1.
Ultraviolet
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Ultraviolet is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation constitutes about 10% of the light output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as lamps, tanning lamps. Consequently, the effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects. Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure, along with risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earths atmosphere. More-energetic, shorter-wavelength extreme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground, Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum thus has both beneficial and harmful to human health. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans, the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher, and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm, near-UV radiation is visible to some insects, mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays, this gives birds true UV vision, reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears, who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow. UV also allows mammals to see urine trails, which is helpful for animals to find food in the wild. The males and females of some species look identical to the human eye. Ultraviolet means beyond violet, violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light, Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light. He called them oxidizing rays to emphasize chemical reactivity and to them from heat rays. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, in 1878 the effect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm, in 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established. The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it is absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann
2.
Electric charge
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Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of charges, positive and negative. Like charges repel and unlike attract, an absence of net charge is referred to as neutral. An object is charged if it has an excess of electrons. The SI derived unit of charge is the coulomb. In electrical engineering, it is common to use the ampere-hour. The symbol Q often denotes charge, early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that dont require consideration of quantum effects. The electric charge is a conserved property of some subatomic particles. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields, the interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces. 602×10−19 coulombs. The proton has a charge of +e, and the electron has a charge of −e, the study of charged particles, and how their interactions are mediated by photons, is called quantum electrodynamics. Charge is the property of forms of matter that exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter. Electric charge is a property of many subatomic particles. The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the charge e. Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge, robert Millikans oil drop experiment demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. By convention, the charge of an electron is −1, while that of a proton is +1, charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, quarks have fractional charges of either −1/3 or +2/3, but free-standing quarks have never been observed. The electric charge of an object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that make it up. An ion is an atom that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net charge, or that has gained one or more electrons
3.
Image sensor
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An image sensor or imaging sensor is a sensor that detects and conveys the information that constitutes an image. It does so by converting the variable attenuation of light waves into signals, the waves can be light or other electromagnetic radiation. As technology changes, digital imaging tends to replace analog imaging, early analog sensors for visible light were video camera tubes. Currently, used types are semiconductor charge-coupled devices or active pixel sensors in complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor or N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor technologies, analog sensors for invisible radiation tend to involve vacuum tubes of various kinds. Digital sensors include flat panel detectors, today, most digital cameras use a CMOS sensor, because CMOS sensors perform better than CCDs. An example is the fact that they incorporate an integrated circuit, CCD is still in use for cheap low entry cameras, but weak in burst mode. Both types of sensor accomplish the task of capturing light. Each cell of a CCD image sensor is an analog device, when light strikes the chip it is held as a small electrical charge in each photo sensor. This process is repeated until all the lines of pixels have had their charge amplified. A CMOS image sensor has an amplifier for each compared to the few amplifiers of a CCD. Some CMOS imaging sensors also use Back-side illumination to increase the number of photons that hit the photodiode, CMOS sensors can potentially be implemented with fewer components, use less power, and/or provide faster readout than CCD sensors. They are also vulnerable to static electricity discharges. Another approach is to utilize the very fine dimensions available in modern CMOS technology to implement a CCD like structure entirely in CMOS technology and this can be achieved by separating individual poly-silicon gates by a very small gap. These hybrid sensors are still in the phase and can potentially harness the benefits of both CCD and CMOS imagers. There are many parameters that can be used to evaluate the performance of a sensor, including dynamic range, signal-to-noise ratio. For sensors of comparable types, the ratio and dynamic range improve as the size increases. In order to avoid interpolated color information, techniques like color co-site sampling use a mechanism to shift the color sensor in pixel steps. 3CCD, using three discrete image sensors, with the color separation done by a dichroic prism, while in general digital cameras use a flat sensor, Sony prototyped a curved sensor in 2014 to reduce/eliminate Petzval field curvature that occurs with a flat sensor
4.
Pixel
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The address of a pixel corresponds to its physical coordinates. LCD pixels are manufactured in a grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an image, more samples typically provide more accurate representations of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable, in color imaging systems, a color is typically represented by three or four component intensities such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. The word pixel is based on a contraction of pix and el, the word pixel was first published in 1965 by Frederic C. Billingsley of JPL, to describe the elements of video images from space probes to the Moon. Billingsley had learned the word from Keith E. McFarland, at the Link Division of General Precision in Palo Alto, McFarland said simply it was in use at the time. The word is a combination of pix, for picture, the word pix appeared in Variety magazine headlines in 1932, as an abbreviation for the word pictures, in reference to movies. By 1938, pix was being used in reference to pictures by photojournalists. The concept of a picture element dates to the earliest days of television, some authors explain pixel as picture cell, as early as 1972. In graphics and in image and video processing, pel is often used instead of pixel, for example, IBM used it in their Technical Reference for the original PC. A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single component of a digital image, however, the definition is highly context-sensitive. For example, there can be printed pixels in a page, or pixels carried by electronic signals, or represented by digital values, or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital camera. This list is not exhaustive and, depending on context, synonyms include pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, Pixels can be used as a unit of measure such as,2400 pixels per inch,640 pixels per line, or spaced 10 pixels apart. For example, a high-quality photographic image may be printed with 600 ppi on a 1200 dpi inkjet printer, even higher dpi numbers, such as the 4800 dpi quoted by printer manufacturers since 2002, do not mean much in terms of achievable resolution. The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the result can resemble the original, the number of pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition.3 megapixels. The pixels, or color samples, that form an image may or may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen pixels. In computing, a composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image
5.
MOSFET
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The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor is a type of field-effect transistor. It has a gate, whose voltage determines the conductivity of the device. This ability to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals, although FET is sometimes used when referring to MOSFET devices, other types of field-effect transistors also exist. Because these two terminals are connected to each other internally, only three terminals appear in electrical diagrams. The basic principle of the transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. The main advantage of a MOSFET over a regular transistor is that it very little current to turn on. In enhancement mode MOSFETs, a voltage drop across the oxide induces a conducting channel between the source and drain contacts via the field effect. The term enhancement mode refers to the increase of conductivity with increase in oxide field that adds carriers to the channel, also referred to as the inversion layer. The channel can contain electrons, or holes, opposite in type to the substrate, so nMOS is made with a p-type substrate, the metal in the name MOSFET is now often a misnomer because the previously metal gate material is now often a layer of polysilicon. Aluminium had been the material until the mid-1970s, when polysilicon became dominant. Metallic gates are regaining popularity, since it is difficult to increase the speed of operation of transistors without metal gates, likewise, the oxide in the name can be a misnomer, as different dielectric materials are used with the aim of obtaining strong channels with smaller applied voltages. An insulated-gate field-effect transistor or IGFET is a term almost synonymous with MOSFET. The term may be inclusive, since many MOSFETs use a gate that is not metal. Another synonym is MISFET for metal–insulator–semiconductor FET, the MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common. The basic principle of this kind of transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. Twenty five years later, when Bell Telephone attempted to patent the junction transistor, they found Lilienfeld already holding a patent, Bell Labs was able to work out an agreement with Lilienfeld, who was still alive at that time. It was at time the Bell Labs version was given the name bipolar junction transistor, or simply junction transistor. In 1959, Dawon Kahng and Martin M. Atalla at Bell Labs invented the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor as an offshoot to the patented FET design and it used crystalline silicon for the semiconductor and a thermally oxidized layer of silicon dioxide for the insulator
6.
Photon
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A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. The photon has zero rest mass and is moving at the speed of light. Like all elementary particles, photons are currently best explained by quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality, exhibiting properties of both waves and particles. For example, a photon may be refracted by a lens and exhibit wave interference with itself. The quanta in a light wave cannot be spatially localized, some defined physical parameters of a photon are listed. The modern concept of the photon was developed gradually by Albert Einstein in the early 20th century to explain experimental observations that did not fit the classical model of light. The benefit of the model was that it accounted for the frequency dependence of lights energy. The photon model accounted for observations, including the properties of black-body radiation. In that model, light was described by Maxwells equations, in 1926 the optical physicist Frithiof Wolfers and the chemist Gilbert N. Lewis coined the name photon for these particles. After Arthur H. Compton won the Nobel Prize in 1927 for his studies, most scientists accepted that light quanta have an independent existence. In the Standard Model of particle physics, photons and other particles are described as a necessary consequence of physical laws having a certain symmetry at every point in spacetime. The intrinsic properties of particles, such as charge, mass and it has been applied to photochemistry, high-resolution microscopy, and measurements of molecular distances. Recently, photons have been studied as elements of quantum computers, in 1900, the German physicist Max Planck was studying black-body radiation and suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in packets of energy. In his 1901 article in Annalen der Physik he called these packets energy elements, the word quanta was used before 1900 to mean particles or amounts of different quantities, including electricity. In 1905, Albert Einstein suggested that waves could only exist as discrete wave-packets. He called such a wave-packet the light quantum, the name photon derives from the Greek word for light, φῶς. Arthur Compton used photon in 1928, referring to Gilbert N. Lewis, the name was suggested initially as a unit related to the illumination of the eye and the resulting sensation of light and was used later in a physiological context. Although Wolferss and Lewiss theories were contradicted by many experiments and never accepted, in physics, a photon is usually denoted by the symbol γ
7.
Digital camera
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A digital camera or digicam is a camera that produces digital images that can be stored in a computer, displayed on a screen and printed. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs, Digital and movie cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film, however, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound, some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing. The history of the camera began with Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. His 1961 idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts position, unfortunately, as with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcocks filmless camera in 1972, the technology had yet to catch up with the concept. Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and built the first electronic camera using a charge-coupled device image sensor in 1975, earlier ones used a camera tube, later ones digitized the signal. Early uses were military and scientific, followed by medical. In the mid to late 1990s digital cameras became common among consumers, by the mid-2000s digital cameras had largely replaced film cameras, and higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera. By the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had a digital camera. The two major types of image sensor are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier, compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a back-side-illuminated CMOS sensor, overall final image quality is more dependent on the image processing capability of the camera, than on sensor type. The resolution of a camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into that discrete signals. The brighter the image at a point on the sensor. Depending on the structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used. The number of pixels in the sensor determines the cameras pixel count, in a typical sensor, the pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example, a 1,000 by 1,000 pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, final quality of an image depends on all optical transformations in the chain of producing the image
8.
Active pixel sensor
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An active-pixel sensor is an image sensor consisting of an integrated circuit containing an array of pixel sensors, each pixel containing a photodetector and an active amplifier. Such an image sensor is produced using CMOS technology, and has emerged as an alternative to charge-coupled device image sensors. The term active pixel sensor was coined in 1985 by Tsutomu Nakamura who worked on the Charge Modulation Device active pixel sensor at Olympus, the MOS passive-pixel sensor used just a simple switch in the pixel to read out the photodiode integrated charge. Pixels were arrayed in a structure, with an access enable wire shared by pixels in the same row. At the end of each column was an amplifier, passive-pixel sensors suffered from many limitations, such as high noise, slow readout, and lack of scalability. The addition of an amplifier to each pixel addressed these problems, Noble in 1968 and Chamberlain in 1969 created sensor arrays with active MOS readout amplifiers per pixel, in essentially the modern three-transistor configuration. The CCD was invented in October 1969 at Bell Labs, a low-resolution mostly digital N-channel MOSFET imager with intra-pixel amplification, for an optical mouse application, was demonstrated in 1981. Another type of active pixel sensor is the infrared focal plane array designed to operate at cryogenic temperatures in the infrared spectrum. The exact date of origin of these devices is classified, by the late 1980s and early 1990s, the CMOS process was well established as a well controlled stable process and was the baseline process for almost all logic and microprocessors. Between 1993 and 1995, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory developed a number of prototype devices, though primitive, these devices demonstrated good image performance with high readout speed and low power consumption. In 1995, personnel from JPL founded Photobit Corp, many other small image sensor companies also sprang to life shortly thereafter due to the accessibility of the CMOS process and all quickly adopted the active pixel sensor approach. Most recent, the CMOS sensor technology has spread to medium-format photography with Phase One being the first to launch a medium format digital back with a Sony-built CMOS sensor, APS pixels solve the speed and scalability issues of the passive-pixel sensor. They generally consume less power than CCDs, have less image lag, unlike CCDs, APS sensors can combine the image sensor function and image processing functions within the same integrated circuit. APS sensors have found markets in many applications, especially camera phones. They have also used in other fields including digital radiography, military ultra high speed image acquisition, security cameras. Manufacturers include Aptina Imaging, Canon, Samsung, STMicroelectronics, Toshiba, OmniVision Technologies, Sony, cMOS-type APS sensors are typically suited to applications in which packaging, power management, and on-chip processing are important. CMOS type sensors are used, from high-end digital photography down to mobile-phone cameras. A big advantage of a CMOS sensor is that it is less expensive than a CCD sensor
9.
CMOS
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Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor, abbreviated as CMOS /ˈsiːmɒs/, is a technology for constructing integrated circuits. CMOS technology is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such as image sensors, data converters, and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication. In 1963, while working for Fairchild Semiconductor, Frank Wanlass patented CMOS, CMOS is also sometimes referred to as complementary-symmetry metal–oxide–semiconductor. Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high noise immunity and low power consumption. Since one transistor of the pair is always off, the series combination draws significant power only momentarily during switching between on and off states, CMOS also allows a high density of logic functions on a chip. It was primarily for this reason that CMOS became the most used technology to be implemented in VLSI chips, aluminium was once used but now the material is polysilicon. Other metal gates have made a comeback with the advent of high-k dielectric materials in the CMOS process, as announced by IBM and Intel for the 45 nanometer node and beyond. CMOS refers to both a style of digital circuitry design and the family of processes used to implement that circuitry on integrated circuits. CMOS circuitry dissipates less power than logic families with resistive loads, since this advantage has increased and grown more important, CMOS processes and variants have come to dominate, thus the vast majority of modern integrated circuit manufacturing is on CMOS processes. As of 2010, CPUs with the best performance per watt each year have been CMOS static logic since 1976, CMOS circuits use a combination of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor to implement logic gates and other digital circuits. CMOS always uses all enhancement-mode MOSFETs, CMOS circuits are constructed in such a way that all PMOS transistors must have either an input from the voltage source or from another PMOS transistor. Similarly, all NMOS transistors must have either an input from ground or from another NMOS transistor, the composition of a PMOS transistor creates low resistance between its source and drain contacts when a low gate voltage is applied and high resistance when a high gate voltage is applied. On the other hand, the composition of an NMOS transistor creates high resistance between source and drain when a low voltage is applied and low resistance when a high gate voltage is applied. CMOS accomplishes current reduction by complementing every nMOSFET with a pMOSFET, a high voltage on the gates will cause the nMOSFET to conduct and the pMOSFET to not conduct, while a low voltage on the gates causes the reverse. This arrangement greatly reduces power consumption and heat generation, however, during the switching time, both MOSFETs conduct briefly as the gate voltage goes from one state to another. This induces a brief spike in consumption and becomes a serious issue at high frequencies. The image on the right shows what happens when an input is connected to both a PMOS transistor and an NMOS transistor, when the voltage of input A is low, the NMOS transistors channel is in a high resistance state. This limits the current that can flow from Q to ground, the PMOS transistors channel is in a low resistance state and much more current can flow from the supply to the output
10.
AT&T Corporation
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Founded in 1885 as the original American Telephone and Telegraph Company, it was at times the worlds largest telephone company, the worlds largest cable television operator, and a regulated monopoly. At its peak in the 1950s and 1960s, it employed one million people, in 2005, AT&T was purchased by Baby Bell and former subsidiary SBC Communications for more than $16 billion. SBC then changed its name to AT&T Inc, AT&T started with Bell Patent Association, a legal entity established in 1874 to protect the patent rights of Alexander Graham Bell after he invented the telephone system. Originally a verbal agreement, it was formalized in writing in 1875 as Bell Telephone Company, in 1880 the management of American Bell had created what would become AT&T Long Lines. The project was the first of its kind to create a nationwide long-distance network with a commercially viable cost-structure, the project was formally incorporated in New York State as a separate company named American Telephone and Telegraph Company on March 3,1885. With this assets transfer, AT&T became the parent of both American Bell and the Bell System. AT&T was involved mainly in the business and, although it was a partner with RCA, was reluctant to see radio grow because such growth might diminish the demand for wired services. It established station WEAF in New York as what was termed a toll station, AT&T could provide no programming, but anyone who wished to broadcast a message could pay a toll to AT&T and then air the message publicly. The original studio was the size of a telephone booth, the idea, however, did not take hold, because people would pay to broadcast messages only if they were sure that someone was listening. As a result, WEAF began broadcasting entertainment material, drawing amateur talent found among its employees, throughout most of the 20th century, AT&T held a monopoly on phone service in the United States and Canada through a network of companies called the Bell System. At this time, the company was nicknamed Ma Bell, on April 30,1907, Theodore Newton Vail became President of AT&T. Vail believed in the superiority of one system and AT&T adopted the slogan One Policy, One System. This would be the philosophy for the next 70 years. Under Vail, AT&T began buying up many of the telephone companies including Western Union telegraph. Anxious to avoid action from government antitrust suits, AT&T and the government entered into an agreement known as the Kingsbury Commitment. These actions brought unwanted attention from antitrust regulators, in the Kingsbury Commitment, AT&T and the government reached an agreement that allowed AT&T to continue operating as a monopoly. While AT&T periodically faced scrutiny from regulators, this state of affairs continued until the breakup in 1984. The United States Justice Department opened the case United States v. AT&T in 1974 and this was prompted by suspicion that AT&T was using monopoly profits from its Western Electric subsidiary to subsidize the cost of its network, a violation of anti-trust law
11.
Bell Labs
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Nokia Bell Labs is an American research and scientific development company, owned by Finnish company Nokia. Its headquarters are located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, in addition to laboratories around the rest of the United States. The historic laboratory originated in the late 19th century as the Volta Laboratory, Bell Labs was also at one time a division of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary. Eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories, in 1880, the French government awarded Alexander Graham Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs, approximately US$10,000 at that time for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the award to fund the Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C. in collaboration with Sumner Tainter, the laboratory is also variously known as the Volta Bureau, the Bell Carriage House, the Bell Laboratory and the Volta Laboratory. The laboratory focused on the analysis, recording, and transmission of sound, Bell used his considerable profits from the laboratory for further research and education to permit the diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf. This resulted in the founding of the Volta Bureau c,1887, located at Bells fathers house at 1527 35th Street in Washington, D. C. where its carriage house became their headquarters in 1889. In 1893, Bell constructed a new building, close by at 1537 35th St. specifically to house the lab, the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. In 1884, the American Bell Telephone Company created the Mechanical Department from the Electrical, the first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940, ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to plan, design, and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies and this included everything from telephones, telephone exchange switches, and transmission equipment. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Company, a few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City. Of these, Murray Hill and Crawford Hill remain in existence, the largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees prior to 2001. Since 2001, many of the locations have been scaled down or closed. The Holmdel site, a 1.9 million square foot structure set on 473 acres, was closed in 2007, the mirrored-glass building was designed by Eero Saarinen. In August 2013, Somerset Development bought the building, intending to redevelop it into a commercial and residential project. The prospects of success are clouded by the difficulty of readapting Saarinens design and by the current glut of aging, eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories
12.
Willard Boyle
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Willard Sterling Boyle, CC was a Canadian physicist, pioneer in the field of laser technology and co-inventor of the charge-coupled device. Born in Amherst, Nova Scotia, on August 19,1924, Boyle was the son of a medical doctor and he was home schooled by his mother until age fourteen, when he attended Montreals Lower Canada College to complete his secondary education. Boyle attended McGill University, but his education was interrupted in 1943 and he was loaned to the Royal Navy, where he was learning how to land Spitfires on aircraft carriers as the war ended. He gained a BSc, MSc and PhD from McGill University, after receiving his doctorate, Boyle spent one year at Canadas Radiation Lab and two years teaching physics at the Royal Military College of Canada. In 1953 Boyle joined Bell Labs where he invented the first continuously operating ruby laser with Don Nelson in 1962, and was named on the first patent for a semiconductor injection laser. He was made director of Space Science and Exploratory Studies at the Bell Labs subsidiary Bellcomm in 1962, providing support for the Apollo space program and he returned to Bell Labs in 1964, working on the development of integrated circuits. However, Eugene Gordon and Mike Tompsett, two now-retired colleagues from Bell labs, claim that its application to photography was not invented by Boyle, the CCD allowed NASA to send clear pictures to Earth back from space. It is also the technology that powers many digital cameras today, smith said of their invention, After making the first couple of imaging devices, we knew for certain that chemistry photography was dead. Boyle was Executive Director of Research for Bell Labs from 1975 until his retirement in 1979, in retirement, he split his time between Halifax and Wallace, Nova Scotia. In Wallace, he helped launch an art gallery with his wife Betty and he was married to Betty since 1947, and had four children,10 grandchildren and one great-grandchild. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of Canada — the awards highest level — on June 30,2010. In his later years, Boyle suffered from disease, and due to complications from this disease
13.
George E. Smith
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George Elwood Smith is an American scientist, applied physicist, and co-inventor of the charge-coupled device. In 2017, Smith was announced as one of four winners of the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering, Smith was born in White Plains, New York. Smith served in the US Navy, attained his BSc at the University of Pennsylvania in 1955 and he worked at Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey from 1959 to his retirement in 1986, where he led research into novel lasers and semiconductor devices. During his tenure, Smith was awarded dozens of patents and eventually headed the VLSI device department, both Boyle and Smith were avid sailors who took many trips together. After retirement Smith sailed around the world with his partner, Janet, for seventeen years. He currently resides in the Waretown section of Ocean Township, Ocean County, in 2015, Smith was awarded the Progress Medal and Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society. Invention Hall of Fame Biography Amateur Radio licensee Interview in Czech TV December 2013
14.
Semiconductor
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Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with distinct electrical characteristics. They are of high electrical resistance — higher than typical resistance materials and their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to that of a metal. The behavior of charge carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics. Semiconductor devices can display a range of properties such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance. The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum physics to explain the movement of carriers in a crystal lattice. Doping greatly increases the number of carriers within the crystal. When a doped semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called p-type, the semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and n-type regions, although some pure elements and many compounds display semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds of gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices. Elements near the so-called metalloid staircase, where the metalloids are located on the table, are usually used as semiconductors. Some of the properties of materials were observed throughout the mid 19th. The first practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the Cats-whisker detector, developments in quantum physics in turn allowed the development of the transistor in 1947 and the integrated circuit in 1958. There are several developed techniques that allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials and these modifications have two outcomes, n-type and p-type. These refer to the excess or shortage of electrons, respectively, an unbalanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow through the material. Heterojunctions Heterojunctions occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined together, for example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped germanium. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes between the differently doped semiconducting materials, the n-doped germanium would have an excess of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer occurs until equilibrium is reached by a process called recombination, a product of this process is charged ions, which result in an electric field. Excited Electrons A difference in electric potential on a material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process called ambipolar diffusion, whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting material, the amount of holes and electrons changes
15.
Bubble memory
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Bubble memory is a type of non-volatile computer memory that uses a thin film of a magnetic material to hold small magnetized areas, known as bubbles or domains, each storing one bit of data. The material is arranged to form a series of tracks that the bubbles can move along under the action of an external magnetic field. In operation, bubble memories are similar to delay line memory systems, Bubble memory started out as a promising technology in the 1980s, offering memory density of a similar order to hard drives but performance more comparable to core memory. This led many to consider it a contender for a memory that could be used for all storage needs. Bubble memory was used for time in the 1970s and 80s where its non-moving nature was desirable for maintenance or shock-proofing reasons. The introduction of Flash RAM and similar technologies rendered even this niche uncompetitive, Bubble memory is largely the brainchild of a single person, Andrew Bobeck. Bobeck had worked on many kinds of magnetics-related projects through the 1960s, the first was the development of the first magnetic core memory system driven by a transistor-based controller, and the second was the development of twistor memory. Twistor is essentially a version of core memory that replaces the cores with a piece of magnetic tape, the main advantage of twistor is its ability to be assembled by automated machines, as opposed to core, which was almost entirely manual. AT&T had great hopes for twistor, believing it would reduce the cost of computer memory. Instead, DRAM memories came onto the market in the early 1970s that rapidly replaced all previous random access memory systems, twistor ended up being used only in a few applications, many of them AT&Ts own computers. However, such a system had few advantages over twistor, especially as it did not allow random access, in 1967, Bobeck joined a team at Bell Labs and started work on improving twistor. This would produce a sort of 2D twistor, paul Charles Michaelis working with permalloy magnetic thin films discovered that it was possible to propagate magnetic domains in orthogonal directions within the film. This seminal work led to a patent application, the memory device and method of propagation were described in a paper presented at the 13th Annual Conference on Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Boston, Massachusetts, September 15,1967. The device used anisotropic thin magnetic films that required different magnetic pulse combinations for orthogonal propagation directions, the propagation velocity was also dependent on the hard and easy magnetic axes. This difference suggested that a magnetic medium would be desirable. Starting work extending this concept using orthoferrite, Bobeck noticed an interesting effect. With the magnetic materials used in twistor the data had to be stored on relatively large patches known as domains. Attempts to magnetize smaller areas would fail, with orthoferrite, if the patch was written and then a magnetic field was applied to the entire material, the patch would shrink down into a tiny circle, which he called a bubble
16.
Shift register
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Shift registers can have both parallel and serial inputs and outputs. These are often configured as serial-in, parallel-out or as parallel-in, there are also types that have both serial and parallel input and types with serial and parallel output. There are also bidirectional shift registers which allow shifting in both directions, L→R or R→L, the serial input and last output of a shift register can also be connected to create a circular shift register. These are the simplest kind of shift registers, the data string is presented at Data In, and is shifted right one stage each time Data Advance is brought high. At each advance, the bit on the far left is shifted into the first flip-flops output, the bit on the far right is shifted out and lost. The data are stored after each flip-flop on the Q output, so there are four slots available in this arrangement. To give an idea of the pattern, imagine that the register holds 0000. As Data In presents 1,0,1,1,0,0,0,0 to the register, the left hand column corresponds to the left-most flip-flops output pin, and so on. So the serial output of the register is 10110000. It can be seen that if data were to be continued to input, it would get exactly what was put in and this arrangement is the hardware equivalent of a queue. Also, at any time, the register can be set to zero by bringing the reset pins high. This arrangement performs destructive readout - each datum is lost once it has been shifted out of the right-most bit and this configuration allows conversion from serial to parallel format. Data is input serially, as described in the SISO section above, once the data has been clocked in, it may be either read off at each output simultaneously, or it can be shifted out In this configuration, each flip-flop is edge triggered. All flip-flops operate at the clock frequency. Each input bit makes its way down to the Nth output after N clock cycles, in cases where the parallel outputs should not change during the serial loading process, it is desirable to use a latched or buffered output. In general, the application of the serial-in/parallel-out shift register is to convert data from serial format on a single wire to parallel format on multiple wires. This configuration has the data input on lines D1 through D4 in parallel format, to write the data to the register, the Write/Shift control line must be held LOW. To shift the data, the W/S control line is brought HIGH, the arrangement now acts as a PISO shift register, with D1 as the Data Input
17.
Fairchild Semiconductor
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Fairchild Semiconductor International, Inc. was an American semiconductor company based in San Jose, California. Founded in 1957 as a division of Fairchild Camera and Instrument, it became a pioneer in the manufacturing of transistors, Schlumberger bought the firm in 1979 and sold it to National Semiconductor in 1987, Fairchild was spun off as an independent company again in 1997. The company has locations in the United States at San Jose, California, South Portland, Maine, West Jordan, Utah, Mountaintop, Pennsylvania. Outside the U. S. it operates locations in Singapore, Bucheon, South Korea, Penang, Malaysia, Suzhou, China, in September 2016, Fairchild was acquired by ON Semiconductor. At first he attempted to hire some of his colleagues from Bell Labs. Shockley then founded the core of the new company with what he considered the best and brightest graduates coming out of American engineering schools, while Shockley was effective as a recruiter, he was less effective as a manager. A core group of Shockley employees, later known as the traitorous eight, the eight men were Julius Blank, Victor Grinich, Jean Hoerni, Eugene Kleiner, Jay Last, Gordon Moore, Robert Noyce, and Sheldon Roberts. Looking for funding on their own project, they turned to Sherman Fairchilds Fairchild Camera and Instrument, in 1957 the Fairchild Semiconductor division was started with plans to make silicon transistors at a time when germanium was still the most common material for semiconductor use. According to Sherman Fairchild, Noyces impassioned presentation of his vision was the reason Sherman Fairchild had agreed to create the division for the traitorous eight. Noyce advocated the use of silicon as substrate – since the costs would consist of sand and a few fine wires. Their first transistors were of the silicon mesa variety, innovative for their time, later Fairchild pioneered the planar process developed by Jean Hoerni in 1958, which was a huge improvement – transistors could be made more easily, at a lower cost and with higher performance. Fairchilds planar process made most other transistor processes obsolete, one casualty of this was Philcos transistor division, which had just built a $40 million plant to make their now-totally obsolete germanium PADT process transistors. Within a few years every other transistor company copied or licensed the Fairchild planar process and their first marketed transistor was the 2N697, and was a huge success. The first batch of 100 was sold to IBM for $150 a piece, the first planar silicon transistor was the 2N1613 developed by Jean Hoerni. Its introduction was an event in semiconductor history. Only two years later they had managed to build a circuit with four transistors on a wafer of silicon. The company grew from twelve to twelve thousand employees, and was soon making $130 million a year, Fairchilds Noyce and Texas Instruments Kilby had independently invented the integrated circuit based on bipolar technology. In 1960, Noyce invented the integrated circuit
18.
RCA
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RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut the German transatlantic telegraph cables. In 1917 the government of the United States took charge of the owned by the major companies involved in radio manufacture in the United States to devote radio technology to the war effort. All production of equipment was allocated to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps. The War Department and the Navy Department sought to maintain a monopoly of all uses of radio technology. The wartime takeover of all radio systems ended late in 1918, the war ended in November of that year. The ending of the governments monopoly in radio communications did not prevent the War. On 8 April 1919, naval Admiral W. H. G. Bullard, the proposal presented by the government was that if GE created an American-owned radio company, then the Army and Navy would effect a monopoly of long-distance radio communications via this company. This marked the beginning of a series of negotiations through which GE would buy the American Marconi company, the Army and the Navy granted RCA the former American Marconi radio terminals that had been confiscated during the War. Admiral Bullard received a seat on the Board of Directors of RCA for his efforts in establishing RCA, the result was federally-created monopolies in radio for GE and the Westinghouse Corporation and in telephone systems for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. The first chief officer of RCA was Owen D. Young. RCAs incorporation papers required that a majority of its stock be held by American citizens, as the years went on, RCA either took over, or produced for itself, a large number of patents, including that of the superheterodyne receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong. Over the years, RCA continued to operate international services, under its subsidiary RCA Communications, Inc. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, Westinghouse also marketed home radios through RCA until 1930. In 1929, RCA purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company, then the worlds largest manufacturer of phonographs and this included a majority ownership of the Victor Company of Japan. The new subsidiary then became RCA Victor, with Victor, RCA acquired New World rights to the Nipper His Masters Voice trademark. This trademark is used by the British music & entertainment company HMV. RCA began selling the first electronic turntable in 1930, in 1931, RCA Victor began selling 33⅓ rpm records
19.
Texas Instruments
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Texas Instruments Inc. is an American technology company that designs and manufactures semiconductors, which it sells to electronics designers and manufacturers globally. Headquartered in Dallas, Texas, United States, TI is one of the top ten semiconductor companies worldwide, Texas Instrumentss focus is on developing analog chips and embedded processors, which accounts for more than 85% of their revenue. TI also produces TI digital light processing technology and education technology products including calculators, microcontrollers, to date, TI has more than 43,000 patents worldwide. TI produced the worlds first commercial silicon transistor in 1950, Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit in 1958 while working at TIs Central Research Labs. TI also invented the hand-held calculator in 1967, and introduced the first single-chip microcontroller in 1970, in 1987, TI invented the digital light processing device, which serves as the foundation for the companys award-winning DLP technology and DLP Cinema. In 1990, TI came out with the popular TI-81 calculator which made them a leader in the calculator industry. In 1997, its business was sold to Raytheon, which allowed TI to strengthen its focus on digital solutions. Texas Instruments was founded by Cecil H. Green, J. Erik Jonsson, Eugene McDermott, McDermott was one of the original founders of Geophysical Service Inc. in 1930. McDermott, Green, and Jonsson were GSI employees who purchased the company in 1941, in November,1945, Patrick Haggerty was hired as general manager of the Laboratory and Manufacturing division, which focused on electronic equipment. By 1951, the L&M division, with its contracts, was growing faster than GSIs Geophysical division. The company was reorganized and initially renamed General Instruments Inc, because there already existed a firm named General Instrument, the company was renamed Texas Instruments that same year. From 1956 to 1961, Fred Agnich of Dallas, later a Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives, was the Texas Instruments president, Geophysical Service, Inc. became a subsidiary of Texas Instruments. Early in 1988 most of GSI was sold to the Halliburton Company, in 1930, J. Clarence Karcher and Eugene McDermott founded Geophysical Service, an early provider of seismic exploration services to the petroleum industry. In 1939, the company reorganized as Coronado Corp. an oil company with Geophysical Service Inc, on December 6,1941, McDermott along with three other GSI employees, J. Erik Jonsson, Cecil H. Green, and H. B. During World War II, GSI expanded their services to include electronics for the U. S. Army, Signal Corps, in 1951, the company changed its name to Texas Instruments, GSI becoming a wholly owned subsidiary of the new company. Texas Instruments also continued to manufacture equipment for use in the seismic industry, after selling GSI, TI finally sold the company to Halliburton in 1988, at which point GSI ceased to exist as a separate entity. Texas Instruments entered the electronics market in 1942 with submarine detection equipment. During the early 1980s, Texas Instruments instituted a quality program which included Juran training, as well as promoting statistical process control, Taguchi methods and Design for Six Sigma
20.
Steven Sasson
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Steven J. Sasson is an American electrical engineer and the inventor of the digital camera. Sasson is a 1972 and 1973 graduate of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in electrical engineering and he attended and graduated from Brooklyn Technical High School. Steven Sasson invented the first digital camera at Eastman Kodak in 1975 and it weighed 8 pounds and had only 0.01 megapixels. The image was recorded onto a tape and this process took 23 seconds. His camera took images in black-and-white, as he set out on this project of the electronic camera, what he envisioned for the future was a camera without mechanical moving parts. Sasson was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Ragnhild Tomine and his invention began in 1975 with a broad assignment from his supervisor at Eastman Kodak Company, Gareth A. Lloyd, to attempt to build an electronic camera using a charge coupled device. The resulting camera invention was awarded U. S, Sasson now works to protect the intellectual capital of his employer, Eastman Kodak Company. On November 17,2009, U. S. President Barack Obama awarded Sasson the National Medal of Technology and this is the highest honor awarded by the US government to scientists, engineers, and inventors. Leica Camera AG honored Sasson by presenting to him a limited edition 18-megapixel Leica M9 Titanium camera during photokina 2010, Sasson was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2011
21.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
22.
KH-11 Kennen
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Manufactured by Lockheed in Sunnyvale, California, the KH-11 was the first American spy satellite to use electro-optical digital imaging, and create a real-time optical observation capability. Later KH-11 satellites have been referred to by observers as KH-11B or KH-12. Official budget documents refer to the latest generation of Electro-Optical satellites as Evolved Enhanced CRYSTAL System, the Key Hole series was officially discontinued in favor of a random numbering scheme after repeated public references to KH-7 Gambit, KH-8 Gambit-3, KH-9 Hexagon, and KH-11 satellites. S. The Film Read-Out GAMBIT served as NRO Program As competitor to NRO Program Bs initial electro-optical imagery satellite, Data is transmitted through a network of communications satellites, the Satellite Data System. After the failure of the FIA in 2005, NRO ordered from Lockheed two additional legacy hardware KH-11s, uSA-224, the first of these two, was launched in early 2011 two years ahead of the initial schedule estimate. These could either be spare hardware from the KH-11 program, or optics from the cancelled FIA program, the satellites were reportedly stored in a clean room facility at ITT Exelis in Rochester, NY. It is believed to resemble the Hubble Space Telescope in size and shape, a CIA history states that the primary mirror on the first KH-11s measured 2.34 meters, but sizes increased in later versions. NRO led the development of a computer controlled mirror polishing technique, operational resolution should be worse due to effects of the atmospheric turbulence. Astronomer Clifford Stoll estimates that such a telescope could resolve up to a couple inches, not quite good enough to recognize a face. Different versions of the KH-11 vary in mass, with earlier blocks ranging from 13,000 to 13,500 kilograms and its length is believed to be 19.5 meters, and diameter is 3 meters or less. The two optical telescope assemblies offered to NASA from the NRO in January 2011 were initially suspected to be KH-11 series extra hardware, but later attributed to the Future Imaging Architecture program. KH11 OTAs are of a three-mirror anastigmat optical design, the f/1.2 primary has a diameter of 2.4 m, and is refocused by the secondary to give an overall f/8 focal ratio, making the optical telescope assembly shorter than that of HST. The secondary mirror is mounted on a hexapod to increase the side-viewing, KH-11 was the first reconnaissance satellite equipped with charge-coupled device array technology for imaging which had a resolution of 800 x 800 pixels. Later block satellites may include signals intelligence capabilities and greater sensitivity in broader light spectrums, later satellites had larger mirrors, with a diameter of around 2. 9–3.1 m. Janes Defence Weekly indicates that the mirror in the Cassegrain reflecting telescope system could be moved. Also, there are indications that the satellite can take images every five seconds, four generations of U. S. electro-optical reconnaissance have been identified, Block I refers to the original KH-11 satellite, of which five were launched between 19 December 1976 and 17 November 1982. The first or second Block II satellite was lost in a launch failure, four Block III satellites, commonly called KH-12 or Improved Crystal were launched between November 1992 and October 2001. The name Improved Crystal refers to the Improved Metric CRYSTAL System, another improvement was an eightfold increase in the download rate compared to earlier models to facilitate improved real-time access and increased area coverage
23.
Sony
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Sony Corporation is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation that is headquartered in Kōnan, Minato, Tokyo. Its diversified business includes consumer and professional electronics, gaming, entertainment, the company is one of the leading manufacturers of electronic products for the consumer and professional markets. Sony was ranked 116th on the 2015 list of Fortune Global 500 and these make Sony one of the most comprehensive entertainment companies in the world. The group consists of Sony Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Sony Interactive Entertainment, Sony Music Entertainment, Sony Financial Holdings and others. Sony is among the Semiconductor sales leaders by year and as of 2013, the companys current slogan is BE MOVED. Their former slogans were make. believe, like. no. other, Sony has a weak tie to the SMFG keiretsu, the successor to the Mitsui keiretsu. Sony began in the wake of World War II, in 1946, Masaru Ibuka started an electronics shop in a department store building in Tokyo. The company had $530 in capital and a total of eight employees, in the following year he was joined by his colleague, Akio Morita, and they founded a company called Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo 東京通信工業. The company built Japans first tape recorder, called the Type-G, in 1958 the company changed its name to Sony. When Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo was looking for a name to use to market themselves, they strongly considered using their initials. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company Tokyo Kyuko was known as TTK, the company occasionally used the acronym Totsuko in Japan, but during his visit to the United States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out for a while was Tokyo Teletech until Akio Morita discovered that there was an American company already using Teletech as a brand name, the name Sony was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words. One was the Latin word sonus, which is the root of sonic and sound, and the other was sonny, a common slang term used in 1950s America to call a boy. In the 1950s Japan sonny boys, was a word into Japanese which connoted smart and presentable young men. The first Sony-branded product, the TR-55 transistor radio, appeared in 1955, at the time of the change, it was extremely unusual for a Japanese company to use Roman letters to spell its name instead of writing it in kanji. The move was not without opposition, TTKs principal bank at the time and they pushed for a name such as Sony Electronic Industries, or Sony Teletech. Akio Morita was firm, however, as he did not want the company tied to any particular industry. Eventually, both Ibuka and Mitsui Banks chairman gave their approval, according to Schiffer, Sonys TR-63 radio cracked open the U. S. market and launched the new industry of consumer microelectronics
24.
Camcorder
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A camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and recorder. Although marketing materials may use the term camcorder, the name on the package. The earliest camcorders are tape-based, recording analog signals onto videotape cassettes, in 2006, digital recording became the norm, with tape replaced by storage media such as internal flash memory and SD cards. Earlier, the term camcorder exclusively referred to a camera with a recorder, but almost all of the electronic cameras built in 2006 provide recording capability essentially making them a camcorder. The term camcorder is now used for a particular camera range which provides advanced functions over more common cameras. Video cameras originally designed for television broadcast were large and heavy, mounted on special pedestals, as technology improved, out-of-studio video recording was possible with compact video cameras and portable video recorders, a detachable recording unit could be carried to a shooting location. Although the camera itself was compact, the need for a separate recorder made on-location shooting a two-person job, specialized videocassette recorders were introduced by JVC and Sony releasing a model for mobile work. Portable recorders meant that video footage could be aired on the early-evening news. In 1982, Sony released the Betacam system, a key component was a single camera-recorder unit, eliminating a cable between the camera and recorder and increasing the camera operators freedom. The Betacam used the same format as the Betamax, and became standard equipment for broadcast news. Sony released the first consumer camcorder in 1983, the Betamovie BMC-100P used a Betamax cassette and rested on the operators shoulder, due to a design not permitting a single-handed grip. That year, JVC released the first VHS-C camcorder, Sony introduced its compact Video8 format in 1985. That year, Panasonic, RCA and Hitachi began producing camcorders using a full-size VHS cassette with a three-hour capacity and these shoulder-mount camcorders were used by videophiles, industrial videographers and college TV studios. Full-size Super-VHS camcorders were released in 1987, providing a way to collect news segments or other videographies. Sony upgraded Video8, releasing the Hi8 in competition with S-VHS, Digital technology emerged with the Sony D1, a device which recorded uncompressed data and required a large amount of bandwidth for its time. In 1992 Ampex introduced DCT, the first digital video format with data compression using the cosine transform algorithm present in most commercial digital video formats. In 1995 Sony, JVC, Panasonic and other video-camera manufacturers launched DV, Panasonic launched DVCPRO HD in 2000, expanding the DV codec to support high definition. The format was intended for professional camcorders, and used full-size DVCPRO cassettes, in 2003 Sony, JVC, Canon and Sharp introduced HDV as the first affordable HD video format, due to its use of inexpensive MiniDV cassettes
25.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
26.
Epitaxy
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Epitaxy refers to the deposition of a crystalline overlayer on a crystalline substrate. The overlayer is called a film or epitaxial layer. The term epitaxy comes from the Greek roots epi, meaning above and it can be translated as arranging upon. For most technological applications, it is desired that the material form a crystalline overlayer that has one well-defined orientation with respect to the substrate crystal structure. Epitaxial films may be grown from gaseous or liquid precursors, because the substrate acts as a seed crystal, the deposited film may lock into one or more crystallographic orientations with respect to the substrate crystal. If the overlayer either forms a random orientation with respect to the substrate or does not form an ordered overlayer, if an epitaxial film is deposited on a substrate of the same composition, the process is called homoepitaxy, otherwise it is called heteroepitaxy. Homoepitaxy is a kind of epitaxy performed with only one material and this technology is used to grow a film which is more pure than the substrate and to fabricate layers having different doping levels. In academic literature, homoepitaxy is often abbreviated to homoepi, heteroepitaxy is a kind of epitaxy performed with materials that are different from each other. In heteroepitaxy, a crystalline film grows on a substrate or film of a different material. This technology is used to grow crystalline films of materials for which crystals cannot otherwise be obtained. Examples include silicon on sapphire, gallium nitride on sapphire, aluminium gallium indium phosphide on gallium arsenide or diamond or iridium. Heterotopotaxy is a similar to heteroepitaxy except that thin film growth is not limited to two-dimensional growth. Pendeo-epitaxy is a process in which the film is growing vertically and laterally at the same time. Epitaxy is used in nanotechnology and in semiconductor fabrication, indeed, epitaxy is the only affordable method of high quality crystal growth for many semiconductor materials. In surface science, epitaxy is used to create and study monolayer and multilayer films of adsorbed organic molecules on single crystalline surfaces, adsorbed molecules form ordered structures on atomically flat terraces of single crystalline surfaces and can directly be observed via scanning tunnelling microscopy. Molecular-beam and liquid-phase epitaxy are also used, mainly for compound semiconductors, solid-phase epitaxy is used primarily for crystal-damage healing. Growth rates above 2 micrometres per minute produce polycrystalline silicon, an additional etching reaction competes with the deposition reaction, SiCl4 + Si ↔ 2SiCl2 Silicon VPE may also use silane, dichlorosilane, and trichlorosilane source gases. VPE is sometimes classified by the chemistry of the gases, such as hydride VPE
27.
Lens (optics)
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A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. A simple lens consists of a piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses. Lenses are made from such as glass or plastic, and are ground. A lens can focus light to form an image, unlike a prism, devices that similarly focus or disperse waves and radiation other than visible light are also called lenses, such as microwave lenses, electron lenses, acoustic lenses, or explosive lenses. The word lens comes from the Latin name of the lentil, the genus of the lentil plant is Lens, and the most commonly eaten species is Lens culinaris. The lentil plant also gives its name to a geometric figure, the variant spelling lense is sometimes seen. While it is listed as a spelling in some dictionaries. The oldest lens artifact is the Nimrud lens, dating back 2700 years to ancient Assyria, david Brewster proposed that it may have been used as a magnifying glass, or as a burning-glass to start fires by concentrating sunlight. Another early reference to magnification dates back to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 8th century BC, the earliest written records of lenses date to Ancient Greece, with Aristophanes play The Clouds mentioning a burning-glass. Some scholars argue that the evidence indicates that there was widespread use of lenses in antiquity. Such lenses were used by artisans for fine work, and for authenticating seal impressions, both Pliny and Seneca the Younger described the magnifying effect of a glass globe filled with water. The Viking lenses were capable of concentrating enough sunlight to ignite fires, between the 11th and 13th century reading stones were invented. Often used by monks to assist in illuminating manuscripts, these were primitive plano-convex lenses initially made by cutting a sphere in half. As the stones were experimented with, it was understood that shallower lenses magnified more effectively. Lenses came into use in Europe with the invention of spectacles. Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision based more on knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses. With the invention of the telescope and microscope there was a deal of experimentation with lens shapes in the 17th. Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature, wrongly assuming errors arose from defects in the figure of their surfaces
28.
Light
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Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The word usually refers to light, which is visible to the human eye and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light is defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres, or 4.00 × 10−7 to 7.00 × 10−7 m. This wavelength means a range of roughly 430–750 terahertz. The main source of light on Earth is the Sun, sunlight provides the energy that green plants use to create sugars mostly in the form of starches, which release energy into the living things that digest them. This process of photosynthesis provides virtually all the used by living things. Historically, another important source of light for humans has been fire, with the development of electric lights and power systems, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight. Some species of animals generate their own light, a process called bioluminescence, for example, fireflies use light to locate mates, and vampire squids use it to hide themselves from prey. Visible light, as all types of electromagnetic radiation, is experimentally found to always move at this speed in a vacuum. In physics, the term sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength. In this sense, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves and radio waves are also light, like all types of light, visible light is emitted and absorbed in tiny packets called photons and exhibits properties of both waves and particles. This property is referred to as the wave–particle duality, the study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics. Generally, EM radiation, or EMR, is classified by wavelength into radio, microwave, infrared, the behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths, when EMR interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries. There exist animals that are sensitive to various types of infrared, infrared sensing in snakes depends on a kind of natural thermal imaging, in which tiny packets of cellular water are raised in temperature by the infrared radiation. EMR in this range causes molecular vibration and heating effects, which is how these animals detect it, above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nanometers and the internal lens below 400. Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retina of the eye cannot detect the very short ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420 to 680 to as broadly as 380 to 800 nm
29.
Charge amplifier
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A charge amplifier is an electronic current integrator that produces a voltage output proportional to the integrated value of the input current. This is effectively a measurement of the electrical charge, hence the naming of the device. The gain of the circuit depends on the values of the feedback capacitor, charge amplifiers are usually constructed using an operational amplifier or other high gain semiconductor circuit with a negative feedback capacitor. The input current is offset by a feedback current flowing in the capacitor. The output voltage is therefore dependent on the value of current it has to offset. The greater the value, the less output voltage has to be generated to produce a particular feedback current flow. The input impedance of the circuit is almost zero because of the Miller effect, hence all the stray capacitances are virtually grounded and they have no influence on the output signal. Referring to the diagram, if the op-amp is assumed to be ideal, nodes v1 and v2 are held equal. The input voltage passes a current v i n R1 through the resistor producing a current flow through the series capacitor to maintain the virtual ground. This charges or discharges the capacitor over time, because the resistor and capacitor are connected to a virtual ground, the input current does not vary with capacitor charge and a linear integration of output is achieved. The circuit can be analyzed by applying Kirchhoffs current law at the node v2, practical op-amps have a finite open-loop gain, an input offset voltage and input bias currents. Similarly, if v in were a signal centered about zero volts, no drift would be expected in an ideal circuit, to negate the effect of the input bias current, it is necessary to set, R on = R1 | | R f. The error voltage then becomes, V E = V I O S The input bias current thus causes the voltage drops at both the positive and negative terminals. A practical circuit is shown below, also, in a DC steady state, the capacitor acts as an open circuit. The DC gain of the circuit is therefore infinite. To counter this, a large resistor R F is inserted in parallel with the feedback capacitor and this limits the DC gain of the circuit to a finite value, and hence changes the output drift into a finite, preferably small, DC error. Referring to the diagram, V E = where V I O S is the input offset voltage. R f ∥ R1 indicates two resistance values in parallel, in practice, the gain of the circuit is expressed in charge input required to obtain a voltage output, such as picocoulomb per volt
30.
Voltage
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Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension is the difference in electric potential energy between two points per unit electric charge. The voltage between two points is equal to the work done per unit of charge against an electric field to move the test charge between two points. This is measured in units of volts, voltage can be caused by static electric fields, by electric current through a magnetic field, by time-varying magnetic fields, or some combination of these three. A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage between two points in a system, often a reference potential such as the ground of the system is used as one of the points. A voltage may represent either a source of energy or lost, used, given two points in space, x A and x B, voltage is the difference in electric potential between those two points. Electric potential must be distinguished from electric energy by noting that the potential is a per-unit-charge quantity. Like mechanical potential energy, the zero of electric potential can be chosen at any point, so the difference in potential, i. e. the voltage, is the quantity which is physically meaningful. The voltage between point A to point B is equal to the work which would have to be done, per unit charge, against or by the electric field to move the charge from A to B. The voltage between the two ends of a path is the energy required to move a small electric charge along that path. Mathematically this is expressed as the integral of the electric field. In the general case, both an electric field and a dynamic electromagnetic field must be included in determining the voltage between two points. Historically this quantity has also called tension and pressure. Pressure is now obsolete but tension is used, for example within the phrase high tension which is commonly used in thermionic valve based electronics. Voltage is defined so that negatively charged objects are pulled towards higher voltages, therefore, the conventional current in a wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage. Current can flow from lower voltage to higher voltage, but only when a source of energy is present to push it against the electric field. This is the case within any electric power source, for example, inside a battery, chemical reactions provide the energy needed for ion current to flow from the negative to the positive terminal. The electric field is not the only factor determining charge flow in a material, the electric potential of a material is not even a well defined quantity, since it varies on the subatomic scale. A more convenient definition of voltage can be found instead in the concept of Fermi level, in this case the voltage between two bodies is the thermodynamic work required to move a unit of charge between them
31.
Fax
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Fax, sometimes called telecopying or telefax, is the telephonic transmission of scanned printed material, normally to a telephone number connected to a printer or other output device. The receiving fax machine interprets the tones and reconstructs the image, early systems used direct conversions of image darkness to audio tone in a continuous or analog manner. Since the 1980s, most machines modulate the audio frequencies using a digital representation of the page which is compressed to quickly transmit areas which are all-white or all-black. Scottish inventor Alexander Bain worked on chemical mechanical fax type devices and he received British patent 9745 on May 27,1843 for his Electric Printing Telegraph. Frederick Bakewell made several improvements on Bains design and demonstrated a telefax machine, the Pantelegraph was invented by the Italian physicist Giovanni Caselli. He introduced the first commercial service between Paris and Lyon in 1865, some 11 years before the invention of the telephone. In 1880, English inventor Shelford Bidwell constructed the scanning phototelegraph that was the first telefax machine to scan any two-dimensional original, previously, photographs had been sent over the radio using this process. The Western Union Deskfax fax machine, announced in 1948, was a machine that fit comfortably on a desktop. As a designer for the Radio Corporation of America, in 1924, Richard H. Ranger invented the wireless photoradiogram, or transoceanic radio facsimile, the forerunner of today’s fax machines. A photograph of President Calvin Coolidge sent from New York to London on November 29,1924 became the first photo picture reproduced by transoceanic radio facsimile, commercial use of Ranger’s product began two years later. Also in 1924, Herbert E. Ives of AT&T Corporation transmitted and reconstructed the first color facsimile, around 1952 or so, Finch Facsimile, a highly developed machine, was described in detail in a book, it was never manufactured in quantity. By the late 1940s, radiofax receivers were sufficiently miniaturized to be fitted beneath the dashboard of Western Unions Telecar telegram delivery vehicles, in the 1960s, the United States Army transmitted the first photograph via satellite facsimile to Puerto Rico from the Deal Test Site using the Courier satellite. Radio fax is still in limited use today for transmitting weather charts, in 1964, Xerox Corporation introduced what many consider to be the first commercialized version of the modern fax machine, under the name or Long Distance Xerography. This model was superseded two years later with a unit that would set the standard for fax machines for years to come. Up until this point facsimile machines were expensive and hard to operate. In 1966, Xerox released the Magnafax Telecopiers, a smaller and this unit was far easier to operate and could be connected to any standard telephone line. This machine was capable of transmitting a letter-sized document in about six minutes, the first sub-minute, digital fax machine was developed by Dacom, which built on digital data compression technology originally developed at Lockheed for satellite communication. By the late 1970s, many companies around the world, entered the fax market, very shortly after a new wave of more compact, faster and efficient fax machines would hit the market
32.
Carrier generation and recombination
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In the solid-state physics of semiconductors, carrier generation and recombination are processes by which mobile charge carriers are created and eliminated. Carrier generation and recombination processes are fundamental to the operation of many semiconductor devices, such as photodiodes, LEDs. They are also critical to a analysis of p-n junction devices such as bipolar junction transistors. Like other solids, semiconductor materials have a band structure determined by the crystal properties of the material. The actual energy distribution among the electrons is described by the Fermi level, at absolute zero temperature, all of the electrons have energy below the Fermi level, but at non-zero temperatures the energy levels are filled following a Boltzmann distribution. In semiconductors the Fermi level lies in the middle of a band or band gap between two allowed bands called the valence band and the conduction band. The valence band, immediately below the band, is normally very nearly completely occupied. The conduction band, above the Fermi level, is nearly completely empty. Because the valence band is so full, its electrons are not mobile. However, if an electron in the valence band acquires enough energy to reach the conduction band, furthermore, it will also leave behind an electron hole that can flow as current exactly like a physical charged particle. In a material at thermal equilibrium generation and recombination are balanced, the equilibrium carrier density that results from the balance of these interactions is predicted by thermodynamics. The resulting probability of occupation of states in each energy band is given by Fermi–Dirac statistics. Recombination and generation are happening in semiconductors, both optically and thermally, and their rates are in balance at equilibrium. The product of the electron and hole densities is a constant at equilibrium, when there is a surplus of carriers, the rate of recombination becomes greater than the rate of generation, driving the system back towards equilibrium. Likewise, when there is a deficit of carriers, the rate becomes greater than the recombination rate. As the electron moves from one band to another, the energy. The following models are used to describe generation and recombination, depending on which particles are involved in the process, the localized state can absorb differences in momentum between the carriers, and so this process is the dominant generation and recombination process in silicon and other indirect bandgap materials. It can also dominate in direct bandgap materials under conditions of very low carrier densities, the energy is exchanged in the form of lattice vibration, a phonon exchanging thermal energy with the material
33.
Quantum efficiency
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The term quantum efficiency may apply to incident photon to converted electron ratio, of a photosensitive device or it may refer to the TMR effect of a Magnetic Tunnel Junction. This article deals with the term as a measurement of a devices electrical sensitivity to light, in a charge-coupled device it is the percentage of photons hitting the devices photoreactive surface that produce charge carriers. It is measured in electrons per photon or amps per watt, since the energy of a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength, QE is often measured over a range of different wavelengths to characterize a devices efficiency at each photon energy level. The QE for photons with energy below the gap is zero. Photographic film typically has a QE of much less than 10%, a solar cells quantum efficiency value indicates the amount of current that the cell will produce when irradiated by photons of a particular wavelength. If the cells efficiency is integrated over the whole solar electromagnetic spectrum. The ratio between this value and the highest possible energy-production value for the cell gives the cells overall energy conversion efficiency value. The IQE is always larger than the EQE, a low IQE indicates that the active layer of the solar cell is unable to make good use of the photons. To measure the IQE, one first measures the EQE of the device, then measures its transmission and reflection. Once a photon has been absorbed and has generated an electron-hole pair, a good material avoids charge recombination. Charge recombination causes a drop in the quantum efficiency. The ideal quantum efficiency graph has a shape, where the QE value is fairly constant across the entire spectrum of wavelengths measured. However, the QE for most solar cells is reduced because of the effects of recombination, the same mechanisms that affect the collection probability also affect the QE. For example, modifying the front surface can affect carriers generated near the surface, and because high-energy light is absorbed very close to the surface, considerable recombination at the front surface will affect the blue portion of the QE. That heat is wasted energy, and could damage the cell, Quantum efficiency of Image Sensors, Quantum efficiency is the fraction of photon flux that contributes to the photocurrent in a photodetector or a pixel. Quantum efficiency is one of the most important parameters used to evaluate the quality of a detector and is called the spectral response to reflect its wavelength dependence. It is defined as the number of signal electrons created per incident photon, in some cases it can exceed 100%. EQE mapping, Conventional measurement of the EQE will give the efficiency of the overall device, however it is often useful to have a map of the EQE over large area of the device
34.
Silicon
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Silicon is a chemical element with symbol Si and atomic number 14. A hard and brittle crystalline solid with a metallic luster. It is a member of group 14 in the table, along with carbon above it and germanium, tin, lead. It is not very reactive, although more reactive than germanium, Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure element in the Earths crust. It is most widely distributed in dusts, sands, planetoids, over 90% of the Earths crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the Earths crust after oxygen. Most silicon is used commercially without being separated, and often with little processing of the natural minerals, such use includes industrial construction with clays, silica sand, and stone. Silicate is used in Portland cement for mortar and stucco, and mixed with sand and gravel to make concrete for walkways, foundations. Silicates are used in whiteware ceramics such as porcelain, and in traditional quartz-based soda-lime glass, Silicon compounds such as silicon carbide are used as abrasives and components of high-strength ceramics. Elemental silicon also has an impact on the modern world economy. Most free silicon is used in the refining, aluminium-casting. Silicon is the basis of the widely used synthetic polymers called silicones, Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only tiny traces are required by animals. However, various sea sponges and microorganisms, such as diatoms and radiolaria, silica is deposited in many plant tissues, such as in the bark and wood of Chrysobalanaceae and the silica cells and silicified trichomes of Cannabis sativa, horsetails and many grasses. Silicon is a solid at room temperature, with a point of 1,414 °C. Like water, it has a density in a liquid state than in a solid state and it expands when it freezes. With a relatively high conductivity of 149 W·m−1·K−1, silicon conducts heat well. In its crystalline form, pure silicon has a gray color, like germanium, silicon is rather strong, very brittle, and prone to chipping. Silicon, like carbon and germanium, crystallizes in a cubic crystal structure with a lattice spacing of 0.5430710 nm. The outer electron orbital of silicon, like that of carbon, has four valence electrons, the 1s, 2s, 2p and 3s subshells are completely filled while the 3p subshell contains two electrons out of a possible six
35.
Boron
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Boron is a chemical element with symbol B and atomic number 5. Produced entirely by cosmic ray spallation and supernovae and not by stellar nucleosynthesis, it is an element in the Solar system. Boron is concentrated on Earth by the water-solubility of its more common naturally occurring compounds and these are mined industrially as evaporites, such as borax and kernite. The largest known deposits are in Turkey, the largest producer of boron minerals. Elemental boron is a metalloid that is found in small amounts in meteoroids, industrially, very pure boron is produced with difficulty because of refractory contamination by carbon or other elements. Several allotropes of boron exist, amorphous boron is a powder, crystalline boron is silvery to black, extremely hard. The primary use of boron is as boron filaments with applications similar to carbon fibers in some high-strength materials. Boron is primarily used in chemical compounds, about half of all consumption globally, boron is used as an additive in glass fibers of boron-containing fiberglass for insulation and structural materials. The next leading use is in polymers and ceramics in high-strength, lightweight structural, borosilicate glass is desired for its greater strength and thermal shock resistance than ordinary soda lime glass. Boron compounds are used as fertilizers in agriculture and in sodium perborate bleaches, a small amount of boron is used as a dopant in semiconductors, and reagent intermediates in the synthesis of organic fine chemicals. A few boron-containing organic pharmaceuticals are used or are in study, natural boron is composed of two stable isotopes, one of which has a number of uses as a neutron-capturing agent. In biology, borates have low toxicity in mammals, but are toxic to arthropods and are used as insecticides. Boric acid is mildly antimicrobial, and several natural boron-containing organic antibiotics are known, small amounts of boron compounds play a strengthening role in the cell walls of all plants, making boron a necessary plant nutrient. Boron is involved in the metabolism of calcium in both plants and animals and it is considered an essential nutrient for humans, and boron deficiency is implicated in osteoporosis. The word boron was coined from borax, the mineral from which it was isolated, by analogy with carbon, marco Polo brought some glazes back to Italy in the 13th century. Agricola, around 1600, reports the use of borax as a flux in metallurgy, in 1777, boric acid was recognized in the hot springs near Florence, Italy, and became known as sal sedativum, with primarily medical uses. The rare mineral is called sassolite, which is found at Sasso, Sasso was the main source of European borax from 1827 to 1872, when American sources replaced it. Boron compounds were relatively rarely used until the late 1800s when Francis Marion Smiths Pacific Coast Borax Company first popularized and produced them in volume at low cost
36.
Substrate (materials science)
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A coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object, usually referred to as the substrate. The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative, functional, the coating itself may be an all-over coating, completely covering the substrate, or it may only cover parts of the substrate. Functional coatings may be applied to change the properties of the substrate, such as adhesion, wetability, corrosion resistance. A further consideration for non-all-over coatings is that control is needed as to where the coating is to be applied, a number of these non-all-over coating processes are printing processes. Many industrial coating processes involve the application of a film of functional material to a substrate, such as paper, fabric, film, foil. If the substrate starts and ends the process wound up in a roll, a roll of substrate, when wound through the coating machine, is typically called a web. Coatings may be applied as liquids, gases or solids, metal coatings on plastic airframes Conductive coatings e. g. to manufacture some types of resistors Insulating coatings e. g. This method commonly implies slot-die coating above room temperature, but it also is possible to have hot-melt roller coating, hot-melt metering-rod coating, curtain coating- low viscosity, with the slot vertically above the web and a gap between slotdie and web. Slide coating- bead coating with a slide between the slotdie and the bead. Very successfully used for multilayer coating in the photographic industry, slot die bead coating- typically with the web backed by a roller and a very small gap between slotdie and web. Tensioned-web slotdie coating- with no backing for the web, inkjet printing Lithography Flexography Spin coating Dip coating Titanium and titanium alloys, edited by C. Leyens and M. Peters, Wiley-VCH, ISBN 3-527-30534-3, table 6, licari, William Andrew Publishing, Elsevier, ISBN 0-8155-1492-1 High-Performance Organic Coatings, ed. AS Khanna, Elsevier BV,2015, ISBN 978-1-84569-265-0
37.
Ion implantation
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Ion implantation is a materials engineering process by which ions of a material are accelerated in an electrical field and impacted into a solid. This process is used to change the physical, chemical, or electrical properties of the solid, ion implantation is used in semiconductor device fabrication and in metal finishing, as well as various applications in materials science research. The ions alter the composition of the target, stopping in the target. They also cause chemical and physical changes in the target by transferring their energy and momentum to the electrons. This causes a change, in that the crystal structure of the target can be damaged or even destroyed by the energetic collision cascades. Because the ions have masses comparable to those of the target atoms, if the ion energy is sufficiently high to overcome the coulomb barrier, there can even be a small amount of nuclear transmutation. Thus ion implantation is a case of particle radiation. Each ion is typically a single atom or molecule, and thus the amount of material implanted in the target is the integral over time of the ion current. This amount is called the dose, the currents supplied by implanters are typically small, and thus the dose which can be implanted in a reasonable amount of time is small. Therefore, ion implantation finds application in cases where the amount of change required is small. Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 keV, energies in the range 1 to 10 keV can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less. Energies lower than this result in little damage to the target. Higher energies can also be used, accelerators capable of 5 MeV are common, however, there is often great structural damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad, the net composition change at any point in the target will be small. The average penetration depth is called the range of the ions, under typical circumstances ion ranges will be between 10 nanometers and 1 micrometer. Thus, ion implantation is especially useful in cases where the chemical or structural change is desired to be near the surface of the target, the loss of ion energy in the target is called stopping and can be simulated with the binary collision approximation method. Accelerator systems for ion implantation are generally classified into medium current, high current, high energy, all varieties of ion implantation beamline designs contain certain general groups of functional components. The first major segment of an ion beamline includes a device known as an ion source to generate the ion species, •The introduction of dopants in a semiconductor is the most common application of ion implantation. • Dopant ions such as boron, phosphorus or arsenic are generally created from a gas source, •These gases tend to be very hazardous
38.
Phosphorus
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Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
39.
Capacitor
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A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance, a capacitor was therefore historically first known as an electric condenser. The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, the nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitors charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy. No current actually flows through the dielectric, instead, the effect is a displacement of charges through the source circuit, if the condition is maintained sufficiently long, this displacement current through the battery ceases. However, if a voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System of Units is the farad, capacitance values of typical capacitors for use in general electronics range from about 1 pF to about 1 mF. The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the area of the plates. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and it has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance, Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies, in resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in digital computers. Von Kleists hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric, von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine
40.
Dielectric
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A dielectric material is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and this creates an internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself. If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, the study of dielectric properties concerns storage and dissipation of electric and magnetic energy in materials. Dielectrics are important for explaining various phenomena in electronics, optics, solid-state physics, while the term insulator implies low electrical conduction, dielectric typically means materials with a high polarizability. The latter is expressed by a called the relative permittivity. The term insulator is generally used to indicate electrical obstruction while the term dielectric is used to indicate the energy storing capacity of the material, a common example of a dielectric is the electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of a capacitor. The polarization of the dielectric by the electric field increases the capacitors surface charge for the given electric field strength. The term dielectric was coined by William Whewell in response to a request from Michael Faraday, a perfect dielectric is a material with zero electrical conductivity, thus exhibiting only a displacement current, therefore it stores and returns electrical energy as if it were an ideal capacitor. The electric susceptibility χe of a material is a measure of how easily it polarizes in response to an electric field. This, in turn, determines the electric permittivity of the material and thus many other phenomena in that medium. The susceptibility of a medium is related to its relative permittivity εr by χ e = ε r −1, so in the case of a vacuum, χ e =0. The electric displacement D is related to the polarization density P by D = ε0 E + P = ε0 E = ε r ε0 E, in general, a material cannot polarize instantaneously in response to an applied field. The more general formulation as a function of time is P = ε0 ∫ − ∞ t χ e E d t ′ and that is, the polarization is a convolution of the electric field at previous times with time-dependent susceptibility given by χe. The upper limit of this integral can be extended to infinity as well if one defines χe =0 for Δt <0, an instantaneous response corresponds to Dirac delta function susceptibility χe = χeδ. It is more convenient in a system to take the Fourier transform. Due to the theorem, the integral becomes a simple product. Note the simple frequency dependence of the susceptibility, or equivalently the permittivity, the shape of the susceptibility with respect to frequency characterizes the dispersion properties of the material. In the classical approach to the model, a material is made up of atoms
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