1.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
2.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
3.
Executioner
–
A judicial executioner is a person who carries out a death sentence ordered by the state or other legal authority, which was known in feudal terminology as high justice. Note that the role of an executioner should not be confused with that of an executor, the executioner was usually presented with a warrant authorizing or ordering him to execute the sentence. The warrant protects the executioner from the charge of murder, common terms for executioners derived from forms of capital punishment—though they often also performed other physical punishments—include hangman and headsman. In the military, the role of executioner was performed by a soldier, a common stereotype of an executioner is a hooded medieval or absolutist executioner. Many executioners were professional specialists who traveled a circuit or region performing their duty, within this region, a resident executioner would also administer non-lethal physical punishments, or apply torture. The term is extended to administrators of a physical punishment that is not prescribed to kill. Executions in France persisted until 1977, and the French Republic had an official executioner, in Western Europe and its colonies, executioners have often been shunned by their neighbours. In Britain, the most notable dynasty was the Pierrepoints, who provided three executioners between 1902 and 1956 - Henry, his brother Thomas, and Henrys son Albert, in Japan, executioners have been held in contempt as part of the Burakumin class. In Memories of Silk and Straw, by Junichi Saga, one of the surveyed in the Japanese village of Tsuchiura is that of an executioner family. This family does suffer social isolation, even though the family is somewhat well-off financially, in the Ottoman Empire, only Romani could be executioners. Executioners were seen as damned people and even their graveyards were separate from public graveyards, there were no inscriptions on executioner tombstones, usually uncarved and unpolished simple rough stones were used. One of the oldest and largest executioner graveyards is in the Eyüp district in Istanbul, after the republican revolution in Turkey, executions continued to be performed by Romani executioners. This situation continued until the abolition of capital punishment in Turkey and this provides anonymity that was not possible when executions were carried out in view of the general public. List of executioners Scharfrichter Pierrepoint Executioners sword Sword of Justice The Executioner The Hangwoman
Executioner
–
The execution of
Pirates in Hamburg in 1573.
4.
First French Republic
–
In the history of France, the First Republic, officially the French Republic, was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire in 1804 under Napoleon, under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. The foreign threat exacerbated Frances political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion, in the violence of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the Kings Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the citys prisons. This included nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also numerous common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves, many murdered in their cells—raped, stabbed and this became known as the September Massacres. The resulting Convention was founded with the purpose of abolishing the monarchy. The Conventions first act, on 10 August 1792, was to establish the French First Republic, the King, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. The Committees laws and policies took the revolution to unprecedented heights, after the arrest and execution of Robespierre in July 1794, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of the Year III and they reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. On 3 November 1795, the Directory was established, the period known as the French Consulate began with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. Members of the Directory itself planned the coup, indicating clearly the failing power of the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte was a co-conspirator in the coup, and became head of the government as the First Consul. He would later proclaim himself Emperor of the French, ending the First French Republic and ushering in the French First Empire
First French Republic
–
Napoleon Bonaparte seizes power during the Coup of 18 Brumaire
First French Republic
–
Flag
5.
Capital punishment
–
Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
Capital punishment
–
Anarchist
Auguste Vaillant guillotined in France in 1894
Capital punishment
–
Hanged, drawn and quartered: the execution of
Hugh Despenser the Younger, as depicted in the
Froissart of Louis of Gruuthuse
Capital punishment
–
The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer, by
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1883).
Roman Colosseum.
Capital punishment
–
Giovanni Battista Bugatti, executioner of the
Papal States between 1796 and 1865,
carried out 516 executions (Bugatti pictured offering
snuff to a condemned prisoner).
Vatican City abolished
its capital punishment statute in 1969.
6.
Abbeville
–
Abbeville is a commune in the Somme department and in Hauts-de-France region in northern France. It is one of the chef-lieus of the arrondissement of Somme and it was the capital of Ponthieu. Its inhabitants are called the Abbevillois, Abbeville is located on the Somme River,20 km from its modern mouth in the English Channel. The majority of the town is located on the east bank of the Somme and it is located at the head of the Abbeville Canal, and is 45 km northwest of Amiens and approximately 200 kilometres from Paris. It is also 10 kilometres as the flies from the Bay of Somme. In the medieval period, it was the lowest crossing point on the Somme, just halfway between Rouen and Lille, it is the historical capital of the County of Ponthieu and maritime Picardy. This place is considered by some to be the origin of Abbeville, because it was the location of the first château of the Counts of Ponthieu and it is assumed that this place could have been the location of the farm of Abbatisvilla, dependent upon the Abbey of Saint-Riquier. The suburbs of La Bouvaque and Thuison are located to the north of the city, the municipal park of La Bouvaque, bordered by the Boulevard de la République, consists of the La Bouvaque pond and Collart meadows, former settling ponds of the Béghin-Say sugar factory. It was in Thuison that the Carthusian monastery of Saint-Honoré was founded in 1301 by William of Mâcon and this was a property of the Order of the Temple, sold to the latter by Gérard de Villars, the last master of the province of France. The sale was confirmed by Hugues de Pairaud, then visitor of France, the suburb of Saint Gilles Rouvroy is to the west, and the origin of the name comes from Rouvray indicates the presence of an oak wood or a remarkable oak. Mautort, beside Rouvroy, is a stronghold located between Cambron and Abbeville. It is at the origin of the name of de Mautort, surviving in the name of the Tillette de Mautort family or, for example. The name tort is attested in Old French with the sense of détour, Menchecourt, in the north-west, is known for its sugar factory and for its football club. Abbeville is served by trains on the line between Boulogne-sur-Mer and Amiens and between Calais and Paris, Abbeville was the southern terminus of the Réseau des Bains de Mer, the line to Dompierre-sur-Authie opened on 19 June 1892 and closed on 10 March 1947. Abbeville is located just near the A16 autoroute, and is about 1 hour 50 minutes by car from Paris, Abbeville has an oceanic climate due to its proximity to the ocean. The summers and winters are temperate and rainy, days of snow are fairly common, the highest temperature was 37.8 °C on 1 July 1952 and the record low is −0.8 °C, which occurred during a particularly cold spell on 17 January 1985. In 2012, the commune had 24,237 inhabitants, the evolution of the number of inhabitants is known through the population censuses carried out in the town since 1793. The population of the commune is relatively old, the rate of persons over 60 years of age is higher than the national rate and the departmental rate
Abbeville
–
The
belfry, entrance to the Boucher-de-Perthes Museum (fr)
Abbeville
–
Abbeville railway station (1905 postcard)
Abbeville
–
Miniature de saint Matthieu,
St. Riquier Gospels, municipal library
Abbeville
–
Hand axe of Menchecourt-les-Abbeville, shown at the
1867 International Exposition) -
Muséum de Toulouse
7.
Convent school
–
Catholic schools are parochial schools or education ministries of the Catholic Church. As of 2011, the Church operates the worlds largest non-governmental school system, in 2016, the church supported 43,800 secondary schools, and 95,200 primary schools. Catholic schools participate in the mission of the Church, integrating religious education as the core subject within their curriculum. Irish immigration provides the main contribution to the increases in Catholic communities across the globe, the Irish immigration established the revival of Catholicism through movement to countries across Europe, United Kingdom and Australia. Historically, the establishment of Catholic schools in Europe encountered various struggles following the creation of the Church of England in the Elizabethan Religious settlements of 1558-63, anti-Catholicism in this period encouraged Catholics to create modern Catholic education systems to preserve their traditions. The Relief Acts of 1782 and the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 later increased the possibility to openly practice Catholicism in England and this led to the development of numerous native religious congregations which established schools, hospitals, orphanages, reformatories, and workhouses. Traditionally, Catholic schools originated as single sex schools, Catholic schools were previously required to depend on school fees and endowments. Endowments dropped off sharply causing fees to rise and this prevented some students from enrolling due to their inability to pay. Catholic schools are distinct from their public school counterparts in focusing on the development of individuals as practitioners of the Catholic faith, the leaders, teachers and students are required to focus on four fundamental rules initiated by the Church and school. This includes the Catholic identity of the school, education in regards to life and faith, celebration of life and faith, however, non-Catholics, whether Christian or not, may need to participate in or be exempted from required activities, particularly those of a religious nature. These are in keeping with the spirit of social inclusiveness. ”The education also involves, “the distinct but complementary aspect of the religious dimension of liturgical and prayer life of the school community. ”In Catholic schools. Both teacher and Bishop therefore, contribute to the planning and teaching Religious Education Lessons, Catholic schools in Malaysia have been the backbone of formal education in the country. Catholic schools have many changes since independence in the late 50s. The education policy in Malaysia is very centralized, in 1988, all Catholic religious brothers older than 55 were asked to retire with immediate effect, creating vacancies for lay teachers to take over. Any new brother wanting to join the profession in Malaysia have to be in the civil service. Many of the Lasallian traditions such as inter-La Salle games or sports are now integrated into other government funded programmes. With Islam being the religion, compulsory or elective Bible lessons today are limited only to those of the Catholic faith. The missionaries who opened schools in Malaysia gave a solid education framework, today, there are 68 Sisters of the Infant Jesus,11 Parish Convents and 46 La Salle Brothers schools in the country
Convent school
–
A sign for a Catholic school in Oxford, with the coat-of-arms of the Archdiocese of Birmingham and the logo of the Oxfordshire County Council.
Convent school
–
St. Thomas High School in
Houston,
Texas
Convent school
–
The
Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre in
Pichilemu,
Chile
8.
Rouen
–
Rouen is a city on the River Seine in the north of France. It is the capital of the region of Normandy, formerly one of the largest and most prosperous cities of medieval Europe, Rouen was the seat of the Exchequer of Normandy during the Middle Ages. It was one of the capitals of the Anglo-Norman dynasties, which ruled both England and large parts of modern France from the 11th to the 15th centuries. The population of the area at the 2007 census was 532,559. People from Rouen are known as Rouennais, Rouen and its metropolitan area of 70 suburban communes form the Agglomeration community of Rouen-Elbeuf-Austreberthe, with 494,382 inhabitants at the 2010 census. Rouen was founded by the Gaulish tribe of Veliocasses, who controlled an area in the lower Seine valley. The Gauls named the settlement Ratumacos and the Romans called it Rotomagus, Roman Rotomagus was the second city of Gallia Lugdunensis, after Lugdunum. In the 5th century, it became the seat of a bishopric, in the 10th century Rouen became the capital of the Duchy of Normandy and the residence of the dukes, until William the Conqueror established his castle at Caen. During the early 12th century the population reached 30,000. In 1150, Rouen received its charter, which permitted self-government. During the 12th century, Rouen was probably the site of a Jewish yeshiva, at that time, about 6,000 Jews lived in the town, comprising about 20% of the total population. The well-preserved remains of a medieval Jewish building, that could be a yeshiva, were discovered in the 1970s under the Rouen Law Courts. In 1200, a destroyed part of Rouens Romanesque cathedral, leaving just St Romains tower, the side porches of its front. New work on the present Gothic cathedral of Rouen began, in the nave, transept, choir, on 24 June 1204, Philip Augustus entered Rouen and annexed Normandy to the French Kingdom. The fall of Rouen meant the end of Normandys sovereign status and he demolished the Norman castle and replaced it with his own, the Château Bouvreuil, built on the site of the Gallo-Roman amphitheatre. A textile industry developed based on wool imported from England, competing with the northern County of Flanders, the city found its market niche in the Champagne fairs. Rouen also depended on the traffic of the Seine for its prosperity. Wine and wheat were exported to England, with tin and wool received in return, in the late 13th century urban strife threatened the city, in 1291, the mayor was assassinated and noble residences in the city were pillaged
Rouen
–
Top: View of Downtown Rouen and Seine River from Bois Bagneres Hill. Middle left: Twilightview of Archives department of Seine Maritime building. Center: Night view of
Gros-Horloge. Middle right:
Pont Gustave-Flaubert (Gustave-Flaubert Bridge). Bottom: Night view of Rouen Notre-Dame Cathedral and Seine River.
Rouen
–
City Hall and
Church of St. Ouen, Rouen
Rouen
–
Primitive 14th century
timber framing, rue du Petit Mouton
Rouen
–
For the
royal entry of
Henry II in Rouen, 1 October 1550.
9.
Guillotine
–
A guillotine is an apparatus designed for efficiently carrying out executions by beheading. The device consists of a tall, upright frame in which a weighted and angled blade is raised to the top, the condemned person is secured with stocks at the bottom of the frame, positioning the neck directly below the blade. The blade is released, to fall swiftly and forcefully decapitating the victim with a single pass so that the head falls into a basket below. The name dates from period, but similar devices had been used elsewhere in Europe over several centuries. The guillotine continued to be used long after the revolution and remained Frances standard method of execution until the abolition of capital punishment in 1981. The last person to be executed in France was Hamida Djandoubi, the use of beheading machines in Europe long predates such use in the French revolution in 1792. An early example of the principle is found in the High History of the Holy Grail, although the device is imaginary, its function is clear. The text says, Within these three openings are the set for them. And behold what I would do to them if their three heads were therein, even thus will I cut off their heads when they shall set them into those three openings thinking to adore the hallows that are beyond. The Halifax Gibbet was a structure of two wooden uprights, capped by a horizontal beam, of a total height of 4.5 metres. The blade was an axe head weighing 3.5 kg, attached to the bottom of a wooden block that slid up. This device was mounted on a square platform 1.25 metres high. It is not known when the Halifax Gibbet was first used, the first recorded execution in Halifax dates from 1280, the machine remained in use until Oliver Cromwell forbade capital punishment for petty theft. It was used for the last time, for the execution of two criminals on a day, on 30 April 1650. Holinsheds Chronicles of 1577 included a picture of The execution of Murcod Ballagh near to Merton in Ireland 1307 showing a similar execution machine, the Maiden was constructed in 1564 for the Provost and Magistrates of Edinburgh, and was in use from April 1565 to 1710. One of those executed was James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton, in 1581, Schmidt recommended using an angled blade as opposed to a round one. On 10 October 1789, physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin proposed to the National Assembly that capital punishment always take the form of decapitation by means of a simple mechanism, sensing the growing discontent, Louis XVI banned the use of the breaking wheel. A committee was formed under Antoine Louis, physician to the King, Guillotin was also on the committee
Guillotine
–
Historic replicas (1:6 scale) of the two main types of French guillotines: Model 1792, left, and Model 1872 (state as of 1907), right
Guillotine
–
A replica of the
Halifax Gibbet on its original site, 2008, with St Mary's Catholic church, Gibbet Street, in the background
Guillotine
–
The original
Maiden of 1564, now on display at the
National Museum of Scotland in
Edinburgh
Guillotine
–
Portrait of
Guillotin
10.
Monarchy
–
The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership
Monarchy
–
Richard I of England being anointed during his coronation in
Westminster Abbey, from a 13th-century chronicle.
Monarchy
–
Thutmose I, the third
Pharaoh of the
Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt.
Monarchy
–
King George III of the United Kingdom, Portrait by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
Monarchy
–
King
Salman of Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarch.
11.
Marie Antoinette
–
Marie Antoinette (/ˈmæriˌæntwəˈnɛt/, /ˌɑ̃ːntwə-/, /ˌɑ̃ːtwə-/, US /məˈriː-/, French, born Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna, was the last Queen of France and Navarre before the French Revolution. She was born an Archduchess of Austria, and was the fifteenth and second youngest child of Empress Maria Theresa and Francis I, in April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, heir apparent to the French throne, she became Dauphine of France. After eight years of marriage, Marie Antoinette gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the Diamond Necklace affair damaged her reputation further. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the family to take refuge at the Assembly. On 21 September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, after a two-day trial begun on 14 October 1793, Marie Antoinette was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason, and executed by guillotine on Place de la Révolution on 16 October 1793. Maria Antonia was born on 2 November 1755, at the Hofburg Palace and she was the youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg Empire, and her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor. Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria, King and Queen of Portugal, Archduke Joseph, shortly after her birth, she was placed under the care of the Governess of the Imperial children, Countess von Brandeis. Maria Antonia was raised with her older sister Maria Carolina. As to her relationship with her mother, it was difficult, despite the private tutoring she received, results of her schooling were less than satisfactory. At the age of ten she could not write correctly in German or in any language used at court, such as French. Under the teaching of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Maria Antonia developed into a good musician and she learned to play the harp, the harpsichord and the flute. During the familys gatherings in the evenings, she would sing and she also excelled at dancing, had an exquisite poise, and loved dolls. Following the Seven Years War and the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, Empress Maria Theresa decided to end hostilities with her longtime enemy, on 14 May she met her husband at the edge of the forest of Compiègne. Upon her arrival in France, she adopted the French version of her name, a further ceremonial wedding took place on 16 May 1770 in the Palace of Versailles and, after the festivities, the day ended with the ritual bedding. The lack of consummation of the marriage plagued the reputation of both Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette for the seven years. The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste was mixed, on the one hand, the Dauphine was beautiful, personable and well-liked by the common people. Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773 was a resounding success, on the other hand, those opposed to the alliance with Austria, and others, for personal reasons, had a difficult relationship with Marie Antoinette. Madame du Barry, for example, was Louis XVs mistress and had political influence over him
Marie Antoinette
–
Marie Antoinette with the Rose Portrait by
Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, 1783.
Marie Antoinette
–
Archduchesses Maria Carolina (in blue dress) and Maria Antonia (in pink dress). Watercolor on ivory by Antonio Pencini, 1764. Vienna, Hofburg.
Marie Antoinette
–
Maria Antonia aged 12 by
Martin van Meytens, c. 1767-1768.
12.
Georges Danton
–
Georges Jacques Danton was a leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution, in particular as the first president of the Committee of Public Safety. He was guillotined by the advocates of revolutionary terror after accusations of venality, Danton was born in Arcis-sur-Aube in northeastern France to Jacques Danton and Mary Camus, a respectable, but not wealthy family. As a child, he was attacked by animals, resulting in the disfigurement and scarring of the skin on his face. After obtaining an education he became an Advocate in Paris. He married Antoinette Gabrielle Charpentier on 14 June 1787 at the church of Saint-Germain-lAuxerrois in Paris, Danton was considered a very mischievous boy. Due to this, he went to different schools, also, he had a very high natural IQ. As a result, he was bored and disinterested in his classes. His first teacher was his grandfather and he was able to pass his classes with little effort, when he was 9, he was sent to a boys school. This is where Danton learned Latin and he was later sent to a school in Troyes for a year due to his mother thinking that he hasnt given up his mischievous ways as a child. Later, he attended a boarding house taught by Oratorians until he was 17, here, he learned more Latin and about the Bible, mainly the Acts of the Apostles and about Christian beliefs. He didnt really take to them, however, as early as age 12, he had already acquired the skills to become a leader. He led fellow classmates to either rebel or riot and this showed his leadership skills and how much his classmates already respected him at such a young age. He also consistently questioned authority, which will be seen later during the French revolution when he openly disrespected and called out Lafayette as a traitor during a meeting. At a young age, he had amazing writing and speech skills, as later during a competition, he took all the prizes for French discourse, Latin narration. Was highly influenced by thinkers of the time, such as Montesquieu. Studied at Reim University where he became a lawyer, later become bored of the career and became an orator. Was seen as a man of the people by then because he pleaded for the poor. Both his classmates, teachers and grandfather revered him as a prodigy and his amazing writing and speaking skills later made people give him the nickname “The Thunderer”
Georges Danton
–
Georges-Jacques Danton.
Musée Carnavalet, Paris
Georges Danton
–
Signature
Georges Danton
–
According to a biographer, "Danton's height was colossal, his make athletic, his features strongly marked, coarse, and displeasing; his voice shook the domes of the halls".
Georges Danton
–
Danton addressing the
National Convention.
13.
Maximilien Robespierre
–
Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre was a French lawyer and politician. He was one of the best-known and most influential figures associated with the French Revolution, as a member of the Estates-General, the Constituent Assembly and the Jacobin Club, Robespierre was an outspoken advocate for the poor and for democratic institutions. He campaigned for universal suffrage in France, price controls on basic food commodities. But although he was an ardent opponent of the penalty, he played an important role in arranging the execution of King Louis XVI. He is perhaps best known for his role in the French Revolutions Reign of Terror and he was named as a member of the powerful Committee of Public Safety launched by his political ally Georges Danton and exerted his influence to suppress the left-wing Hébertists. The Terror ended a few later with Robespierres arrest and execution in July. Robespierres personal responsibility for the excesses of the Terror remains the subject of debate among historians of the French Revolution. Influenced by 18th-century Enlightenment philosophes such as Rousseau and Montesquieu, Robespierre was a capable articulator of the beliefs of the left-wing bourgeoisie and his steadfast adherence and defense of the views he expressed earned him the nickname lIncorruptible. Robespierres reputation has gone through cycles of re-appraisal. During the Soviet Era, Robespierre was used as an example of a Revolutionary figure and his reputation peaked in the 1920s with the influence of French historian Albert Mathiez. In more recent times, his reputation has suffered as historians have associated him with an attempt at a radical purification of politics through the killing of enemies, Maximilien Robespierre was born in Arras in the old French province of Artois. His family has been traced back to the 12th century in Picardy and it has been suggested that he was of Irish descent, his surname possibly a corruption of Robert Speirs. His paternal grandfather, also named Maximilien de Robespierre, established himself in Arras as a lawyer and his father, François Maximilien Barthélémy de Robespierre, was a lawyer at the Conseil dArtois. He married Jacqueline Marguerite Carrault, the daughter of a brewer, Maximilien was the oldest of four children and was conceived out of wedlock. His siblings were Charlotte, Henriette, and Augustin, on 7 July 1764, Madame de Robespierre gave birth to a stillborn son, she died nine days later. Devastated by his wifes death, François de Robespierre subsequently left Arras, the children would visit each other on Sundays. Already literate at age 8, Maximilien started attending the collège of Arras, in October 1769, on the recommendation of the bishop, he received a scholarship at the Collège Louis-le-Grand, University of Paris in Paris. Robespierre studied there until age 23, receiving his training as a lawyer, upon his graduation, he received a special prize of 600-livre for twelve years of exemplary academic success and personal good conduct
Maximilien Robespierre
–
Robespierre c. 1790, (
anonymous),
Musée Carnavalet, Paris
Maximilien Robespierre
–
Signature
Maximilien Robespierre
–
Portrait of Robespierre by
Boilly, c.1791 (
Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille).
Maximilien Robespierre
–
Terracotta bust of Robespierre by
Deseine, 1792 (
Château de Vizille)
14.
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
–
Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just was a military and political leader during the French Revolution. The youngest of the elected to the National Convention in 1792, Saint-Just rose quickly in their ranks. He spearheaded the movement to execute King Louis XVI and later drafted the radical French Constitution of 1793 and he became a close friend of Maximilien Robespierre, and served with him as one of the commissioners of the powerful Committee of Public Safety. Back in Paris, he supervised the consolidation of Robespierres power through a ruthless, in his relatively brief time on the historical stage, he became the enduring public face of the Reign of Terror and was dubbed the Angel of Death by later writers. Saint-Just organized the arrests and prosecutions of many of the most famous figures of the Revolution, Saint-Just was arrested in the violent episode of 9 Thermidor and executed the next day with Robespierre and their allies. In many histories of the Revolution, their deaths at the mark the end of the Reign of Terror. Louis Antoine de Saint-Just was born at Decize in the former Nivernais province of central France and he had two younger sisters, born in 1768 and 1769. A year after the move, Louis Antoines father died leaving his mother with the three children and she saved diligently for her only sons education, and in 1779 he was sent to the Oratorian school at Soissons. After a promising start, Saint-Just acquired a reputation as a troublemaker, augmented by infamous stories of how he led a students rebellion, nonetheless, he earned his graduation in 1786. His restive nature, however, did not diminish, as a young man, Saint-Just was wild, handsome, transgressive. Well-connected and popular, he showed a special affection toward a woman of Blérancourt. She was the daughter of another notary, a powerful and autocratic figure in the town. He is said to have proposed marriage to her, she is said to have desired it, though no hard evidence exists regarding their relationship, official records show that on 25 July 1786, Thérèse was married to Emmanuel Thorin, the scion of a prominent local family. Saint-Just was out of town and unaware of the event, and his venture turned short when his mother had him seized by police and sent to a reformatory where he stayed from September 1786 to March 1787. Chastened, Saint-Just attempted to begin anew, he enrolled as a student at the School of Law, after a year, however, he drifted away from law school and returned to his mothers home in Blérancourt penniless, without any occupational prospects. At a young age Saint-Just had shown a fascination with literature and he published it anonymously more than two years later, in May 1789, at the very outbreak of the Revolution. The 21-year-old Saint-Just thereby added his own touch to the tumult of the times with Organt. The poem, an epic fantasy, relates the quest of young Antoine Organt
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
–
Saint-Just by
Prud'hon, 1793 (
Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon)
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
–
Saint-Just's home in
Blérancourt is now a museum and tourist center.
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
–
Saint-Just became a member of the
Committee of Public Safety on 30 May 1793.
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
–
Order of the Revolutionary Tribunal condemning the
Hébertists
15.
Camille Desmoulins
–
Lucie Simplice Camille Benoît Desmoulins, a journalist and politician, played an important role in the French Revolution. He was a friend of Maximilien Robespierre and a close friend and political ally of Georges Danton. Desmoulins was tried and executed alongside Danton when the Committee of Public Safety reacted against Dantonist opposition, Desmoulins was born at Guise, Aisne, in Picardy. His father, Jean Benoît Nicolas Desmoulins, was a rural lawyer, through the efforts of a friend, he obtained a scholarship for the fourteen-year-old Camille to enter the Collège Louis-le-Grand in Paris. Desmoulins proved an exceptional student even among such notable contemporaries as Maximilien Robespierre and he excelled in the study of Classical literature and politics, and gained a particular affinity for Cicero, Tacitus and Livy. Thus stymied, he turned towards writing as an outlet for his talents. In March 1789, Jean Benoît Nicolas Desmoulins was nominated as deputy to the Estates-General from the bailliage of Guise, however, due to illness, he failed to take his seat. Camille Desmoulins, himself limited to the role of spectator at the procession of the Estates-General on 5 May 1789, wrote a response to the event, Ode aux Etats Generaux. Owing to his difficulties in establishing a career as a lawyer, Desmoulins position in Paris was a precarious one, however, he was greatly inspired and enthused by the current of political reform that surrounded the summoning of the Estates-General. The sudden dismissal of popular finance minister Jacques Necker by King Louis XVI on 11 July 1789 proved the spark that lit the fuse of Desmoulins fame. On 12 July, spurred by the news of this politically unsettling dismissal, Desmoulins leapt onto a table outside the Cafe du Foy and delivered an impassioned call to arms. The stationing of a number of troops in Paris, many foreign, had led Desmoulins. This was an idea that his audience also found plausible and threatening, the cockades worn by the crowd were initially green, a color associated with liberty, and made at first from the leaves of the trees that lined the Palais Royal. The forces semi-organized under this banner attacked the Hôtel des Invalides to gain arms and, on 14 July, in May and June 1789, Desmoulins had written a radical pamphlet entitled La France Libre, which his publisher at that time had refused to print. The rioting surrounding the storming of the Bastille, however, and especially Desmoulins personal and publicized involvement in it, on 18 July, Desmoulinss work was finally issued. The politics of the pamphlet ran considerably in advance of public opinion, in it, Desmoulins called explicitly for a republic, popular and democratic government is the only constitution which suits France, and all those who are worthy of the name of men. La France Libre also examined and criticized in detail the role and rights of kings, of the nobility, a famous Revolutionary song, the Ça ira, also immortalizes this lantern, in the lines, Les aristocrates à la lanterne. This hard-edged fervor found an audience in Paris, and Desmoulins, as a result of the pamphlet
Camille Desmoulins
–
Portrait of Camille Desmoulins
Camille Desmoulins
–
Camille Desmoulins
Camille Desmoulins
–
Portrait by
Joseph Boze
16.
Joseph-Ignace Guillotin
–
While he did not invent the guillotine, and in fact opposed the death penalty, his name became an eponym for it. The actual inventor of the prototype was Antoine Louis, Guillotin wrote an essay to get the degree of Master of Arts from the University of Bordeaux. This essay impressed the Jesuits so much that they persuaded him to enter their order, however, he left after a few years and travelled to Paris to study medicine, becoming a pupil of Antoine Petit. He gained a diploma from the faculty at Reims in 1768 and later won a prize given by the Paris faculty, in December 1788, Guillotin drafted a pamphlet entitled Petition of the Citizens Living in Paris, concerning the proper constitution of the States-General. As a result, he was summoned by the French parliament to give an account of his opinions, on 2 May 1789, he became one of 10 Paris deputies in the Estates-General of 1789 and was secretary to the body from June 1789 to October 1791. As a member of the assembly, Guillotin mainly directed his attention towards medical reform, on 10 October 1789, during a debate on capital punishment, he proposed that the criminal shall be decapitated, this will be done solely by means of a simple mechanism. The mechanism was defined as a machine that beheads painlessly and his proposal appeared in the Royalist periodical, Les Actes des Apôtres. At that time, beheading in France was typically done by axe or sword, additionally, beheading was reserved for the nobility, while commoners were typically hanged. He also hoped that fewer families and children would witness executions and vowed to make them more private and it was also his belief that a standard death penalty by decapitation would prevent the cruel and unjust system of the day. On 1 December 1789, Guillotin made a remark during a speech to the Assembly about capital punishment. Now, with my machine, I cut off head in the twinkling of an eye. The statement quickly became a joke, and few days after the debate a comic song about Guillotin and his machine circulated. The Moniteur of 18 December 1789 deplored the joking but repeated Guillotins twinkling of an eye statement for posterity, for the remainder of his life, Guillotin would deeply regret that the machine was named after him. The authorities demanded Guillotin inform them of the whereabouts of the Counts wife, as Guillotin either would not or could not give the information, he was arrested and imprisoned. He was freed from prison in the amnesty of 9 Thermidor 1794 after Robespierre fell from power. Guillotin became one of the first French doctors to support Edward Jenners discovery of vaccination and he also founded one of the precursors of the National Academy of Medicine. By coincidence, a person named Guillotin was indeed executed by the guillotine – he was J. M. V, joseph Guillotin was initiated into Freemasonry, in 1765 at La Parfaite Union lodge in Angoulême. Very active as a mason, he joined several other lodges, as a deputy of the Grand Loge from 1772 he took part in the birth of the Grand Orient of France and to all its conventions until 1790
Joseph-Ignace Guillotin
–
Dr. Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (
Musée Carnavalet,
Paris)
17.
Antoine Louis
–
Antoine Louis was an 18th-century French surgeon and physiologist. He was originally trained in medicine by his father, a surgeon-major at a military hospital. As a young man he moved to Paris, where he served as gagnant-maîtrise at the Salpêtrière, in 1750 he was appointed professor of physiology, a position he held for 40 years. In 1764 he was appointed secretary to the Académie Royale de Chirurgie. Louis published numerous articles on surgery, including biographies of surgeons who died in his lifetime. He also published the surgical aphorisms of Dutch physician Herman Boerhaave, Louis is credited with designing a prototype of the guillotine. For a period of time after its invention, the guillotine was called a louisette, however, it was later named after French physician Joseph Ignace Guillotin, who advocated a more humane method of capital punishment. The angle of Louis is another name for the sternal angle, réfutation de lécrit des médecins, intitulé la subordination des chirurgiens aux médecins, démontrée par la nature des deux professions, & par le bien public,1748,32 p. Texte intégral. Addition à lexamen des plaintes des médecins de province, présentées au roy par la Faculté de Médecine de Paris,1749,11 p. Texte intégral, prononcé à la séance publique de lAcadémie royale de chirurgie. Lettre sur les maladies vénériennes, dans laquelle on publié la manière de préparer le mercure dont la plus forte dose nexcite point de salivation, G. Cavelier,1763,54 p. Texte intégral et available at Gallica. Parallèle des différentes méthodes de traiter la maladie vénérienne, François Changuion,1764,290 p. Texte intégral. Recueil dobservations danatomie et de chirurgie, pour servir de base a la théorie des lésions de la tête, par contre-coup, dictionnaire de chirurgie, communiqué à lEncyclopédie, Saillant & Nyon,1789,2 vol. tome premier Texte intégral. Mémoire sur lopération du bec-de-lièvre, où lon établit le premier principe de lart de réunir les plaie, georges Sauvé, « Un cours de médecine dAntoine Petit en 1768 », in, Histoire des Sciences médicales,1988,22, pp. 237–248 Texte intégral. Antoine Jacques Louis Jourdan, « Louis », in, Dictionaire Des Sciences Médicales - Biographie Médicale, Panckoucke, t.6,1824, Michel Porret, « Calas innocent, les preuves par la science, in, L’Histoire,323, septembre 2007, 69-73. Antoine Louis notice bio-bibliographique dans le site de la Biu Santé, antoine Louis dans la Banque dimages et de portraits de la Biu Santé. Antoine Louis dans la site La médecine à Nancy depuis 1872, Œuvres numérisées dAntoine Louis dans le site The Oneline Books. Antoine Louis @ Who Named It
Antoine Louis
–
Professor Antoine Louis in 1778
Antoine Louis
–
Memoire contre la legitimite des naissances pretendues tardives, 1764
18.
Legislative Assembly (France)
–
The Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France from 1 October 1791 to 20 September 1792 during the years of the French Revolution. It provided the focus of debate and revolutionary law-making between the periods of the National Constituent Assembly and of the National Convention. The National Constituent Assembly dissolved itself on 30 September 1791, upon Robespierres motion it had decreed that none of its members would be eligible to the next legislature. The Legislative Assembly entrenched the perceived left-right political spectrum that is commonly used today. The elections of 1791, held by franchise, brought in a legislature that desired to carry the Revolution further. Prominent in the legislature were the Jacobin Club and its affiliated societies throughout France, the Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791. It consisted of 745 members, mostly from the middle class, the members were generally young, and since none had sat in the previous Assembly, they largely lacked national political experience. They tended to be people who had made their name through successful political careers in local politics and they were staunch constitutional monarchists, firm in their defence of the King against the popular agitation. The leftists were of 136 Jacobins and Cordeliers and its most famous leaders were Jacques Pierre Brissot, the philosopher Condorcet, and Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud. The Left drew its inspiration from the radical tendency of the Enlightenment, regarded the émigré nobles as traitors. They were suspicious of Louis XVI, some of them favoring a general European war, the remainder of the House,345 deputies, generally belonged to no definite party. They were called the Marsh or the Plain and they were committed to the ideals of the Revolution, hence generally inclined to side with the Left but would also occasionally back proposals from the Right. The kings ministers, named by him and excluded from the Assembly, are described by the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica as mostly persons of little mark. For a detailed description of the proceedings of the Legislative Assembly and related events, see The Legislative Assembly, the 27 August 1791 Declaration of Pillnitz already threatened France with attack by its neighbors. King Louis XVI favored war hoping to exploit a military defeat to restore his absolute power and this led in April 1792 to the first of the French Revolutionary Wars. Louis vetoed the decree as a matter of conscience, Louis XVI formed a series of cabinets, veering at times as far left as the Girondins. However, by the summer of 1792, amid war and insurrection, it had become clear that the monarchy, on 11 July 1792, the Assembly formally declared the Nation in danger because of the dire military situation. On 9 August 1792, a new revolutionary Commune took possession of Hôtel de Ville, and early on the morning of 10 August, the insurgents assailed the Tuileries, Louis and his family sought asylum with the Legislative Assembly
Legislative Assembly (France)
–
Medal of the Legislative Assembly
Legislative Assembly (France)
Legislative Assembly (France)
Legislative Assembly (France)
19.
Nicolas Jacques Pelletier
–
Nicolas Jacques Pelletier was a French highwayman who was the first person to be executed by means of the guillotine. Pelletier routinely associated with a group of known criminals, on the night of 14 October 1791, with several unknown accomplices, he attacked a passerby in the rue Bourbon-Villeneuve in Paris and stole his wallet and several securities. During the robbery he also killed the man, though this is disputed in later literature as possibly just having been an assault and robbery or also an assault, robbery, and rape. He was apprehended and accused that same night, for the cries for help alerted the city, Judge Jacob Augustin Moreau, the District Judge of Sens, was to hear the case. A legal advisor was given to Pelletier, but despite his efforts and calls for a court hearing. On 24 December 1791, the Second Criminal Court confirmed Judge Moreaus sentence, the execution was stayed, however, after the National Assembly made decapitation the only legal method of capital punishment. Pelletier waited in jail for more than three months as the guillotine was built in Strasbourg under the direction of the surgeon Antoine Louison, meanwhile, the public executioner Charles Henri Sanson tested the machine on corpses in the Bicêtre Hospital. Sanson preferred the guillotine over the former decapitation by sword, as the latter reminded him of the former privileges that the revolutionaries had worked to eliminate. On 24 January 1792, a criminal court confirmed the execution. The execution was delayed due to the debate on the legal method of execution. Finally, the National Assembly decreed on 23 March 1792 in favour of the guillotine, the guillotine was placed on top of a scaffolding outside the Hôtel de Ville in the Place de Grève, where public executions had been held during the reign of King Louis XV. Pierre Louis Roederer, thinking that a number of people would come to see the first-ever public execution-by-guillotine. He wrote to General Lafayette to ask for National Guardsmen to make sure the event went smoothly, the execution took place at 3,30 in the afternoon. Pelletier was led to the wearing a red shirt. The large crowd predicted by Roederer was already waiting, eager to see the novel invention at work. The guillotine, which was red in color, had been previously fully prepared. Within seconds, the guillotine and Pelletier were positioned correctly, the crowd, however, was dissatisfied with the guillotine. They felt it was too swift and clinically effective to provide entertainment, as compared to previous execution methods, such as hanging, death-by-sword
Nicolas Jacques Pelletier
–
A replica model (scale 1:6) of a 1792 French guillotine.
20.
Violin
–
The violin is a wooden string instrument in the violin family. It is the smallest and highest-pitched instrument in the family in regular use, smaller violin-type instruments are known, including the violino piccolo and the kit violin, but these are virtually unused in the 2010s. The violin typically has four strings tuned in fifths, and is most commonly played by drawing a bow across its strings. Violins are important instruments in a variety of musical genres. They are most prominent in the Western classical tradition and in varieties of folk music. They are also used in genres of folk including country music and bluegrass music. Electric violins are used in forms of rock music, further. The violin is sometimes called a fiddle, particularly in Irish traditional music and bluegrass. The violin was first known in 16th-century Italy, with further modifications occurring in the 18th and 19th centuries. In Europe it served as the basis for stringed instruments used in classical music, the viola. According to their reputation, the quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or equal it, many of these trade instruments were formerly sold by Sears, Roebuck and Co. and other mass merchandisers. A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier or violinmaker, the parts of a violin are usually made from different types of wood and on the use of a pickup and an amplifier and speaker). Violins can be strung with gut, Perlon or other synthetic, the earliest stringed instruments were mostly plucked. Similar and variant types were probably disseminated along East-West trading routes from Asia into the Middle East, the first makers of violins probably borrowed from various developments of the Byzantine lira. These included the rebec, the Arabic rebab, the vielle, the earliest pictures of violins, albeit with three strings, are seen in northern Italy around 1530, at around the same time as the words violino and vyollon are seen in Italian and French documents. One of the earliest explicit descriptions of the instrument, including its tuning, is from the Epitome musical by Jambe de Fer, by this time, the violin had already begun to spread throughout Europe. The violin proved very popular, both among street musicians and the nobility, the French king Charles IX ordered Andrea Amati to construct 24 violins for him in 1560, one of these noble instruments, the Charles IX, is the oldest surviving violin. The Messiah or Le Messie made by Antonio Stradivari in 1716 remains pristine and it is now located in the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford
Violin
–
A standard modern violin shown from the front and the side
Violin
–
A young violinist at
Ruthin School
Violin
–
The cupola of Madonna dei Miracoli in
Saronno, with angels playing violin, viola and cello, dates from 1535 and is one of the earliest depictions of the violin family
21.
Cello
–
The cello or violoncello is a bowed or plucked string instrument with four strings tuned in perfect fifths. The strings from low to high are generally tuned to C2, G2, D3 and A3 and it is a member of the violin family of musical instruments, which also includes the violin and viola and the double bass. The cello is used as a musical instrument, as well as in chamber music ensembles, string orchestras, as a member of the string section of symphony orchestras. It is the second-largest and second lowest bowed string instrument in the symphony orchestra. Cello parts are written in the bass clef, but both tenor clef and treble clefs are used for higher-range parts, both in orchestral/chamber music parts and in solo cello works. A person who plays the cello is called a cellist or violoncellist, in a small Classical ensemble, such as a string quartet, the cello typically plays the bass part, the lowest-pitched musical line of the piece. In orchestra, in Baroque era and Classical music period, the cello plays the bass part. In Baroque era music, the cello is used to play the basso continuo bassline, in a Baroque performance, the cello player might be joined by other bass instruments, playing double bass, viol or other low-register instruments. The name cello is a contraction of the Italian violoncello, which means little violone, in modern symphony orchestras, it is the second largest stringed instrument. Thus, the name contained both the augmentative -one and the diminutive -cello. By the turn of the 20th century, it had become common to shorten the name to cello and it is now customary to use cello without apostrophe as the full designation. Viol is derived from the viola, which was derived from Medieval Latin vitula. Cellos are tuned in fifths, starting with C2, followed by G2, D3 and it is tuned in the same intervals as the viola, but an octave lower. Unlike the violin or viola but similar to the double bass, the cello is most closely associated with European classical music, and has been described as the closest sounding instrument to the human voice. The instrument is a part of the orchestra, as part of the string section. A large number of concertos and sonatas have been written for the cello, among the most well-known Baroque works for the cello are Johann Sebastian Bachs six unaccompanied Suites. The Prelude from the First Suite is particularly famous, romantic era repertoire includes the Robert Schumann Concerto, the Antonín Dvořák Concerto as well as the two sonatas and the Double Concerto by Johannes Brahms. The cello is increasingly common in traditional music, especially Scottish fiddle music
Cello
–
Cello close-up
Cello
–
Cello, front and side view. The endpin at the bottom is retracted or removed for easier storage and transportation, and adjusted for height in accordance to the player.
Cello
–
A baroque cello strung with gut strings. Note the absence of fine-tuning pins on the tailpiece.
Cello
–
The cello section of the Orchestra of the Munich University of Applied Sciences is shown here.
22.
Christoph Willibald Gluck
–
Christoph Willibald Gluck was a composer of Italian and French opera in the early classical period. With a series of new works in the 1760s, among them Orfeo ed Euridice and Alceste. The strong influence of French opera in these works encouraged Gluck to move to Paris, fusing the traditions of Italian opera and the French national genre into a new synthesis, Gluck wrote eight operas for the Parisian stages. One of the last of these, Iphigénie en Tauride, was a success and is generally acknowledged to be his finest work. Gluck was born on 2 July 1714 in Erasbach near Neumarkt and his father Alexander was a forester in Erasbach, and after 1717 head forester in Reichstadt, Kreibitz and Eisenberg, all in northern Bohemia. According to some biographers, it was here, in the middle of Lusatian Mountains, in 1727 the family moved to Eisenberg, where his father was admitted to the service of Prince Philip Hyazinth von Lobkowitz. The Alsatian painter Johann Christian von Mannlich says it was as a Bohemian schoolboy that Gluck received his first musical training. Mannlich relates in his memoirs, written in French and published in 1810 and he quotes Gluck as saying, My father was forestmaster at M. in Bohemia and he planned that eventually I should succeed him. In my homeland everyone is musical, music is taught in the schools, as I was passionate about the art, I made rapid progress. I played several instruments and the schoolmaster, singling me out from the other pupils, I no longer thought and dreamt of anything but music, the art of forestry was neglected. Most now claim that the object of Glucks travels was not Vienna but Prague, at the time the University of Prague boasted a flourishing musical scene that included performances of both Italian opera and oratorio. Gluck eventually left Prague without taking a degree, and vanishes from the record until 1737. According to the music historian Daniel Heartz, there has been considerable controversy concerning Glucks native language, Glucks first biographer, Anton Schmid, accepted that Gluck spoke Czech, but thought Salieri incorrect, proposing instead that Gluck learned Czech in Prague. Heartz writes, More devious manoeuvres have been attempted by Glucks German biographers of this century, while the French ones have, without exception, hans Joachim Moser wanted a lyric work in Czech as proof. In fact, the music theorist Larent Garcin, writing in 1770 before Gluck arrived in Paris, in 1737 Gluck arrived in Milan, where he studied under G. B. Sammartini, who, according to Carpani, taught Gluck practical knowledge of all the instruments, apparently this relationship lasted for several years. Set to a libretto by Metastasio, the opera opened the Milanese Carnival of 1742, according to one anecdote, the public would not accept Glucks style until he inserted an aria in the lighter Milanese manner for contrast. Nearly all of his operas in this period were, like Artaserse, set to Metastasios texts, in 1745 Gluck accepted an invitation to become house composer at Londons Kings Theatre, probably travelling to England via Frankfurt and in the company of Georg Christian, Fürst von Lobkowitz
Christoph Willibald Gluck
–
Gluck in a 1775 portrait by
Joseph Duplessis
Christoph Willibald Gluck
–
Castle Jezeří (de) (Schloss Eisenberg), 1882
23.
Laconic wit
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A laconic phrase or laconism is a concise or terse statement, especially a blunt and elliptical rejoinder. It is named after Laconia, the region of Greece including the city of Sparta, whose ancient inhabitants had a reputation for austerity and were famous for their blunt. A laconic phrase may be used for efficiency, for philosophical reasons, the Spartan ephors replied with a single word, If. Subsequently, neither Philip nor his son Alexander the Great attempted to capture the city, Philip is also recorded as approaching Sparta on another occasion and asking whether he should come as friend or foe, the reply was Neither. The Spartans were especially famous for their dry, understated wit and this can be contrasted with the Attic salt or Attic wit – the refined, poignant, delicate humour of Spartas chief rival Athens. Various more recent groups also have a reputation for humor, Australians, American cowboys, New Englanders, people from the North Country of England. Spartans focused less than other ancient Greeks on the development of education, arts, some view this as having contributed to the characteristically blunt Laconian speech. However, Socrates, in Platos dialogue Protagoras, appears to reject the idea that Spartans economy with words was simply a consequence of poor literary education. They conceal their wisdom, and pretend to be blockheads, so that they may seem to be only because of their prowess in battle. Socrates was known to have admired Spartan laws, as did many other Athenians, still, two Spartans – Myson of Chenae and Chilon of Sparta – were traditionally counted among the Seven Sages of Greece to whom many famous sayings were ascribed. In general, however, Spartans were expected to be men of few words, to hold rhetoric in disdain, loquacity was seen as a sign of frivolity, and unbecoming of sensible, down-to-earth Spartan peers. A Spartan youth was reportedly liable to have his thumb bitten as punishment for too verbose a response to a teachers question. A witticism attributed to Lycurgus, the legendary lawgiver of Sparta, was a response to a proposal to set up a democracy there. On another occasion, Lycurgus was reportedly asked the reason for the less-than-extravagant size of Spartas sacrifices to the gods and he replied, So that we may always have something to offer. When he was consulted on how Spartans might best forestall invasion of their homeland, Lycurgus advised, By remaining poor, and each man not desiring to possess more than his fellow. When asked whether it would be prudent to build a wall enclosing the city, Lycurgus answered. King Demaratus, being annoyed by someone pestering him with a question concerning who the most exemplary Spartan was, on her husband Leonidass departure for battle with the Persians at Thermopylae, Gorgo, Queen of Sparta asked what she should do. He advised her, Marry a good man and bear good children, Leonidas replied Molon labe, which translates to Come and take them
Laconic wit
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Chilon of Sparta
Laconic wit
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Lycurgus
Laconic wit
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The marble 1955
Leonidas Monument at Thermopylae with the words
ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ inscribed.
Laconic wit
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Pyrrhus of Epirus
24.
Montmartre Cemetery
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Montmartre Cemetery is a cemetery in the 18th arrondissement of Paris, France, that dates to the early 19th century. Officially known as the Cimitière du Nord, it is the third largest necropolis in Paris, after the Père Lachaise cemetery and the Montparnasse cemetery. In the mid-18th century, overcrowding in the cemeteries of Paris had created numerous problems, in the 1780s, the Cimetière des Innocents was officially closed and citizens were banned from burying corpses within the city limits of Paris. The Montmartre Cemetery was opened on January 1,1825 and it was initially known as la Cimetière des Grandes Carrières. The name referenced the cemeterys unique location, in a gypsum quarry. The quarry had previously used during the French Revolution as a mass grave. It was built below street level, in the hollow of a gypsum quarry located west of the Butte near the beginning of Rue Caulaincourt in Place de Clichy. As is still the case today, its entrance was constructed on Avenue Rachel under Rue Caulaincourt. A popular tourist destination even today, Montmartre Cemetery is the resting place of many famous artists who lived and worked in the Montmartre area. See the full list of notable interments below and it should be noted however, that the Zola family grave is still there, with Émiles name on it. Montmartre cemetery information In English Photos of Montmartre Documenting funerary statuary in Paris cemeteries, on pariscemeteries. com
Montmartre Cemetery
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The Montmartre Cemetery with the Rue Caulaincourt viaduct passing through it
Montmartre Cemetery
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Henri-Georges Clouzot's grave
Montmartre Cemetery
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Renée Jeanne Falconetti
Montmartre Cemetery
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John Gunning
25.
Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville
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Antoine Quentin Fouquier de Tinville was a French prosecutor during the Revolution and Reign of Terror periods. Born in Herouël, a village in the département of the Aisne and he studied law and in 1774 purchased a position as prosecutor procureur attached to the Châtelet in Paris. He sold his office in 1781 to pay off his debts and he seems to have adopted revolutionary ideas early on, but little is known of the part he played at the outbreak of the Revolution. According to himself, he was part of the National Guard at its formation and he was active in the politics of his section in 1789, and in August 1792, supported the sans culotte movement. Backed by his cousin Camille Desmoulins, Fouquier de Tinville became the foreman of a jury established to pass verdict on crimes of Royalists arrested after the journée du 10 août in 1792. When the Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris was created by the National Convention on 10 March 1793, he was appointed its public prosecutor and his zeal in prosecution earned him the nickname Purveyor to the Guillotine. His activity during this earned him the reputation of one of the most sinister figures of the Revolution. His office as public prosecutor arguably reflected a need to display the appearance of legality during what was essentially political command, Fouquier de Tinville, like Maximilien Robespierre, was known for his ruthless radicalism. Apparently the nuns, whom he called criminal assassins, were corrupted by the ex-Jesuit Rousseau de Roseicquet, when the judge read this piece of Fouquier-Tinvilles prose, he condemned them to be deported, as well as all those who had given them refuge. His career ended with the fall of Robespierre at the start of the Thermidorian Reaction, imprisoned on 1 August, he was brought to trial in front of the Convention. His defense was that he had obeyed the decrees of the Committee of Public Safety and the Convention, It is not I who ought to be facing the tribunal. I had only acted in the spirit of the laws passed by a Convention invested with all powers, through the absence of its members, I find myself the head of a conspiracy I have never been aware of. Here I am facing slander, an always eager to find others responsible. After a trial lasting forty-one days, he was sentenced to death and guillotined on 7 May 1795, together with 15 former functionaries of the Revolutionary Tribunal, Fouquier-Tinville married his first wife, Geneviève-Dorothée Saugnier, with whom he would have five children, in 1775. He was widowed seven years later, four months after his wifes death, he married Henriette Jeanne Gérard dArcourt, with whom he would spend the rest of his life. Fouquier was played by Roger Planchon in Andrzej Wajdas film Danton, Public Prosecutor in the opera Andrea Chenier by Umberto Giordano This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Fouquier-Tinville, Antoine Quentin. In turn, it cites as references, Mémoire pour A. Q, Fouquier ex-accusateur public près le tribunal révolutionnaire, etc. M. i. Nos. 4445-4454, an ennumeration of the documents relating to Fouquier-Tinvilles trial Henri Wallon, Histoire du tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris Fouquier-Tinville, Antoine Quentin
Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville
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Prosecutor during the Reign of Terror
26.
Madame Tussauds
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Madame Tussauds is a wax museum in London with smaller museums in a number of other major cities. It was founded by wax sculptor Marie Tussaud and it used to be known as Madame Tussauds, the apostrophe is no longer used. Madame Tussauds is a major tourist attraction in London, displaying waxworks of famous people, Marie Tussaud was born as Marie Grosholtz in 1761 in Strasbourg, France. Her mother worked as a housekeeper for Dr. Philippe Curtius in Bern, Switzerland, Curtius taught Tussaud the art of wax modelling. He moved to Paris and took his apprentice, only 6 years old. Tussaud created her first wax sculpture in 1777 of Voltaire, at the age of 17 she became the art tutor to King Louis XVI of France’s sister, Madame Elizabeth, at the Palace of Versailles. During the French Revolution she was imprisoned for three months awaiting execution, but was released after the intervention of an influential friend, other famous people whom she modelled included Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Benjamin Franklin. During the Revolution, she modelled many prominent victims and she claims that she would search through corpses to find the severed heads of executed citizens, from which she would make death masks. Her death masks were held up as revolutionary flags and paraded through the streets of Paris and she inherited the doctors vast collection of wax models following his death in 1794, and spent the next 33 years travelling around Europe. She married Francois Tussaud in 1795, and the show acquired a new name, Madame Tussauds, in 1802, she accepted an invitation from Paul Philidor, a magic lantern and phantasmagoria pioneer, to exhibit her work alongside his show at the Lyceum Theatre, London. She did not fare well financially, with Philidor taking half of her profits. She was unable to return to France because of the Napoleonic Wars, so she traveled throughout Great Britain, from 1831, she took a series of short leases on the upper floor of Baker Street Bazaar, which later featured in the Druce-Portland case sequence of trials of 1898–1907. This became Tussauds first permanent home in 1836, by 1835, Marie had settled down in Baker Street, London and opened a museum. One of the attractions of her museum was the Chamber of Horrors. The name is credited to a contributor to Punch in 1845. This part of the exhibition included victims of the French Revolution and newly created figures of murderers, other famous people were added, including Lord Nelson and Sir Walter Scott. Some sculptures still exist that were done by Marie Tussaud herself, the gallery originally contained some 400 different figures, but fire damage in 1925 coupled with German bombs in 1941 has rendered most of these older models defunct. The casts themselves have survived, allowing the historical waxworks to be remade, the oldest figure on display is that of Madame du Barry, the work of Curtius from 1765 and part of the waxworks left to Tussaud at his death
Madame Tussauds
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Madame Tussauds and the
London Planetarium
Madame Tussauds
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Entry of Madame Tussauds in
Berlin
Madame Tussauds
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Madame Tussauds in
New York City opened in 2000
Madame Tussauds
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Madame Tussauds opened in
Washington, D.C. in 2007
27.
A Place of Greater Safety
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A Place of Greater Safety is a 1992 novel by Hilary Mantel. Mantel explains that, where possible, she used the historical figures own words, a Place of Greater Safety won the Sunday Express Book of the Year award. The New York Times praised Mantel, but not the book, wondering if more novel, another reviewer praised the book saying the dialogue is unfailingly witty, increasingly desperate, and never predictable
A Place of Greater Safety
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First edition
28.
Jim Shepard
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Jim Shepard is an American novelist and short story writer, who teaches creative writing and film at Williams College. Shepard was born in Bridgeport, Connecticut and he received a B. A. at Trinity College in 1978 and an MFA from Brown University in 1980. He currently teaches writing and film at Williams College. His wife, Karen Shepard, is also a novelist and they are on the editorial board of the literary magazine The Common, based at Amherst College. Shepards work has been published in McSweeneys, Granta, The Atlantic Monthly, Esquire, Harpers, The New Yorker, The Paris Review, Ploughshares, Triquarterly, and Playboy. His short story collection — Like Youd Understand, Anyway — won the Story Prize in 2007, the novel Project X won the 2005 Massachusetts Book Award. Shepards stories often rely on historical research based on real events. His recent collection, Like Youd Understand Anyway, includes stories about the Greek playwright Aeschylus, the Chernobyl disaster, the collection acknowledges over sixty non-fiction works that helped to shape the historical detail in the stories. His 2015 novel The Book of Aron involved massive research into the Holocaust, non cè ritorno is a previously unpublished collection of Jim Shepards short stories for the Italian market
Jim Shepard
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Shepard at the 2015 Texas Book Festival
29.
Christopher Lee
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Sir Christopher Frank Carandini Lee CBE CStJ was an English character actor, singer, and author. With a career spanning nearly 70 years, Lee initially portrayed villains, Lee was knighted for services to drama and charity in 2009, received the BAFTA Fellowship in 2011, and received the BFI Fellowship in 2013. Lee considered his best performance to be that of Pakistans founder Muhammad Ali Jinnah in the biopic Jinnah and he frequently appeared opposite Peter Cushing in Hammer Horror films, and late in his career had roles in six Tim Burton films. The heavy metal follow-up Charlemagne, The Omens of Death was released on 27 May 2013 and he was honoured with the Spirit of Metal award at the 2010 Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards ceremony. Lee died from complications of respiratory problems and heart failure on the morning of 7 June 2015, Lee was born in Belgravia, London, the son of Lieutenant Colonel Geoffrey Trollope Lee of the 60th Kings Royal Rifle Corps, and his wife, Countess Estelle Marie. Lees maternal great-grandfather was an Italian political refugee, whose wife and he had one sister, Xandra Carandini Lee. Lees parents separated when he was four and divorced two years later, during this time, his mother took him and his sister to Wengen in Switzerland. After enrolling in Miss Fishers Academy in Territet, he played his first role and they then returned to London, where Lee attended Wagners private school in Queens Gate, and his mother married Harcourt George St-Croix Rose, a banker and uncle of Ian Fleming. Fleming, author of the James Bond novels, thus became Lees step-cousin, the family moved to Fulham, living next door to the actor Eric Maturin. One night, he was introduced to Prince Yusupov and Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich, the assassins of Grigori Rasputin, when Lee was nine, he was sent to Summer Fields School, a preparatory school in Oxford whose pupils often later attended Eton. He continued acting in plays, though the laurels deservedly went to Patrick Macnee. Lee applied for a scholarship to Eton, where his interview was in the presence of the ghost story author M. R. James, sixty years later, Lee played the part of James for the BBC. His poor maths skills meant that he placed eleventh, and thus missed out on being a Kings Scholar by one place and his step-father was not prepared to pay the higher fees that being an Oppidan Scholar meant, and so he did not attend. Instead, Lee attended Wellington College, where he won scholarships in the classics, studying Ancient Greek, aside from a tiny part in a school play, he didnt act while at Wellington. He was a passable racquets player and fencer and a competent cricketer but did not do well at the sports played, hockey, football, rugby. He disliked the parades and weapons training and would always play dead as soon as possible during mock battles. Lee was frequently beaten at school, including once at Wellington for being beaten too often, though he accepted them as logical, at age 17, and with one year left at Wellington, the summer term of 1939 was his last. His step-father had gone bankrupt, owing £25,000 and his mother separated from Rose, and Lee had to get a job, his sister already working as a secretary for the Church of England Pensions Board
Christopher Lee
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Lee at the 2013
Berlin International Film Festival
Christopher Lee
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Flying Officer C F C Lee in Vatican City, 1944, soon after The
Liberation of Rome
Christopher Lee
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Lee as the title character in
Dracula (1958)
Christopher Lee
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Lee in
The Oblong Box (1969)
30.
Type-Moon
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Type-Moon is a Japanese game company, best known for their visual novels, co-founded by author Kinoko Nasu and illustrator Takashi Takeuchi. It is also known under the name Notes Co. Ltd. for its publishing, after creating the popular visual novel Tsukihime as a doujin soft circle, Type-Moon has since incorporated and produced the also popular visual novel Fate/stay night. The latter has also adapted into anime and manga series that have amassed a global fanbase. Type-Moon was founded by artist Takashi Takeuchi and writer Kinoko Nasu, whose first project was the novel Kara no Kyoukai, the company name Type-Moon actually comes from one of Kinokos older works, Angel Notes. The game led to the creation of top selling merchandise, memorabilia. Soon after, in January 2001, Type-Moon released Plus-Disk, an addition to Tsukihime that featured three side-stories and assorted multimedia, a sequel to Fate/stay night, Fate/hollow ataraxia, was released on October 28,2005. Fate/stay night was released on the PS2 platform in May 2007. At Comiket 72 in 2007, they released the All Around TYPE-MOON drama CD, Type-Moon has developed and produced the following, Kara no Kyoukai -the Garden of sinners-, novel of 3 volumes, originally released in October 1998 and reprinted in 2004 and again in 2007. Another story was published in 2008, with 7 Anime film adaptations spanning from December 2007 to December 2009 and an OVA in February 2011. Another film has released in September 2013 based on the chapter Mirai Fukuin. Tsukihime, PC-based eroge visual novel game, originally released in December 2000, a television adaptation of the visual novel, called Lunar Legend Tsukihime, aired October 2003 by J. C. Staff. Tsukihime PLUS-DISC, released in January 2001, Kagetsu Tohya, PC-based Tsukihime sequel, released in August 2001. Tsukibako, a specially packaged three-disk set that included Tsukihime, PLUS+DISC and Kagetsu Tohya, Tsukihime, a remake of the original game, rumored to contain a Satsuki Yumizuka route. Fate/stay night, PC-based visual novel game, released on January 30,2004, a DVD version was released on March 29,2006, a non-ero PS2 port entitled Fate/stay night has been released in 2007 and re-ported non-ero to PC on three versions covering each arc. The Heavens Feel route is presently being adapted into movie by ufotable, Fate/hollow ataraxia, PC-based Fate/stay night sequel, released on October 28,2005, re-released for PS Vita on December 27,2015. Fate/Zero, light novel prequel, released on December 12,2006, animated on October 2011 to June 2012. Fate/unlimited codes, arcade, PS2, and PSP 3D fighting game, fate/tiger colosseum, PSP 3D fighting game, released September 13,2007. Fate/kaleid liner Prisma Illya, a manga series written and illustrated by Hiroyama Hiroshi, serialized in Comp Ace magazine from 2007–2008
Type-Moon
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Type-Moon
