1.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
United States Cavalry
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The United States Cavalry, or U. S. Cavalry, was the designation of the mounted force of the United States Army from the late 18th to the early 20th century. Cavalry is also used in the name of the 1st Cavalry Division for heraldic/lineage/historical purposes, originally designated as United States Dragoons, the forces were patterned after cavalry units employed during the Revolutionary War. Immediately preceding World War II, the U. S. Cavalry began transitioning to a mechanized, mounted force, during World War II, the Armys cavalry units operated as horse-mounted, mechanized, or dismounted forces. The last horse-mounted cavalry charge by a U. S. Cavalry unit took place on the Bataan Peninsula, the 26th Cavalry Regiment of the Philippine Scouts executed the charge against Japanese forces near the village of Morong on 16 January 1942. The U. S. Cavalry branch was absorbed into the Armor branch as part of the Army Reorganization Act of 1950, today, cavalry designations and traditions continue with regiments of both armor and aviation units that perform the cavalry mission. The 1st Cavalry Division is the only division in the United States Army with a cavalry designation. The division maintains a detachment of horse-mounted cavalry for ceremonial purposes, Washington saw the intimidating effect of the small force of British 17th Light Dragoons, which panicked his militia infantry at White Plains. In late 1776, Congress authorized Washington to establish a force of 3,000 men. On 12 December 1776, Congress converted Elisha Sheldons militia regiment into the Regiment of Light Dragoons, in March 1777, Washington established the Corps of Continental Light Dragoons consisting of four regiments of 280 men, each organised in six troops. Pulaskis efforts led to friction with the American officers, resulting in his resignation, pulaskis Legion consisted of dragoons, riflemen, grenadiers, and infantry. Battle engagements in South Carolina largely seriously attrited the 1st and 3rd Regiments in the spring of 1780, following the capture of Charleston, South Carolina on 12 May 1780, the remnants tried to regroup and reconstitute in Virginia and North Carolina. In August,1780, Armands Legion was with General Gates at the disastrous Battle of Camden, the most significant engagement of the war involving Continental light dragoons was the Battle of Cowpens in January 1781. The British responded by organizing a force of dragoons and infantry under British Lt-Col Banastre Tarleton to stop the raids. Later, the 3rd Legionary Corps participated in Greenes maneuvers across North Carolina, in 1783, the Continental Army was discharged and the dragoons were released. The first cavalry unit formed by the Congress of the United States of America was a squadron of four troops commanded by Major Michael Rudolph on 5 March 1792, in 1799, Congress established a provision for mobilization of three cavalry regiments in the event of a war. Equipment for 3,000 men and horses was procured and stored, the Congressional act of 12 April 1808 authorized a standing regiment of light dragoons consisting of eight troops. As war loomed, Congress authorized another regiment of dragoons on 11 January 1812. These regiments were known afterwards as the First and Second United States Dragoons
4.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
5.
Major
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Major is a military rank of commissioned officer status, with corresponding ranks existing in many military forces throughout the world. When used unhyphenated, in conjunction with no other indicators, major is one rank senior to that of an army captain and it is considered the most junior of the field officer ranks. Majors are typically assigned as specialised executive or operations officers for battalion-sized units of 300 to 1,200 soldiers, in some militaries, notably France and Ireland, the rank of major is referred to as commandant, while in others it is known as captain-major. The rank of major is used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures, such as the Pennsylvania State Police, New York State Police, New Jersey State Police. As a police rank, major roughly corresponds to the UK rank of superintendent, the term major can also be used with a hyphen to denote the leader of a military band such as in pipe-major or drum-major. Historically, the rank designation develops in English in the 1640s, taken from French majeur, in turn a shortening of sergent-majeur, which at the time designated a higher rank than at present
6.
Colonel
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Colonel is a senior military officer rank below the general officer ranks. However, in small military forces, such as those of Iceland or the Vatican. It is also used in police forces and paramilitary organizations. Historically, in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of a regiment in an army, the rank of colonel is typically above the rank of lieutenant colonel. The rank above colonel is typically called brigadier, brigade general or brigadier general, equivalent naval ranks may be called captain or ship-of-the-line captain. In the Commonwealth air force rank system, the equivalent rank is group captain, the word colonel derives from the same root as the word column and means of a column, and, by implication, commander of a column. The word colonel is therefore linked to the column in a similar way that brigadier is linked to brigade. By the end of the medieval period, a group of companies was referred to as a column of an army. Since the word is believed to derive from sixteenth-century Italian, it was presumably first used by Italian city states in that century. The first use of colonel as a rank in an army was in the French National Legions created by King Francis I by his decree of 1534. Building on the reforms of Louis XIIs decree of 1509. Each colonel commanded a legion with a strength of six thousand men. With the shift from primarily mercenary to primarily national armies in the course of the seventeenth century, the Spanish equivalent rank of coronel was used by the Spanish tercios in the 16th and 17th centuries. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, nicknamed the Great Captain, divided his armies in coronelías or colonelcies, however, the Spanish word probably derives from a different origin, in that it appears to designate an officer of the crown, rather than an officer of the column. This makes the Spanish word coronel probably cognate with the English word coroner and this regiment, or governance, was to some extent embodied in a contract and set of written rules, also referred to as the colonels regiment or standing regulation. By extension, the group of companies subject to a colonels regiment came to be referred to as his regiment as well, the position, however, was primarily contractual and it became progressively more of a functionless sinecure. By the late 19th century, colonel was a military rank though still held typically by an officer in command of a regiment or equivalent unit. As European military influence expanded throughout the world, the rank of colonel became adopted by every nation
7.
Second Seminole War
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The Second Seminole War, often referred to as the Seminole War, is regarded as the longest and most costly of the Indian conflicts of the United States. Bands from various tribes in the southeastern United States had moved into the lands in Florida in the 18th century. These included Alabamas, Choctaws, Yamasees, Yuchis and Creek people, the Creeks were the largest group, and included Lower Creeks and Upper Creeks, and both Hitchiti and Muscogee speakers. One group of Hitchiti speakers, the Mikasuki, settled around what is now Lake Miccosukee near Tallahassee, another group of Hitchiti speakers settled around the Alachua Prairie in what is now Alachua County. The Spanish in St. Augustine began calling the Alachua Creeks Cimarrones, which roughly meant wild ones or runaways, and this name was eventually also applied to the other groups in Florida, although the Native Americans still regarded themselves as members of different tribes. The United States and Spain were at odds over Florida after the Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolutionary War, the United States disputed the boundaries of West Florida. They accused the Spanish authorities of harboring fugitive slaves and of failing to restrain the Native Americans living in Florida from raiding into the United States, starting in 1810, the United States occupied and annexed parts of West Florida. In 1818 Andrew Jackson led an invasion of the Floridas, leading to the First Seminole War, the United States acquired Florida from Spain through the Adams-Onís Treaty in 1819 and took possession of the territory in 1821. Now that Florida belonged to the United States, the government was pressured by settlers to remove the Seminoles, in 1823 the government negotiated the Treaty of Moultrie Creek with the Seminoles, establishing a reservation for them in the middle of the territory. Six chiefs, however, were allowed to keep their villages along the Apalachicola River, the Seminoles gave up their lands in the panhandle and slowly settled into the reservation, although they had isolated clashes with whites. Colonel Duncan Lamont Clinch was placed in charge of the Army units in Florida, Fort King was built near the reservation agency, at the site of present-day Ocala, Florida. By early 1827 the Army reported that the Seminoles were on the reservation and this peace lasted for five years, during which time there were repeated calls for the Seminoles to be sent west of the Mississippi. The Seminoles were opposed to the move, and especially to the suggestion that they should be placed on the Creek reservation. Most whites regarded the Seminoles as simply Creeks who had moved to Florida, while the Seminoles claimed Florida as their home. The status of slaves was a continuing irritation between Seminoles and whites. Spain had given freedom to slaves who escaped to Florida under their rule, over the years, those who became known as Black Seminoles established communities near Seminole villages, and the two peoples had close alliances although they maintained separate cultures. Slave catchers argued over the ownership of slaves, New plantations in Florida increased the pool of slaves who could escape to the Seminoles. Worried about the possibility of an Indian uprising and/or an armed slave rebellion, instead, Fort King was closed in 1828
8.
Battle of Palo Alto
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The Battle of Palo Alto was the first major battle of the Mexican–American War and was fought on May 8,1846, on disputed ground five miles from the modern-day city of Brownsville, Texas. On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Mexican General Mariano Aristas troops began to cross the Rio Grande, on May 3, the troops began to besiege the American outpost at Fort Texas. Taylor marched his Army of Occupation south to relieve the siege, Arista, upon learning of his approach, diverted many of his units away from the siege to meet Taylors force. The battle took place on May 8, three days before the declaration of war on Mexico by the United States. Arista ordered two cavalry charges, first against the American right flank and later against the left, the American victory is widely attributed to superior artillery. The U. S. light artillery was more mobile. That evening, Arista was forced to further south. The armies would clash again the day at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Arista started crossing the Rio Grande at Longoreno with his army, first with General Pedro de Ampudias 1st Brigade. Taylor prepared Fort Texas to withstand a siege while he moved most of his forces to protect his supply base at Fort Polk. Fort Texas was garrisoned by Taylor with 500 men under Major Jacob Brown, including the 7th Infantry, Capt. Allen Lowds four 18-pounders, Taylor started his return to Fort Texas on May 7 with 2,228 men plus his 200-wagon supply train. General Arista immediately left his camp at the Tanques del Ramireno with his army with the intention of blocking Taylor, Ampudias brigade left the Fort Texas siege to join him. Taylors scouts sighted the Mexican force at noon on the 8th, behind this line was Col. Cayetano Monteros light cavalry. Mays dragoon squadron guarded the flank and Capt. Croghan Ker guarded the train. Taylor halted his columns and formed a line behind his batteries when the Mexican artillery started firing at 2 PM, the American artillery was very effective while the Mexican artillery often fell short. Arista ordered Torrejons cavalry to attack the American right, but progress was slow, a fire started from a cannon burning wad which halted fighting for an hour as the smoke paralleled the lines. Arista pulled back 1,000 yards on his left and Taylor advanced accordingly, may failed to turn the Mexican left before the artillery duel resumed. Childs artillery battalion formed a square to repel another Torrejon cavalry charge, duncans battery stopped Arista from turning the American left and then advanced with the 8th Infantry and Kers dragoons to drive the Mexican right from the field
9.
Battle of Resaca de la Palma
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United States troops were victorious and forced the Mexicans out of Texas. Recalling his forces besieging Fort Texas, he was established along the twelve foot deep and 200 foot wide resaca, covering the flanks in the rear were the Presidiales, the light cavalry, and the 7th and 8th Regiments, including batteries on the south bank. Taylor reached the area about 3 PM and ordered Capt. William W. Mackalls skirmishers, randolph Ridgelys battery along the road, with the 4th and 5th Infantry to the left and the remaining 4th and 3d Infantry on the right. Fighting was disorganized and uncoordinated due to the chaparral and the intense Mexican artillery fire. Taylor ordered a charge by Capt. Charles A, mays dragoon squadron with the objective of clearing the Mexican battery. Mays exchange with Ridgeley supposedly included, Hello Ridgely, where is that Battery, I am ordered to charge it. Hold on Charley, till I draw their fire and you see where they are. Mays charge however carried them well past the guns and although he captured General Romulo Diaz de la Vega, Taylor then ordered William G. Belknaps 5th and 8th Infantry to secure the guns, which they did. The Mexicans east of the road then retreated, west of the road, Capt. Robert C. Buchanan and members of the 4th Infantry, found a trail which turned the Mexican left flank, enabling them to take and hold the battery located there. They were able to defend the position from General Pedro de Ampudias counterattacks, the Mexican Army left behind a number of artillery pieces, Aristas writing desk and silver service, the colors of Mexicos lauded Tampico Battalion, and other baggage. Among the several captured Mexican artillery pieces were two 8-pounder bronze guns, two 6-pounder bronze guns, and four 4-pounder bronze guns, taylors army settled into their Fort Texas campsite as Taylor considered his next move, although he did exchange prisoners with Arista. Taylor crossed the Rio Grande on 18 May, Aristas army having abandoned their artillery, sick and wounded at Linares, the Resaca De La Palma Battlefield is in the city limits of present-day Brownsville, Texas, but is part of the Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park. The Battle of Resaca de la Palma inspired the name of Resaca, Georgia, battles of the Mexican-American War 1848 in Mexico List of conflicts in the United States Saint Patricks Battalion Bauer, K. Jack The Mexican War, 1846–1848 Grant, U. S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant, Vol. I, pp 65–69, ISBN 0-940450-58-5 Appendix To The Congressional Globe, - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
10.
Battle of Monterrey
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The hard-fought urban combat led to heavy casualties on both sides. The battle ended with both sides negotiating an armistice and the Mexican forces being allowed to make an orderly evacuation in return for the surrender of the city. On 8 August, Taylor established the headquarters for his Army of Occupation in Camargo, Tamaulipas, jose Lopez Uragas 4th Infantry guns atop the citadel. Taylor ordered the army to camp at Bosque de San Domingo while engineers under the command of Major Joseph K. Mansfield reconnoitered. West of the city atop Independencia stood Ft. Libertad and the Obispado with the Activo of Mexico commanded by Lt. Col. Franciso de Berra, in reserve at la Plaza was the 3d Ligero under Lt. Col. Juan Castro and Lt. Agustin Espinosa. General Zachary Taylor decided to attack western Monterrey using William J. Worths Division in a giant north and west hook movement while simultaneously attacking with his main body from the east. Worth started at 2 pm on 20 September along with Col. John Coffee Hayss Texas Regiment screening the advance, by 8 am, Capt. Electus Backuss company of the 1st Infantry had taken the tannery and by noon, with Col. William B. Campbells 1st Tennessee and Mississippi Rifles, had taken Fort de La Teneria, no attacks or sorties occurred on 22 September. At 3 am on 23 September, Worth sent the Texas Rangers and the 4th and 8th Infantry, under Lt. Col. Thomas Childs, to take Fort Libertad on Independencia, which they did by daybreak. With the help of James Duncans battery, they took the Obispado and had control of western Monterrey. By then, the Mexicans had abandoned their defenses on the east side of Monterrey, concentrating in the Plaza Mayor. The Texan volunteers taught the U. S. regulars new techniques for fighting in the city, techniques that they did not employ on 21 September, by 2 pm, Taylor and Quitman were within two blocks east of the plaza when Taylor ordered a withdrawal before nightfall. General Ampudia decided to negotiate on 24 September, Taylor negotiated a two-month armistice, along the line Rinconada Pass-Linares_San Fernando de Parras, in return for the surrender of the city. The Mexican Army was allowed to march from the city from 26 to 28 September, with their personal arms, Ampudia had moved beyond the armistice line by 30 September and San Luis Potosi by early November. The resulting armistice signed between Taylor and Ampudia had major effects upon the outcome of the war. Taylor was lambasted by some in the government, where President James K. Polk insisted that the U. S. Army had no authority to negotiate truces. In addition, his terms of armistice, which allowed Ampudias forces to retreat with battle honors and all of their weapons, were seen as foolish, for his part, some have argued that Ampudia had begun the defeat of Mexico. Many Mexican soldiers became disenchanted with the war, the invading army occupied the city and remained until June 18,1848
