success of such assimilation has recently called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves, the 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration, the name France etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire, in the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58-51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, the area then became part of the Roman Empire. Over the next five centuries the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish vernacular language disappeared step by step to be replaced everywhere by Vulgar Latin, which would later develop under Frankish influence into the French language in the North of France. With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture, the Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti, already during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands, at the beginning, they served in the Roman army and reached high commands. Their language is spoken as a kind of Dutch in northern France. Another Germanic people immigrated massively to Alsace, the Alamans, which explains the Alemannic German spoken there and they were competitors of the Franks, thats why it became at the Renaissance time the word for German in French, Allemand. By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France, the Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process
17.
Guild
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A guild /ɡɪld/ is an association of artisans or merchants who control the practice of their craft in a particular town. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities of tradesmen and they were organized in a manner something between a professional association, trade union, a cartel, and a secret society. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as meeting places, an important result of the guild framework was the emergence of universities at Bologna, Oxford and Paris, they originated as guilds of students as at Bologna, or of masters as at Paris. Usually the founders were free independent master craftsmen who hired apprentices, there were several types of guilds, including the two main categories of merchant guilds and craft guilds but also the frith guild and religious guild. In many cases became the governing body of a town. The Freedom of the City, effective from the Middle Ages until 1835, gave the right to trade, Trade guilds arose in the 14th century as craftsmen united to protect their common interest. The occasion for these oaths were drunken banquets held on December 26, gregory of Tours tells a miraculous tale of a builder whose art and techniques suddenly left him, but were restored by an apparition of the Virgin Mary in a dream. Michel Rouche remarks that the story speaks for the importance of practically transmitted journeymanship, in France, guilds were called corps de métiers. According to Viktor Ivanovich Rutenburg, Within the guild itself there was little division of labour. Thus, according to Étienne Boileaus Book of Handicrafts, by the century there were no less than 100 guilds in Paris. In Catalan towns, specially at Barcelona, guilds or gremis were a basic agent in the society, a shoemakers guild is recorded in 1208. In England, specifically in the City of London Corporation, more than 110 guilds, referred to as companies, survive today. Other groups, such as the Worshipful Company of Tax Advisers, have been formed far more recently, membership in a livery company is expected for individuals participating in the governance of The City, as the Lord Mayor and the Remembrancer. The guild system reached a state in Germany circa 1300 and held on in German cities into the 19th century. In the 15th century, Hamburg had 100 guilds, Cologne 80, the latest guilds to develop in Western Europe were the gremios of Spain, e. g. Valencia or Toledo. Not all city economies were controlled by guilds, some cities were free, in order to become a Master, a Journeyman would have to go on a three-year voyage called Journeyman years. The practice of the Journeyman years still exists in Germany and France, in Ghent, as in Florence, the woolen textile industry developed as a congeries of specialized guilds. The appearance of the European guilds was tied to the emergent money economy, before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization, as commodity money was the normal way of doing business
18.
Lard
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Lard is pig fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms. It is obtained from any part of the pig where there is a proportion of adipose tissue. It can be rendered by steaming it or boiling it in water and then separating the insoluble fat from the water and it is a semi-soft white fat with a high saturated fatty acid content and no transfats, and refined lard is usually sold as paper-wrapped blocks. Lard is commonly used in cuisines around the world as a cooking fat or shortening. It is an ingredient in various dishes such as sausages, pates and fillings. Its use in contemporary cuisine has diminished with the increased popularity of vegetable oils. The culinary qualities of lard vary somewhat depending on the part of the pig from which the fat was taken, Lard can be obtained from any part of the pig where there is a high concentration of fatty tissue. The highest grade of lard, known as leaf lard, is obtained from the visceral fat deposit surrounding the kidneys. Leaf lard has little pork flavor, making it ideal for use in baked goods, the next-highest grade is obtained from fatback, the hard subcutaneous fat between the back skin and muscle of the pig. Lard may be rendered by either of two processes, wet or dry, in dry rendering, the fat is exposed to high heat in a pan or oven without the presence of water. The two processes yield somewhat differing products, wet-rendered lard has a more neutral flavor, a lighter color, and a high smoke point. Dry-rendered lard is somewhat more browned in color and flavor and has a lower smoke point, rendered lard produces an unpleasant smell when mixed with oxygen. Industrially-produced lard, including much of the lard sold in supermarkets, is rendered from a mixture of high-, Lard is often hydrogenated to improve its stability at room temperature. Hydrogenated lard sold to consumers typically contains fewer than 0.5 g of transfats per 13 g serving, Lard is also often treated with bleaching and deodorizing agents, emulsifiers, and antioxidants such as BHT. These treatments make it consistent and prevent spoilage. Consumers seeking a higher-quality source of lard typically seek out artisanal producers of rendered lard, a by-product of dry-rendering lard is deep-fried meat, skin and membrane tissue known as cracklings. Lard consists mainly of fats, which in the language of chemistry are known as triglycerides and these triglycerides are composed of three fatty acids and the distribution of fatty acids varies from oil to oil. In general lard is similar to tallow in its composition, pigs that have been fed different diets will have lard with a significantly different fatty acid content and iodine value
19.
Pig's trotters
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Pigs trotters, also known as pettitoes, are the feet of pigs. The cuts are used in various dishes around the world, before sale the trotters are cleaned and typically have the hairs pulled with a hot tank and beaters. They are often used in cooking to make stocks, as they add thickness to gravy, chef Marco Pierre White has long served trotters at his restaurants, based on the original recipe of mentor Pierre Koffmann. In the New York City restaurant Hakata Tonton,33 of the 39 dishes served contain pigs trotters, following the late-2000s financial crisis, there has been a boom in popularity of pigs trotters in the United Kingdom as a revival in cheap meat recipes occurred. In 2008, British supermarket Waitrose reintroduced trotters to its stores, in 2009, Pierre Koffmann set up a pop-up restaurant, and found that diners ate an entire months stock of 500 pigs trotters in less than a week. Bean crock/les pais au fou in Jersey, Channel Islands Brenebon a Dutch-Indonesian kidney beans soup, vincent and the Grenadines Spitzbein or Pfoten in German, known as golonka in Polish Stelze in Austria Körömpörkölt in Hungary Svinjske nogice, lit. Pigs feet in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Montenegro The pigs trotters dishes are widespread in Asian and European cuisines, nevertheless, it is less common in Muslim majority countries as the result of Islamic dietary law of which forbid the consumption of pork. In these countries, the halal cows trotters are popular instead, cows trotters Sheeps trotters Offal Pickled pigs feet Pork Pig’s Feet with Ginger in Black Vinegar
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Head cheese
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Head cheese or brawn is a cold cut that originated in Europe. A version pickled with vinegar is known as souse, head cheese is not a dairy cheese, but a terrine or meat jelly made with flesh from the head of a calf or pig, or less commonly a sheep or cow, and often set in aspic. The parts of the head used vary, but the brain, eyes, the tongue, and sometimes the feet and heart, may be included. It can also be made from trimmings from pork and veal, head cheese may be flavored with onion, black pepper, allspice, bay leaf, salt, and vinegar. It is usually eaten cold or at room temperature, historically, meat jellies were made of the cleaned head of the animal, which was simmered to produce stock, a peasant food made since the Middle Ages. When cooled, the stock congeals because of the natural gelatin found in the skull, the aspic may need additional gelatin, or more often, reduction to set properly. The term head cheese is used in North America, potted heid in Scotland, brawn elsewhere in Britain, the term souse for the pickled variety is North American and West Indian. Austria In Austria, head cheese is known as Presswurst, Sulz or Schwartamaga in the most western regions, depending on the region, its often served with a light dressing. Bulgaria In Bulgaria, the meal пача is prepared from pigs heads, legs, the broth is heavily seasoned with garlic before cooling. Croatia This cut is known as hladetina, and is commonly produced after the traditional slaughter of pigs. A strongly seasoned version of this cut is called tlačenica or švargla, the name švargl is used for a variant where the chopped parts are stuffed inside the pigs stomach, similar to Scottish haggis. Cyprus in Cyprus it is made with pork and known as zalatina and it is often seasoned with lemon juice. Other ingredients include onion, pepper, allspice, bayleaf, vinegar, salt, carrot, parsley, root celery, and sometimes eggs. A similar product, tlačenka, is basically huspenina with some meat, chopped liver. Tlačenka is generally thicker than huspenina, and it is eaten with chopped onions. A rolled version made in a similar way also exists. Estonia Sült is similar to the German or Croatian dish, but is usually less seasoned and is made from higher quality meat, sometimes carrots or greens are added. It is a traditional Christmas dish, but is sold in stores year round, the traditional sült is made from pork using its gelatinous parts
21.
Forcemeat
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Forcemeat is a mixture of ground, lean meat mixed with fat by either grinding, sieving, or pureeing the ingredients. The result may either be smooth or coarse, depending on the consistency of the final product. Forcemeats are used in the production of items found in charcuterie, such items include quenelles, sausages, pâtés, terrines, roulades. Forcemeats are usually produced from raw meat, except in the case of a gratin forcemeat, meats commonly used in the production of forcemeats include pork, fish, seafood, game meats, poultry, game birds, veal, and pork livers. Pork fatback is used for the fat portion of a forcemeat as it has a somewhat neutral flavor. Forcemeats are an ancient food, and are included in Apicius, straight Produced by progressively grinding equal parts pork and pork fat with a third ingredient, a dominant meat, which can be pork or another meat. The proteins are cubed and then seasoned, cured, rested, ground, country-style A combination of pork and pork fat, often with the addition of pork liver and garnish ingredients. The texture of finished product is coarse. Gratin Has a portion of the main protein browned, mousseline Very light in texture, utilizing lean cuts of meat usually from veal, poultry, fish, or shellfish. The resulting texture comes from the addition of eggs and cream to this forcemeat, often the only binder in a forcemeat is the physical structure of the protein used. Sometimes a secondary binder is necessary to hold the mixture and these binders are generally needed when preparing the country-style and gratin forcemeats. The three types of binders include eggs, nonfat dry milk powder, and panades, a panade can be made from starchy ingredients which aid in the binding process, these include well-cooked potatoes which have been pureed, cream-soaked bread, or pâte à choux. Ground beef Tourtière The Culinary Institute of America, garde Manger, The Art and Craft of the Cold Kitchen. 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ, John Wiley & Sons,2008
22.
Emulsion
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An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible. Emulsions are part of a general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids, in an emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other. Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, mayonnaise, the word emulsion comes from the Latin word for to milk, as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. Two liquids can form different types of emulsions, as an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, wherein the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the dispersion medium. Second, they can form an emulsion, wherein water is the dispersed phase. Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion and an oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion, emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure. The droplets dispersed in the matrix are usually assumed to be statistically distributed. The term emulsion is used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographic emulsion consist of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix, nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles. Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a phase, with the boundary between the phases called the interface. Emulsions tend to have an appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally, if the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency and low-wavelength light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the Tyndall effect. If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths and this phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil, two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent. This property is due to the fact that lightwaves are scattered by the only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light. Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused, the required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications, in addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels
23.
Fish
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A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
24.
Esox
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Esox is a genus of freshwater fish, the only living genus in the family Esocidae—the esocids which were endemic to North America and Eurasia during the Paleogene through present. The species of this genus are known as pike and pickerel, the type species is E. lucius, the northern pike. The big pike species are native to the Palearctic and Nearctic ecozones, ranging across northern North America, pikes have the elongated, torpedo-like form of predatory fishes, with sharply pointed heads and sharp teeth. Their coloration is typically grey-green with a mottled or spotted appearance with stripes along their backs, individual pike marking patterns are unique, like fingerprints. Pike can grow to a recorded length of 1.83 m. There currently seven recognized species in genus, Esox aquitanicus Denys, Dettai, Persat. Two additional fossil species from this family are place in their own genera, Estesesox foxi Wilson, Brinkman & Neuman,1992, pliny uses the Latin form Esox in reference to a large fish in the Rhine normally identified with salmonidae. The English common name pike is an apparent shortening of pike-fish, in reference to its pointed head, the plural of pike is pike. A northern English and Lowland Scots name for the pike, ged, the Dutch name for the pike has been given to a wide variety of fish reminding sailors of the pike. The English pike originally referred specifically to the fish, the diminutive form pickerel referring to the young. The walleye is sometimes called a pickerel, but it is unrelated to the pike, Pike are not to be confused with the unrelated pikeminnows of genus Ptychocheilus or pikeperch which is more akin to walleye than to pike. Pike are also called jackfish in North America and informally slough shark in Western Canada, Pike feed on a wide range of food sources, predominantly smaller shoal fish. Pike are also cannibalistic, sometimes preying upon smaller members of their own species and this can be seen clearly in the northern pike. They will also prey on insects and amphibians such as newts or frogs in times when their food is scarce. Small birds such as ducklings may become a target for hungry pike, Pike are also known to prey on swimming snakes. They are, however, undeserving of their reputation for being overly vicious predators, there are few substantiated incidents of pike attacks on people. Effective methods for catching this fish include dead baits, live baits. Pike can easily be damaged when handled since they are not as robust as their reputation would suggest, colour of lure can be influenced by water clarity and weather conditions
25.
Trout
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Trout is the common name for a number of species of freshwater fish belonging to the genera Oncorhynchus, Salmo and Salvelinus, all of the subfamily Salmoninae of the family Salmonidae. The word trout is also used as part of the name of some fish such as Cynoscion nebulosus. Trout are closely related to salmon and char, species termed salmon, a rainbow trout that spends time in the ocean is called a steelhead. Arctic char and brook trout are part of the char family, Trout are an important food source for humans and wildlife including brown bears, birds of prey such as eagles, and other animals. They are classified as oily fish, mostly, these colors and patterns form as camouflage, based on the surroundings, and will change as the fish moves to different habitats. In general trout that are about to breed have extremely intense coloration and they can look like an entirely different fish outside of spawning season. It is virtually impossible to define a color pattern as belonging to a specific breed, however, in general, wild fish are claimed to have more vivid colors. Trout have fins entirely without spines, and all of them have an adipose fin along the back. The pelvic fins sit well back on the body, on side of the anus. The swim bladder is connected to the esophagus, allowing for gulping or rapid expulsion of air, unlike many other physostome fish, trout do not use their bladder as an auxiliary device for oxygen uptake, relying solely on their gills. There are many species, and even more populations, that are isolated from each other, the trout found in the eastern United States are a good example of this. Lake trout, like brook trout, belong to the char genus, Lake trout inhabit many of the larger lakes in North America, and live much longer than rainbow trout, which have an average maximum lifespan of 7 years. Lake trout can live many decades, and can grow to more than 30 kilograms, Trout are usually found in cool, clear streams and lakes, although many of the species have anadromous strains as well. Young trout are referred to as troutlet, troutling or fry and they are distributed naturally throughout North America, northern Asia and Europe. Several species of trout were introduced to Australia and New Zealand by amateur fishing enthusiasts in the 19th century, the introduced species included brown trout from England and rainbow trout from California. The rainbow trout were a strain, generally accepted as coming from Sonoma Creek. The rainbow trout of New Zealand still show the tendency to run up rivers in winter to spawn. In Australia the rainbow trout was introduced in 1894 from New Zealand and is a popular gamefish in recreational angling
26.
Salmon
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Salmon /ˈsæmən/ is the common name for several species of ray-finned fish in the family Salmonidae. Other fish in the family include trout, char, grayling. Salmon are native to tributaries of the North Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, many species of salmon have been introduced into non-native environments such as the Great Lakes of North America and Patagonia in South America. Salmon are intensively farmed in parts of the world. Typically, salmon are anadromous, they are born in water, migrate to the ocean. However, populations of species are restricted to fresh water through their lives. Various species of salmon display anadromous life strategies while others display freshwater resident life strategies, folklore has it that the fish return to the exact spot where they were born to spawn, tracking studies have shown this to be mostly true. A portion of a salmon run may stray and spawn in different freshwater systems. The percent of straying depends on the species of salmon, homing behavior has been shown to depend on olfactory memory. The term salmon comes from the Latin salmo, which in turn may have originated from salire, the nine commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera. The genus Salmo contains the Atlantic salmon, found in the north Atlantic, the genus Oncorhynchus contains eight species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific. As a group, these are known as Pacific salmon, Chinook salmon have been introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia. Coho, freshwater sockeye, and Atlantic salmon have established in Patagonia. † Both the Salmo and Oncorhynchus genera also contain a number of species referred to as trout, within Salmo, additional minor taxa have been called salmon in English, i. e. the Adriatic salmon and Black Sea salmon. The steelhead anadromous form of the rainbow trout migrates to sea, also a number of other species have common names which refer to them as being salmon. The British Columbia salmon fossil provides evidence that the divergence between Pacific and Atlantic salmon had not yet occurred 40 million years ago, Both the fossil record and analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest the divergence occurred by 10 to 20 million years ago. This independent evidence from DNA analysis and the fossil record rejects the theory of salmon divergence. Atlantic salmon reproduce in northern rivers on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, landlocked salmon live in a number of lakes in eastern North America and in Northern Europe, for instance in lakes Sebago, Onega, Ladoga, Saimaa, Vänern, and Winnipesaukee
27.
Seafood
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Seafood is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans. Seafood prominently includes fish and shellfish, shellfish include various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Historically, sea mammals such as whales and dolphins have been consumed as food, edible sea plants, such as some seaweeds and microalgae, are widely eaten as seafood around the world, especially in Asia. In North America, although not generally in the United Kingdom, for the sake of completeness, this article includes all edible aquatic life. The harvesting of seafood is usually known as fishing or hunting. Seafood is often distinguished from meat, although it is still animal and is excluded in a vegetarian diet. Seafood is an important source of protein in many diets around the world, most of the seafood harvest is consumed by humans, but a significant proportion is used as fish food to farm other fish or rear farm animals. Some seafoods are used as food for other plants, in these ways, seafoods are indirectly used to produce further food for human consumption. Products, such as oil and spirulina tablets are also extracted from seafoods. Some seafood is feed to fish, or used to feed domestic pets, such as cats. The harvesting, processing, and consuming of seafoods are ancient practices with archaeological evidence dating back well into the Paleolithic, isotopic analysis of the skeletal remains of Tianyuan man, a 40, 000-year-old modern human from eastern Asia, has shown that he regularly consumed freshwater fish. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The ancient river Nile was full of fish, fresh and dried fish were a food for much of the population. The Egyptians had implements and methods for fishing and these are illustrated in scenes, drawings. Some representations hint at fishing being pursued as a pastime, fishing scenes are rarely represented in ancient Greek culture, a reflection of the low social status of fishing. However, Oppian of Corycus, a Greek author wrote a treatise on sea fishing
28.
Game (hunting)
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Game or quarry is any animal hunted for sport or for food. The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world, in some countries, game is classified, including legal classification with respect to licences required, as either small game or large game. Game or quarry is any animal hunted for sport or for food, the term game arises in medieval hunting terminology by the late 13th century and is particular to English, from the generic meaning of Old English gamen joy, amusement, sport, merriment. Small game includes animals, such as rabbits, pheasants. Large game includes animals like deer and bear, big game is a term sometimes used interchangeably with large game although in other contexts it refers to large, typically African, mammals which are hunted mainly for trophies in safaris. The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world and this is influenced by climate, animal diversity, local taste and locally accepted views about what can or cannot be legitimately hunted. Sometimes a distinction is made between varieties and species of a particular animal, such as wild turkey and domestic turkey. Fish caught for sport are referred to as game fish, the flesh of the animal, when butchered for consumption is often described as having a gamey flavour. This difference in taste can be attributed to the diet of the animal. In some countries, game is classified, including legal classification with respect to licences required, a single small game licence may cover all small game species and be subject to yearly bag limits. Large game are often subject to individual licensing where a licence is required for each individual animal taken. In some parts of Africa, wild animals hunted for their meat are called bushmeat, see article for more detailed information on how this operates within the economy. In Africa, animals hunted for their pelts or ivory are sometimes referred to as the big game, also see the legal definition of game in Swaziland. South Africa has 62 species of gamebirds, including guineafowl, francolin, partridge, quail, sandgrouse, duck, geese, snipe, bustard, of the remaining 41 species,24 have shown an increase in numbers and distribution range in the last 25 years or so. The status of 14 species appears unchanged, with insufficient information being available for the three species. S. and Canada, deer are the most commonly hunted big game. Other game species include, In the PRC there is a special category called ye wei. In the UK game is defined in law by the Game Act 1831 and it is illegal to shoot game on Sundays or at night. Other that are hunted for food in the UK are specified under the Wildlife, the ban is generally considered voluntary on private lands, and few birds live away from RSPB or Forestry Commission land allegedly
29.
Venison
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Venison is the meat of a deer. Venison can be used to refer to any part of the deer, so long as it can be consumed, including the flesh, venison, much like beef, is categorized into specific cuts, including roast, sirloin, and ribs. The word derives from the Latin venari and this term entered English through Norman in the 11th century, following the Norman invasion of England, and the establishment of Royal Forests. Venison originally described meat of any game animal killed by hunting, and was applied to any animal from the families Cervidae, Leporidae, and Suidae, in Southern Africa, the word venison refers to the meat of antelope. There are no native Cervidae in sub-Saharan Africa, venison may be eaten as steaks, tenderloin, roasts, sausages, jerky and minced meat. It has a reminiscent of beef, but is richer. Venison tends to have a texture and is leaner than comparable cuts of beef. However, like beef, leaner cuts can be tougher as well, organ meats of deer are eaten, but would not be called venison. This is supposedly the origins of the phrase humble pie, literally a pie made from the organs of the deer, venison is widely considered by modern nutritionists to be a very healthy meat. Since wild deer are not confined to limited spaces and eat a diet, their meat is natural. Venison is higher in moisture, similar in protein and lower in calories, cholesterol and fat than most cuts of grain-fed beef, pork, when considering the environmental effects that result from raising livestock, deer meat is also a low-impact food. Farmers have had tests developed especially for the species they raise to obtain better results than those used on cattle. Venison jerky can be purchased in grocery stores or ordered online. Some deer breeders have expressed an interest in breeding for an animal that displays more marbling in the meat. Historically, venison was considered to be a symbol among many Europeans. In England, for example, hunting rights were restricted in an effort to preserve property rights, as a result, the possession and sale of venison was tightly regulated under English law. Venison is widely available in European supermarkets through the hunting season. The main cuts available to European consumers are derived from the saddle, in the United States, venison is less common at retail due to the requirement that the animal be first inspected by USDA inspectors
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Wild boar
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The wild boar, also known as the wild swine or Eurasian wild pig, is a suid native to much of Eurasia, North Africa, and the Greater Sunda Islands. Human intervention has spread its range further, making the one of the widest-ranging mammals in the world. Its wide range, high numbers, and adaptability mean that it is classed as least concern by the IUCN, the animal probably originated in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene, and outcompeted other suid species as it spread throughout the Old World. As of 1990, up to 16 subspecies are recognised, which are divided into four regional groupings based on skull height, the species lives in matriarchal societies consisting of interrelated females and their young. Fully grown males are solitary outside the breeding season. The grey wolf is the boars main predator throughout most of its range except in the Far East and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It has a history of association with humans, having been the ancestor of most domestic pig breeds. As true wild boars became extinct in Britain before the development of modern English, the English boar stems from the Old English bar, which is thought to be derived from the West Germanic *bairaz, of unknown origin. Boar is sometimes used specifically to refer to males, and may also be used to refer to male domesticated pigs, the young may be called piglets. The animals specific name scrofa is Latin for sow, the earliest fossil finds of the species come from both Europe and Asia, and date back to the Early Pleistocene. Its closest wild relative is the pig of Malacca and surrounding islands. These subspecies are typically high-skulled, with thick underwool and poorly developed manes, Indian, Includes S. s. davidi and S. s. cristatus. These subspecies have sparse or absent underwool, with long manes and prominent bands on the snout, while S. s. cristatus is high-skulled, S. s. davidi is low-skulled. Eastern, Includes S. s. sibiricus, S. s. ussuricus, S. s. leucomystax, S. s. riukiuanus, S. s. taivanus, and S. s. moupinensis. These subspecies are characterised by a streak extending from the corners of the mouth to the lower jaw. With the exception of S. s. ussuricus, most are high-skulled, the underwool is thick, except in S. s. moupinensis, and the mane is largely absent. It is the most basal of the four groups, having the smallest relative brain size, more primitive dentition, with the exception of domestic pigs in Timor and Papua New Guinea, the wild boar is the ancestor of most pig breeds. Remains of pigs have been dated to earlier than 11,400 BC in Cyprus and those animals must have been introduced from the mainland, which suggests domestication in the adjacent mainland by then
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Rabbit
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Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world. There are eight different genera in the classified as rabbits, including the European rabbit, cottontail rabbits. There are many species of rabbit, and these, along with pikas and hares. The male is called a buck and the female is a doe, Rabbit habitats include meadows, woods, forests, grasslands, deserts and wetlands. Rabbits live in groups, and the best known species, the European rabbit, lives in underground burrows, a group of burrows is called a warren. More than half the worlds rabbit population resides in North America and they are also native to southwestern Europe, Southeast Asia, Sumatra, some islands of Japan, and in parts of Africa and South America. They are not naturally found in most of Eurasia, where a number of species of hares are present, rabbits first entered South America relatively recently, as part of the Great American Interchange. Much of the continent has just one species of rabbit, the tapeti, the European rabbit has been introduced to many places around the world. Male rabbits are called bucks, females are called does, an older term for an adult rabbit is coney, while rabbit once referred only to the young animals. Another term for a rabbit is bunny, though this term is often applied informally to rabbits generally, especially domestic ones. More recently, the kit or kitten has been used to refer to a young rabbit. A young hare is called a leveret, this term is sometimes applied to a young rabbit as well. A group of rabbits is known as a colony, or nest, a group of young rabbits with the same parentage is referred to as a litter, and a group of domestic rabbits is sometimes called a herd. Because the rabbits epiglottis is engaged over the soft palate except when swallowing, rabbits have two sets of incisor teeth, one behind the other. This way they can be distinguished from rodents, with which they are often confused, the rabbits long ears, which can be more than 10 cm long, are probably an adaptation for detecting predators. They have large, powerful hind legs, the two front paws have 5 toes, the extra called the dewclaw. The hind feet have 4 toes and they are plantigrade animals while at rest, however, they move around on their toes while running, assuming a more digitigrade form. Unlike some other paw structures of quadruped mammals, especially those of domesticated pets and their nails are strong and are used for digging, along with their teeth, they are also used for defense
32.
Poultry
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Poultry are domesticated birds kept by humans for the eggs they produce, their meat, or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae, especially the order Galliformes, if there are ducks and or geese that are kept as pets they shall not be considered poultry unlike domesticated chickens. Poultry also includes other birds that are killed for their meat, such as the young of pigeons but does not include wild birds hunted for sport or food. The word poultry comes from the French/Norman word poule, itself derived from the Latin word pullus, the domestication of poultry took place several thousand years ago. This may have originally been as a result of people hatching and rearing young birds from eggs collected from the wild, but later involved keeping the birds permanently in captivity. Domesticated chickens may have used for cockfighting at first and quail kept for their songs. Selective breeding for fast growth, egg-laying ability, conformation, plumage and docility took place over the centuries, although some birds are still kept in small flocks in extensive systems, most birds available in the market today are reared in intensive commercial enterprises. Poultry is the second most widely eaten type of meat globally and, along with eggs, all poultry meat should be properly handled and sufficiently cooked in order to reduce the risk of food poisoning. The word poultry comes from the Middle English pultrie, from Old French pouletrie, from pouletier, poultry dealer, the word pullet itself comes from Middle English pulet, from Old French polet, both from Latin pullus, a young fowl, young animal or chicken. The word fowl is of Germanic origin, poultry can be defined as domestic fowls, including chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks, raised for the production of meat or eggs and the word is also used for the flesh of these birds used as food. The Encyclopædia Britannica lists the bird groups but also includes guinea fowl. In colloquial speech, the term fowl is often used near-synonymously with domesticated chicken, or with poultry or even just bird, both words are also used for the flesh of these birds. Poultry can be distinguished from game, defined as wild birds or mammals hunted for food or sport, chickens are medium-sized, chunky birds with an upright stance and characterised by fleshy red combs and wattles on their heads. Males, known as cocks, are larger, more boldly coloured. Chickens are gregarious, omnivorous, ground-dwelling birds that in their natural surroundings search among the leaf litter for seeds, invertebrates and they seldom fly except as a result of perceived danger, preferring to run into the undergrowth if approached. Todays domestic chicken is descended from the wild red junglefowl of Asia. Domestication is believed to have taken place between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago, and what are thought to be fossilized chicken bones have been found in northeastern China dated to around 5,400 BC. Archaeologists believe domestication was originally for the purpose of cockfighting, the bird being a doughty fighter
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Galliformes
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The name derives from gallus, Latin for cock or rooster. Common names are gamefowl or gamebirds, landfowl, gallinaceous birds, wildfowl or just fowl are also often used for the Galliformes, but usually these terms also refer to waterfowl, and occasionally to other commonly hunted birds. This group has about 290 species, one or more of which are found in every part of the worlds continents. They are rarer on islands, and in contrast to the closely related waterfowl, are absent from oceanic islands—unless introduced there by humans. Several species have been domesticated during their long and extensive relationships with humans and this order contains five families, Phasianidae, Odontophoridae, Numididae, Cracidae, and Megapodiidae. They are important as seed dispersers and predators in the ecosystems they inhabit, many gallinaceous species are skilled runners and escape predators by running rather than flying. Males of most species are more colorful than the females, males often have elaborate courtship behaviors that include strutting, fluffing of tail or head feathers, and vocal sounds. The living Galliformes were once divided into seven or more families, despite their distinctive appearance, grouse and turkeys probably do not warrant separation as families due to their recent origin from partridge- or pheasant-like birds. The turkeys became larger after their ancestors colonized temperate and subtropical North America, the ancestors of grouse, though, adapted to harsh climates and could thereby colonize subarctic regions. Consequently, the Phasianidae are expanded in current taxonomy to include the former Tetraonidae and Meleagrididae as subfamilies, the Anseriformes and the Galliformes together make up the Galloanserae. They are basal among the living birds, and normally follow the Paleognathae in modern bird classification systems. This was first proposed in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy and has been the one major change of that proposed scheme that was almost universally adopted. However, the Galliformes as they were traditionally delimited are called Gallomorphae in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy and this is not a natural group, however, but rather an erroneous result of the now-obsolete phenetic methodology employed in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy. Phenetic studies do not distinguish between plesiomorphic and apomorphic characters, which leads to basal lineages appearing as monophyletic groups, historically, the buttonquails, mesites and the hoatzin were placed in the Galliformes, too. The former are now known to be adapted to an inland lifestyle, whereas the mesites are probably closely related to pigeons. The relationships of the hoatzin are entirely obscure, and it is treated as a monotypic order Opisthocomiformes to signify this. The earliest galliform-like fossils hail from the Late Cretaceous, most notably those of Austinornis lentus and its partial left tarsometatarsus was found in the Austin Chalk near Fort McKinney, Texas, dating to about 85 million years ago. This bird was quite closely related to Galliformes, but whether it was a part of these or belongs elsewhere in the little-known galliform branch of Galloanserae is not clear
34.
Veal
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Veal is the meat of calves, in contrast to the beef from older cattle. Veal can be produced from a calf of either sex and any breed, however, generally, veal is more expensive than beef from older cattle. Some methods or aspects of production are controversial due to animal welfare concerns. There are several types of veal, although some terminology varies by country, types of veal include, Bob veal Calves are slaughtered when only a few weeks old weighing up to 60 lb. Formula-fed veal Calves are raised on a milk formula supplement. The meat colour is ivory or creamy pink, with a firm, fine, the calves are usually slaughtered when they reach 18 to 20 weeks of age, weighing 450 to 500 pounds. Nonformula-fed veal Calves that are raised on grain, hay, or other solid food, the meat is darker in colour, and some additional marbling and fat may be apparent. It is usually marketed as calf, rather than veal, the calves are slaughtered at 22 to 26 weeks of age weighing 650 to 700 pounds. Rose veal Young beef Calves raised on farms in association with the UK Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Freedom Food programme, the name comes from the pink colour, which is partly a result of the calves being slaughtered later at about 35 weeks of age. As of 2013, the majority of veal calves in the US are special-fed, Veal has been an important ingredient in Italian and French cuisine from ancient times. The veal is often in the form of cutlets, such as the Italian cotoletta or the famous Austrian dish Wiener Schnitzel, some classic French veal dishes include fried escalopes, fried veal Grenadines, stuffed paupiettes, roast joints, and blanquettes. Because veal is lower in fat than many meats, care must be taken in preparation to ensure that it not become tough. Veal is often coated in preparation for frying or eaten with a sauce, Veal Parmigiana is a common Italian-American dish made with breaded veal cutlets. In addition to providing meat, the bones of calves are used to make a stock that forms the base for sauces, calf stomachs are also used to produce rennet, which is used in the production of cheese. Calf offal is also regarded as the most prized animal offal. Most valued are the liver, sweetbreads, kidney, and bone marrow, the head, brains, tongue, feet, and mesentery are also valued. Male dairy calves are used for veal production as they do not lactate and are therefore surplus to the requirements of the dairy industry. Newborn veal calves are given only a limited amount of time with their mothers. Free-raised calves are raised alongside their mothers, and always have access to their mothers milk, three different primary types of housing used for veal calves, hutches, stalls, or various types of group housing
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Fatback
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Fatback is a cut of meat from a domestic pig. It consists of the layer of tissue under the skin of the back. Fatback is hard fat, distinct from the fat that occurs in the abdominal cavity and is called soft fat. Like other types of pig fat, fatback may be rendered to make a high quality lard, finely diced or coarsely ground fatback is an important ingredient in sausage making and in some meat dishes. Fatback is an important element of traditional charcuterie, in several European cultures it is used to make specialty bacon. Containing no skeletal muscle, this bacon is a delicacy, at one time fatback was Italys basic cooking fat, especially in regions where olive trees are sparse or absent, but health concerns have reduced its popularity. However, it provides a rich, authentic flavour for the classic battuto – sautéed vegetables, herbs, today, pancetta is often used instead. Fatback is processed into slab bacon by many methods, including brine curing, dry curing, smoking, usually the skin is left on. This fatback bacon is widely eaten throughout Europe, in Italy it is called lardo, and notable examples are Valle dAosta Lard dArnad and Lardo di Colonnata. In Ukraine, Russia, and other countries of the former Soviet Union, in Hungary, where it is called szalonna, it is very popular for campfire cookouts. In Germany, where it is called Rückenspeck, it is one of two known as Speck. Streak o lean is fatback with some still attached. It is still popular in areas, particularly the Southeastern United States where it is typically cooked in the same manner as regular fatback. It has a much higher meat content, as much as 50% by volume and it resembles regular bacon in many respects, including the marbling of meat and fat, although it is typically sold in smaller blocks. Like many cured pork products, it is very high in sodium due to the salt content. In Polish, it is called boczek, since it comes from the side of the pig and has long been a key component of bigos, a common delicacy is strips of heavily salted and fried fatback. Fatback was extremely popular in the South during the Great Depression because it is a piece of meat. In the southwestern United States, fried fatback is known by its Spanish name, fatback is an important ingredient in notable traditional sausages including nduja, cudighi, and cotechino Modena
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Gratin
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Gratin is a widespread culinary technique in which an ingredient is topped with a browned crust, often using breadcrumbs, grated cheese, egg and/or butter. Gratin originated in French cuisine and is prepared in a shallow dish of some kind. A gratin is baked or cooked under a grill or broiler to form a golden crust on top and is traditionally served in its baking dish. A gratin dish refers to the shallow oven-proof container traditionally used to prepare gratins, the etymology of gratin is from the French language words gratter, meaning to scrape or to grate, and gratiné, from the transitive verb form of the word for crust or skin. The technique predates the current name which did not appear in English until 1846, the term le gratin signifies the upper crust of Parisian society, and, as gratin, has since been borrowed into English. Potatoes gratiné is one of the most common of gratins and is known by names including gratin potatoes. Slices of boiled potato are put in a buttered fireproof dish, sprinkled with cheese, in North America, the dish is referred to variously as scalloped potatoes, potatoes au gratin, or au gratin potatoes. In French-speaking Canada, the dish is referred to as patates au gratin, australians and New Zealanders refer to it as scalloped potatoes or potato bake. To make pommes de terre gratinées, or potatoes with cheese, according to the recipe of Marcel Boulestin, large floury potatoes are baked in the oven, then halved, the flesh is then mashed together with butter, cream, grated cheese and seasoning. The mix is then scooped back into the skins, arranged in a dish, sprinkled with grated cheese. This preparation is also called twice-baked potatoes, Gratin Dauphinois is a speciality of the Dauphiné region of France. The dish is made with thinly sliced and layered potatoes and cream. Some recipes call also for cheese and egg to be added, Gratin savoyard is a similar dish found in the neighbouring Savoie region. It consists of alternating layers of sliced potatoes, Beaufort cheese, a common alternative to using potatoes in a gratin is the use of various kinds of pasta, such as penne, rigatoni, fusilli/spirelli, or tagliatelle. Sole au gratin is a raw style of gratin, which often is covered with a mushroom covering. Many fish-based gratins use a white sauce and cheese. Cozze gratinate is a recipe found in Italy. Gratin Languedocien is a made with eggplant and tomato, covered in breadcrumbs and oil
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Hollandaise sauce
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Hollandaise sauce, also referred to as Dutch sauce, is an emulsion of egg yolk, liquid butter, water and lemon juice, whisked together over the low heat of a double boiler. Additional salt, white pepper and/or cayenne pepper is used for seasoning, Hollandaise is one of the five sauces in the French haute cuisine mother sauce repertoire. These types of sauces are considered mayonnaise sauces as they are, like mayonnaise and it is so named because it was believed to have mimicked a Dutch sauce for the King of the Netherlands state visit to France. Hollandaise sauce is known as a key ingredient of Eggs Benedict. Sauce Hollandaise translates from French as Dutch sauce, the recipe for Dutch sauce would appear to be a classic Hollandaise however, there seems to be little explanation as to why it was renamed. Huguenots, returning from Holland, are said to have brought the recipe back to France that they had developed abroad, the first documented mention of a recipe is from 1651 in François Pierre La Varennes Le Cuisinier François for asparagus with fragrant sauce. Francois is attributed with bringing out of the Middle ages with his publication. The French developed Isigny sauce, named after the Norman town of Isigny-sur-Mer which produces the finest French butter and is very similer. While the Norman butter helped the sauce reach a status, it actually dates back to when the Dutch sold butter. By the 19th century, sauces had been classified into four distinct selections by Chef Marie-Antoine Carême, one of Carêmes family of sauces was allemande which was a stock based sauce using egg and lemon juice. Auguste Escoffier updated that list in the early 20th century by replacing allemande with Hollandaise sauce as part of his family of five mother sauces of Haute cuisine, egg emulsion sauces include mayonnaise, Hollandaise and Béarnaise. For hollandaise sauce, egg yolks and water, lemon juice or vinegar are emulsified, unlike custard, the egg does not coagulate. An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible, droplets of the butter become suspended in the water and lemon juice once emulsion occurs. While emulsions can be stable or unstable, hollandaise is made stable by the addition of eggs which contain lecithin, combining with the oil and water. To make hollandaise sauce, the yolks are separated and added to a butter base with small amounts of water, vinegar or lemon juice with pepper. A stainless steel bowl over a pan with a small amount of water may also be used. The water should not touch the bowl or boil, just simmer, the key to the recipe is to heat the ingredients without curdling the egg. Add the egg and liquid ingredients first and whisk together with a wire whisk until frothy, add the egg and liquid froth to the to the double boiler of the simmering water and whisk quickly and continuously
38.
Sausage making
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The origins of meat preservation are lost to the ages but probably began when humans began to realize the preservative value of salt. Sausage making originally developed as a means to preserve and transport meat, primitive societies learned that dried berries and spices could be added to dried meat. By 600-500 BC there is mention of sausages from China, Rome, the procedure of stuffing meat into casings remains basically the same today, but sausage recipes have been greatly refined and sausage making has become a highly respected culinary art. Sausages come in two types, fresh and cured. Cured sausages may be cooked or dried. Most cured sausages are smoked, but this is not mandatory, the curing process itself changes the meat and imparts its own flavors. An example is the difference in taste between a pork roast and a ham, the reason is the threat of botulism. Thus, for safety reasons, sausages are cured before smoking, fresh sausages are simply seasoned ground meats that are cooked before serving. Fresh sausages normally do not use cure although cure can be used if desired, in addition fresh sausages typically do not use smoke flavors, although liquid smoke can be used. Fresh sausages are never smoked in a cold smoker because of the danger of botulism, the primary seasoning agents in fresh sausages are salt and sugar along with various savory herbs and spices, and often vegetables, including onion and garlic. A British fresh sausage typically contains around 10% butchers rusk, 10% water,2. 5% seasoning, at the point of sale, British sausages will often be labelled as actual meat content X%. As meat can be fatty or lean, the X% is calculated using reference tables with the intention to give a representation of the visual lean meat content. Cured sausages differ from fresh sausages by including 2 teaspoons of cure per 10 pounds of finished product and this is usually interpreted per 10 pounds of meat. This works out to 4 ounces of cure for 100 pounds of sausage, next the product is typically hot smoked. However, similar effects can be achieved by incorporating liquid smoke in the recipe, smoking temperatures vary and are typically less than 155 °F. At a temperature of 152 °F these sausages are fully cooked, in some cases cold smoke is used. If so, then the sausage may be cooked in a water bath held at the proper temperature. An example of this process is the preparation of Braunschweiger, in this style of sausage, after stuffing into 70 mm to 76 mm hog buns or fiberous casings, the sausage is submerged in 70 °C water for 2 to 2½ hours until the internal temperature reaches 67 °C
39.
Foie gras
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Foie gras is a luxury food product made of the liver of a duck or goose that has been specially fattened. By French law, foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by force-feeding corn with a feeding tube, in Spain and other countries outside France it is occasionally produced using natural feeding. Ducks are force-fed twice a day for 12.5 days, Ducks are typically slaughtered at 100 days and geese at 112 days. Foie gras is a popular and well-known delicacy in French cuisine and its flavor is described as rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of an ordinary duck or goose liver. Foie gras is sold whole, or is prepared into mousse, parfait, or pâté, French law states that Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France. The technique of gavage dates as far back as 2500 BC, today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China. A number of countries and jurisdictions have laws against force-feeding, and the production, import or sale of foie gras, even where it is legal, as early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined. In the necropolis of Saqqara, in the tomb of Mereruka, at the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moistening the feed before giving it to the geese. The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean, the earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet Cratinus, who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the Spartan king Agesilaus visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers fattened geese, the emperor Elagabalus fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his reign. After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine, some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasants food animals were mainly pig and sheep. Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a gooses liver during the Roman colonisation of Judea or earlier from Egyptians, the Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe. The Judaic dietary law, Kashrut, forbade lard as a cooking medium, the delicate taste of the gooses liver was soon appreciated, Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof of Kassel wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some Rabbis were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions, the chasam sofer, Rabbi Moses Sofer, contended that it is not a forbidden food as none of its limbs are damaged. This matter remained a topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century. Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that, however, as liver is regarded as wholly blood, properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practiced
40.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
41.
Gelatin
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Gelatin or gelatine is a translucent, colorless, brittle, flavorless food derived from collagen obtained from various animal body parts. It is commonly used as an agent in food, pharmaceutical drugs, vitamin capsules, photography. Substances containing gelatin or functioning in a way are called gelatinous. It is found in most gummy candy, as well as other such as marshmallows, gelatin desserts, and some ice creams, dips. Gelatin for recipe use comes in the form of sheets, granules, instant types can be added to the food as they are, others need to be soaked in water beforehand. During hydrolysis, the molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a form that rearranges more easily. Its chemical composition is, in respects, closely similar to that of its parent collagen. Photographic and pharmaceutical grades of gelatin generally are sourced from beef bones, Gelatin readily dissolves in hot water and sets to a gel on cooling. When added directly to water, it does not dissolve well. Gelatin also is soluble in most polar solvents, Gelatin solutions show viscoelastic flow and streaming birefringence. Solubility is determined by the method of manufacture, typically, gelatin can be dispersed in a relatively concentrated acid. Such dispersions are stable for 10–15 days with little or no changes and are suitable for coating purposes or for extrusion into a precipitating bath. The mechanical properties of gelatin gels are very sensitive to variations, the previous thermal history of the gels. The upper melting point is below human body temperature, a factor that is important for mouthfeel of foods produced with gelatin, the viscosity of the gelatin-water mixture is greatest when the gelatin concentration is high and the mixture is kept cool at about 4 °C. The gel strength is quantified using the Bloom test, the worldwide production amount of gelatin is about 375, 000–400,000 tonnes per year. On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from by-products of the meat, recently, fish by-products also have been considered suitable because they eliminate some of the religious obstacles surrounding gelatin consumption. Gelatin is derived from pork skins, pork, and cattle bones, the raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and alkali processes that are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate. These processes may take weeks, and differences in such processes have great effects on the properties of the final gelatin products
42.
Cheesecloth
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Cheesecloth is a loose-woven gauze-like cotton cloth used primarily in cheese making and cooking. Cheesecloth is available in at least seven different grades, from open to extra-fine weave, grades are distinguished by the number of threads per inch in each direction. The primary use of cheesecloth is in some styles of cheesemaking, where it is used to remove whey from cheese curds, cheesecloth is also used in straining stocks and custards, bundling herbs, making tofu and ghee, and thickening yogurt. Queso blanco and queso fresco are Spanish and Mexican cheeses that are made from whole milk using cheesecloth, quark is a type of German unsalted cheese that is sometimes formed with cheesecloth. Paneer is a kind of Indian fresh cheese that is made with cheesecloth. Fruitcake is wrapped in rum-infused cheesecloth during the process of feeding the fruitcake as it ripens, cheesecloth can also be used for several printmaking processes including lithography for wiping up gum arabic. In intaglio a heavily starched cheesecloth called tarlatan is used for wiping away excess ink from the printing surface, cheesecloth #60 is used in product safety and regulatory testing for potential fire hazards. Cheesecloth is wrapped tightly over the device under test, which is subjected to simulated conditions such as lightning surges conducted through power or telecom cables, power faults. The device may be destroyed but must not ignite the cheesecloth and this is to ensure that the device can fail safely, and not start electrical fires in the vicinity. Cheesecloth made to United States Federal Standard CCC-C-440 is used to test the durability of optical coatings per United States Military Standard MIL-C-48497, the optical surface is examined for streaks or scratches, and then its optical performance is measured to ensure that no deterioration occurred. Cheesecloth is used in India and Pakistan for making summer shirts, cheesecloth material shirts were popular for beachwear during the 1960s and 1970s in the United States. Cheesecloth has been used to create the illusion of ectoplasm during spirit channelings or other ghost related phenomena
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Roulade
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A roulade is a dish of filled rolled meat or pastry. Traditionally found in various European cuisines, the term originates from the French word rouler. However, the term may be used in its generic sense to describe any filled rolled dish, a meat-based roulade typically consists of a slice of steak rolled around a filling such as cheese, vegetables, or other meats. A roulade, like a dish, is often browned then covered with wine or stock. Such a roulade is commonly secured with a toothpick, metal skewer or a piece of string, the roulade is then sliced into rounds and served. Also Kohlrouladen, cabbage filled with minced meat, Španělské ptáčky are roulade in Czech cuisine. The recipe is identical with German Rouladen, perhaps omitting wine. Unlike the large roulade, sliced before serving, the birds are typically 10 cm long, szüz tekercsek, in Hungary a dish filled with minced meat. Zrazy, in Poland Some roulades consist of cake baked in a flat pan rolled around a filling, cake rolled around jam, chocolate buttercream, nuts or other fillings, is an example of a sweet roulade like the bejgli or the Swiss roll. The bûche de Noël or Yule log is a traditional French Christmas cake roll, another form of non-meat roulade consists of a soufflé-type mixture baked in a flat pan rolled around a filling
44.
Curing (food preservation)
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Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, or cooking. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing, because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the way of preserving meat. Nitrates and nitrites, in conjunction with salt, are one of the most common agents in curing meat because they inhibit the growth of Clostridium botulinum. They also contribute to the pink color. For lesser-developed countries, curing remains a key process in ensuring the viability of meat production, transport, untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling, if kept in excess of this time, meat begins to change colour and exude a foul odour, indicating the decomposition of the food. Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisonings, like botulism, in such circumstances the usefulness of preserving foods containing nutritional value for transport and storage is obvious. Curing is able to extend the life of meat before it spoils. A survival technique since prehistory, the conservation of meat has become, over the centuries, a topic of political, economic, Food curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-cured meat. Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world, diodore of Sicily in his Bibliotheca historica wrote that the Cosséens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat, the ancient Greeks prepared tarichos, which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish salsamentum – which term later included salted fat, also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a technique involving œnogaros. A trade in salt meat occurred across ancient Europe, in Polybiuss time, the Gauls exported salt pork each year to Rome in large quantities, where it was sold in different cuts, rear cuts, middle cuts, hams, and sausages. This meat, after having been salted with the greatest care, was sometime smoked and these goods had to have been considerably important, since they fed part of the Roman people and the armies. The Belgians were celebrated above all for the care which they gave to the fattening of their pigs and their herds of sheep and pigs were so many, they could provide skins and salt meat not only for Rome, but also for most of Italy. The Ceretani of Spain drew a large income from their hams
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Osmosis
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It may also be used to describe a physical process in which any solvent moves across a semipermeable membrane separating two solutions of different concentrations. Osmosis can be made to do work, osmotic pressure is defined as the external pressure required to be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure is a property, meaning that the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute. Osmosis is a process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size, water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, tonoplast membrane or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer via aquaporins. Osmosis provides the means by which water is transported into. The turgor pressure of a cell is maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment. Jean-Antoine Nollet first documented observation of osmosis in 1748, the word osmosis descends from the words endosmose and exosmose, which were coined by French physician René Joachim Henri Dutrochet from the Greek words ἔνδον, ἔξω, and ὠσμός. Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a membrane toward a higher concentration of solute. In biological systems, the solvent is water, but osmosis can occur in other liquids, supercritical liquids. When a cell is submerged in water, the water pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules out of the cell. If a cell is submerged in freshwater, water molecules move into the cell, when the membrane has a volume of pure water on both sides, water molecules pass in and out in each direction at exactly the same rate. There is no net flow of water through the membrane, the mechanism responsible for driving osmosis has commonly been represented in biology and chemistry texts as either the dilution of water by solute or by a solutes attraction to water. Both of these notions have been conclusively refuted, the diffusion model of osmosis is rendered untenable by the fact that osmosis can drive water across a membrane toward a higher concentration of water. The bound water model is refuted by the fact that osmosis is independent of the size of the solute molecules—a colligative property—or how hydrophilic they are, one fact to take note of is that heat from the surroundings is able to be converted into mechanical energy. Osmotic pressure is the cause of support in many plants. The osmotic entry of water raises the pressure exerted against the cell wall, until it equals the osmotic pressure
. PMID 16865769.
